Analysis of Subsynchronous Resonance in Power Systems

ANALYSIS OF
SUBSYNCHRONOUS
RESONANCE IN
POWER SYSTEMS
THE KLUWER INTERNATIONAL SERIES

IN ENGINEERING AND COMPUTER SCIENCE
Power Electronics and Power Systems

Consulting Editors
Thomas A. Lipo and M. A. Pai
Other books in the series:
POWER SYSTEMS RESTRUCTURING: Engineering and Economics
Marija Hic, Francisco Galiana, and Lester Fink, ISBN: 0-7923-8163-7
CRYOGENIC OPERATION OF SILICON POWER DEVICES
Ranbir Singh and B. Jayant Baliga, ISBN: 0-7923-8157-2
VOLTAGE STABILITY OF ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS, Thierry
Van Cutsem and Costas Voumas, ISBN: 0-7923-8139-4
AUTOMATIC LEARNING TECHNIQUES IN POWER SYSTEMS, Louis A.
Wehenkel, ISBN: 0-7923-8068-1
ENERGY FUNCTION ANALYSIS FOR POWER SYSTEM STABILITY,
M. A. Pai, ISBN: 0-7923-9035-0
ELECTROMAGNETIC MODELLING OF POWER ELECTRONIC
CONVERTERS, J. A. Ferreira, ISBN: 0-7923-9034-2
MODERN POWER SYSTEMS CONTROL AND OPERATION, A. S. Debs,
ISBN: 0-89838-265-3
RELIABILITY ASSESSMENT OF LARGE ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS,
R. Billington, R. N. Allan, ISBN: 0-89838-266-1
SPOT PRICING OF ELECTRICITY, F. C. Schweppe, M. C. Caramanis, R. D.
Tabors, R. E. Bohn, ISBN: 0-89838-260-2
INDUSTRIAL ENERGY MANAGEMENT: Principles and Applications,
Giovanni Petrecca, ISBN: 0-7923-9305-8
THE FIELD ORIENTATION PRINCIPLE IN CONTROL OF INDUCTION
MOTORS, Andrzej M. Trzynadlowski, ISBN: 0-7923-9420-8
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES, S. J. Salon,
ISBN: 0-7923-9594-8
ANALYSISOF
SUBSYNCHRONOUS
RESONANCEIN
POWER SYSTEMS
by
K. R. Padiyar
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute ofScience
Bangalore 560 012, India
~.
"
Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
ISBN 978-1-4613-7577-7
ISBN 978-1-4615-5633-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-5633-6
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available
from the Library of Congress.
Copyright 1999 by Springer Science+Business Media New York

Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 1999
Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover Ist edition 1999
AII rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the
publisher, Springer Science+Business Media, LLC .
Printed on acid-free paper.
To my sister, Manorama
Contents
Preface
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
1.2 Definitions of SSR
1.3 Interactions with power system controllers
1.4 FACTS Controllers
1.5 Methods of Analysis of SSR
1.6 Chapter outline
1
1
4
7
8
12
16
2. MODELLING OF TURBINE GENERATOR

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Synchronous machine model
2.3 Park's transformation
2.4 Per unit quantities
2.5 Operational impedances and equivalent circuits
2.6 Modelling of excitation control system
2.7 Modelling of turbine generator mechanical system
2.8 Modelling of turbine and governor
2.9 Modelling and analysis of the mechanical and prime mover system
2.10 Synchronous generator modelling for transient simulation
17
17
18
22
30
35
41
43
55
56
59
3. MODELLING OF THE ELECTRIC NETWORK

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Transmission lines
3.3 Transformation using a - f3 variables
3.4 State equations
3.5 Interface between the network and generator
3.6 Impedance functions
3.7 Simulation of electromagnetic transients
63
63
64
68
70
74
75
78
4. ANALYSIS OF SSR WITH FIXED SERIES COMPENSATION
83
VII
ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
Vlll
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4. 7
Introduction
Analysis of induction generator effect: frequency scanning method
Analysis of torsional interaction(TI)
State equations and eigenvalue analysis
An algorithm for computing torsional modes
Countermeasures for SSR
Torsional oscillations in parallel connected turbine generators
83
83
87
96
108
III
120
5. INTERACTIONS WITH POWER SYSTEM STABILIZER

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Basic concept in the application of PSS
5.3 Design of PSS
5.4 Torsional interaction with PSS
5.5 A case study
121
6. INTERACTIONS WITH HVDC CONVERTER CONTROL

6.1 Introduction
6.2 HVDC converters and control
6.3 Modelling of HVDC system for study of torsional interactions
6.4 Analysis of torsional interactions - A simplified approach
6.5 A case study
6.6 A simplified damping torque analysis
6.7 Control of torsional interaction
137
137
138
147
153
156
161
167
7. INTERACTIONS WITH SHUNT COMPENSATORS

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Static Var Compensator
7 .3 Torsional Interactions with SVC
7.4 Static Condenser(STATCON)
7.5 Torsional interactions with STATCON
7.6 A simplified analysis of torsional interaction with voltage controller
169
169
171
186
189
196
200
8. INTERACTIONS WITH SERIES COMPENSATORS

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator
8.3 Modelling of TCSC for SSR studies
8.4 Mitigation of SSR with TCSC
8.5 Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC)
8.6 Torsional interactions with SSSC
205
205
206
216
Appendices
A- Data on IEEE Benchmark Models
A.1 IEEE First Benchmark Model ( FBM )
A.2 IEEE Second Benchmark Model ( SBM )
B- Calculation of Initial Conditions
121
122
126
130
132
223
229
234
239
239
239
241
245
Contents
IX
c- Abbreviations
249
References and Bibliography
251
Index
261
Foreword
In addition to the power flow at and around the nominal power frequency, all electrical
and electromechanical power systems involve a wide range of resonant oscillatory
modes which are excited during disturbances and switching events. Most of these
oscillations are harmless and die out because of net positive damping. However, under
some circumstances, a specific oscillation may have unacceptably high magnitude, rise
or sustain for a long period, and result in damage due to insulation, mechanical aging
or breakdown, or system instability. Given the natural parameters of lines and
equipment, power system oscillations that involve only the passive electrical
components, their resonance frequencies are substantially higher than the main power
frequency. However, when the oscillations involve both the electrical and rotating
mechanical equipment coupled through the magnetic flux, frequencies lower than the
power frequency appear. These oscillations that involve mass and inertia of the
complete turbine-generator have inter-machine or inter-area electromechanical
oscillation frequencies in the range of 0.1 Hz to several Hz.
Sub synchronous oscillations in the range of 10-50Hz result from mechanical
oscillations among individual turbine masses and the generator coupled into a long
shaft, and these mechanical oscillations, electrically coupled with the electrical system
via the generator. Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR) was unheard of until the
catastrophic damage to the turbine-generator at Southern California Edison's Mojave
Power Plant in 1970.
It has since been recognized that all high speed active controls of a power system such
as HVDC, FACTS, excitation control, etc., have a potential of mitigating as well as
causing damage or loss of life in large multi-machine generators. Even high speed
reclosing after fault clearance has been recognized as having a potential of causing loss
of life of turbine-generator shafts
There are simple rules of thumb that convey whether or not such possibilities of SSR
exist and, if so, there are available computational tools and expertise. Also, a large
number of papers have been published which are available in scattered form.
Analytically, SSR is a very complex subject matter, and it is gratifying to see Professor
Padiyar bring together complicated analytical and practical material into a monograph.
This monograph will be of great value to engineers and post-graduate students who
wish to learn about the details and find solutions for SSR problems.
Narain G. Hingorani
Los Altos Hills, CA
Preface
Modern power systems are large and complex syst.ems and pose challenges to
their secure and economic operation. The regulatory and resource constraints
have resulted in power transmission networks operating under stressed conditions. The problems of system stability are further complicated by recent trends
towards deregulation and restructuring of electric utilities. The system planners are increasingly relying on existing and new solid-state controllers based
on high power semiconductors such as thyristors and GTO's. HVDC links
and Static Var Compensators based on thyristor controls have contributed to
system stability and prevent system collapse. New Flexible AC Transmission
System (FACTS) controllers are presently under development and have the potential of overcoming many of the control problems.
The problem of Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR) was encountered in the seventies when fixed series compensation was us~d in long radial lines connecting
turbine-generators to load centres. This involV!~s interaction between the electrical network and the torsional system of t.he turbine-generator leading to
self-excitation. The torsional oscillation modes, generally have frequencies in
the range of 10 to 50 Hz. Such torsional interactions were also discovered with
Power System Stabilizer (PSS), HVDC cOllvert.er controller and SVC voltage
controller.
While the SSR problem had discouraged syst.~1lI planners from introducing series compensation, the recent development of Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator (TCSC) has demonstrated that the SSR problem can be mitigated.
New FACTS controllers based on Voltage Source Converters (VSC) such as
Static Compensator (STATCOM) and Static Synchronous Series Compensator
(SSSC) for voltage and power flow control ar~ expected to minimize the SSR
problem.
While there are a large number of papers published on SSR with fixed series
compensation, there is hardly any book that gives a comprehensive coverage of
the various aspects of the SSR problem. The modelling and analysis of SSR is
more complex than the analysis of small signal stability involving low frequency
oscillations. The system simulation for SSR studies, cannot be performed using
transient stability type programs. It is generally carried out using EMTP type
program and this can be cumbersome.
This research monograph is aimed at presenting comprehensive mathematical
models and small signal stability analysis of SSR Both damping torque analysis
(in the frequency domain) and eigenvalue analysis are discussed. The analysis
is backed by a number of illustrative examples.
A major feature of this monograph is the coverage of interactions from fixed
series compensation to HYDC and FACTS controllers. Apart from presenting the detailed mathematical analysis, basic concepts of SSR interactions are
also explained based on simplified models which capture the phenomenon of
interest. This should help those involved with system planning and design to
understand the nature and scope of SSR interactions with various controllers.
The book is organized into eight chapters. The first chapter explains the background and introduces the topics covered. The second and third chapters cover
the modelling of the turbine-generator and the passive electric network. The
models are developed from first principles and the application of transformation (Park or Kron) that reduces the system equations to time-invariant form.
Apart from comprehensive coverage, the treatment has several new features
such as (i) the development of electrical analogue for the rotor system (ii) the
derivations of state equations based on circuit topology and (iii)application of
immittance functions based on D-Q variables.
Chapter four presents a comprehensive analysis of SSR with fixed series compensation. The state-space models derived in chapt(~r 2 and 3 are used for the
study of SSR based on damping torque and eigenvalue analysis. A novel iterative method for computing the eigenvalues corresponding to torsional modes
is presented. The countermeasures for SSR are also described.
Chapters 5, 6, 7 and 8 are addressed to the study of interactions with (i)PSS
(ii) HYDC converter control (iii) shunt FACTS and (iv) series FACTS controllers. The torsional interactions with TCSC awl SSSC devices are explained
in sufficient detail. Many new results are also presellted.
While an attempt has been made to cover the entire gamut of SSR interactions
and discuss them in detail, the book does not claim to be complete in covering
all aspects of SSR. The emphasis is on the analysis based on linearzied models.
Also, the research on FACTS controllers is of recent origin and several new
developments are expected to take place in future. However, an attempt has
been made to explain the basic concepts of SSR int.eractions with HYDC and
FACTS controllers.
Acknowledgments
Prof. M.A. Pai at University of Illinois, encouraged me to write this monograph. He has been a constant source of inspiration.
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur and Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore have provided an invigorating academic environment for research. Several
of my graduate students have worked on SSR. In part.icular, I wish to thank
Drs. A. G. Kothari, M.K. Geetha and A.M. Kulkarni whose work has contributed to some of the case studies reported in the book.
PREFACE
I acknowledge the support of Department of Science and Technology, Government of India for research on FACTS controllers. I am grateful to Dr. Narain
Hingorani for readily agreeing to write the foreword.
Prabha, Rajesh and Hiren have helped in the preparation of the manuscript.
Mr. Alex Greene of Kluwer Academic Publishers has been helpful in ensuring
that I complete the manuscript on time.
I am indebted to my family, in particular my sist.er Manorama Kamath, for
encouragement and support. Finally, I would like to t.hank my wife Usha, for
her patience and support.
K R
PADIYAR
1.1
INTRODUCTION
GENERAL
Modern interconnected systems are quite complex and require careful planning,
design and operation. The recent trend towards restructuring and deregulation
of power supply has put a greater emphasis on system operation and contro\.
The introduction of HVDC and FACTS controllers in transmission networks
provides both challenges and opportunities for optimum utilization of existing
facilities. For example, series compensation of long lines is an economic solution to the problem of enhancing power transfer and improving system stability.
The present trend is to introduce thyristor controllers to provide flexible and
controlled series compensation. The Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator
(TCSC) can not only improve system security by fast control action, but also
overcome the problem of Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR) which is normally
associated with fixed series compensation.
There are four major dynamic problems which are significant during system
operation. These are
(i) Loss of synchronism
(ii) Voltage Collapse
(iii) Low frequency oscillations
(iv) Subsynchronous frequency oscillations
K. R. Padiyar, Analysis of Subsynchronous Resonance in Power Systems
Kluwer Academic Publishers 1999
Low frequency oscillations(in the range of 0.2 to 2.0 Hz) in systems caused
by generator rotor swings can be negatively damped in the presence of fast acting static exciters and high gain automatic voltage regulators (AVR). This has
been studied extensively in the literature utilizing linearized system models.
A major feature of these models is the representation of machine stators and
external stationary networks by algebraic equations based on the assumption
of quasi-steady state in the network. Voltages and currents in the network
are represented by phasors whose magnitudes and phase angles are assumed to
vary slowly. This assumption is valid for the analysis of low frequency oscillations and simplifies the solution for large power systems. Another assumption
used in the analysis of low frequency oscillations is that the shaft on which the
generator, rotating exciter (if any) and turbine rotors are mounted is very rigid
and all the rotor inertias can be clubbed together.
In contrast, torsional oscillations in the frequency range of 10 to 50 Hz occur
when the individual rotors on the shaft can swing relative to each other on
account of elastic shaft sections. As a matter of fact, there can be several
(depending on the number of rotors) modes of torsional oscillations which can
be excited by disturbances such as changes in electromagnetic torque on the
generator rotor caused by transients in the network due to switching. The
torsional oscillations are lightly damped and can take several seconds to damp
out. If the initial magnitude of the torque in a shaft is high, then it can lead
to fatigue damage caused by plastic deformation of the material.
The problem of lightly damped torsional oscillations is compounded due to interactions with the external network. For example, a series compensated AC
transmission line or a radial HVDC link connected to a turbogenerator can
lead to situations when these oscillations are sustained. There are also sustained subsynchronous oscillations in the armature current. This problem has
been broadly defined as SubSynchronous Resonance(SSR). While the definition
of SSR and different aspects of the problem will be taken up later, it is worthwhile to examine the physical basis for this phenomenon.
The oscillations of the generator rotor at subsynchronous frequency fm result
in voltages induced in the armature having components of (i) subsynchronous
frequency (fa - fm) and (ii) supersynchronous frequency (fa + fm) where fa
if the operating system frquency.These voltages set up currents in the armature (and network) whose magnitudes and phase angles depend on the network
impedances. Both current components (sub and supersynchronus) set up electromagnetic torques of the same frquency fm. It can be shown that in general,
supersynchronous frequency currents result in positive damping torque while
the subsyncronous frequency currents result in negative damping torque. The
net torque can result in negative damping if magnitudes of the subsynchronous
frequency currents are high and in phase with the voltages (of subsynchronous
frequency). This situation can arise when the electrical network connected to
the generator armature is in resonance around the frequency of (fa - fm). A
series compensated transmission line has a resonance frequency of (fer) given
INTRODUCTION
by
fer
= foVIX "+ XT
Xc +
XE
(1.1)
where x" is the subtransient reactance of the generator, XT is the leakage reactance of the transformer, XE and Xc are the external inductive and capacitive
reactances respectively (see Fig.l.l), since Xc < XE, fer < fo. Thus for
particular levels of series compensation, it is possible that
ferc::.fo - fm
(1.2)
The description given above suggests that it is essential to avoid steady state
TURBINE
I
Figure 1.1.
A series compensated system
SSR problem (or self excitation due to torsional interaction) by proper choice of
series compensation level to ensure that fer is not anywhere near fo - fm. This
can be difficult to achieve if Xc or XE is variable depending on the operating
condition.
The subsynchronous oscillations can be present in the armature currents even
if the generator rotor is assumed to be rotating at constant speed. Actually,
this problem has been known for quite sometime [Concordia and Carter (1941),
Kilgore et al (1971)] and is now termed as induction generator effect (to distinguish it from torsional interaction). The induction generator effect results from
the fact that positive sequence subsynchronous frequency (say fer) currents in
the armature set up a rotating magnetic field which induces currents in the
rotor of frequency (fer - fo). The slip of the machine is negative as the speed
of the rotor is higher than the speed of the magnetic field. Thus it behaves like
an induction generator which exhibits negative resistance for subsynchronous
frequency currents. If the net resistance in the armature circuit is negative,
self excitation takes place with sustained currents of frequency fer. Even if the
net resistance is positive, the currents (which may appear due to a switching
action) take longer to decay because of the negative resistance effect of the
synchronous machine.
The problem of torsional interactions(TI) is much more severe than that due
to induction generator effect (IGE). The problem of TI was not anticipated
and was experienced for the first time at Mohave generating station in Western
U.S.A. There were two incidents of shaft failures in December 1970 and October 1971 which were traced to TI after subsequent analysis [Hall and Hodges
(1976)]. These incidents alerted utilities to plan ahead to avoid SSR problems
during system operation. The planning must take care to determine not only
the permissible ranges of series compensation levels but suitable measures to
damp subsynchronous oscillations whenever they arise.
When speed input Power System Stabilizers(PSS) were first applied to damp
low frequency oscillations ,it was discovered that they can destabilize torsional
modes [Watson and Coultes (1973)] . Subsequent analysis and development resulted in the application of control signals related to accelerating power [Bayne
et al (1977),DeMello et al (1978),Lee et al (1981)].
The possibility of TI with radial HVDC links connected to turbine generator,
first came to light when field tests were being carried out at Square Butte HVDC
project in 1977 [Bahrman et al(1980)] This led to a detailed analysis ofTI with
HVDC converter control [Mortensen et al (1981),Piwko and Larsen(1982)].
In recent years, Static Var Compensators (SVC), shunt connected first generation FACTS controllers have been applied to provide voltage support and
reactive power control thereby increasing power transfer capability of transmission lines. Recent studies shows the possiblity of subsynchronous torsional
interactions with the voltage regulator of SVC [Rostamkolai et al (1990)]
1.2
DEFINITIONS OF SSR
The following definition of SSR is given in an IEEE Committee Report (1985).

Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR)
"Subsynchronous resonance is an electric power system condition where the
electric network exchanges energy with a turbine generator at one or more
of the natural frequencies of the combined system below the synchronous frequency of the system."
There are two aspects of the SSR problem. These are
1. Self excitation (also called as steady state SSR)
2. Transient torques (also called as transient SSR)
Self excitation
Subsynchronous frequency currents entering the generator terminals produce
subsynchronous frequency terminal voltage components. These voltage components may sustain the currents to produce the effect that is termed as self
excitation. There are two types of self excitation, one involving only rotor electrical dynamics and the other involving both rotor electrical and mechanical
dynamics. The first one is termed as induction generator effect while the second one is called as torsional interaction.
INTRODUCTION
Induction Generator Effect

As the rotating mmfproduced by the subsynchronous frequency armature currents is moving slower than the speed of the rotor, the resistance of the rotor (at
the subsynchronous frequency viewed from the armature terminals) is negative
as the slip of the machine viewed as an induction generator is negative. When
the magnitude of this negative resistance exceeds the sum of the armature and
network resistances at a resonant frequency, there will be self excitation.
Torsional Interaction
Generator rotor oscillations at a torsional mode frequency, fm induce armature
voltage components at frequencies (fem) given by
fem = fo
fm
(1.3)
When the subsynchronous component fem is close to fer (electrical resonant

frequency defined in Eq.(1.1)), the subsynchronous torques produced by subsynchronous voltage component can be sustained. This interplay between electrical and mechanical systems is termed as torsional interaction.
The torsional interaction can also be viewed as the insertion of negative resistance in the generator armature viewed from the terminals. This effect is much
more significant compared to the induction generator effect. This can cause
shaft damage as experienced at Mohave generating station.
Transient Torques
System disturbances resulting from switching in the network can excite oscillatory torques on the generator rotor. The transient electrical torque, in general
has many components including unidirectional, exponentially decaying and oscillatory torques from subsynchronous to multiples (typically second harmonic)
of network frequency. Due to SSR phenomenon, the subsynchronous frequency
components of torque can have large amplitudes immediately following the disturbance, although they may decay eventually. Each occurence of these high
amplitude transient torques can result in expenditure of the shaft life due to
fatigue damage. Fatigue is defined as the process of progressive localized permanent structural change occuring in a material subjected to conditions which
produce fluctuating stresses and strains at some point or points and which
may culminate in cracks or complete fracture after a sufficient number of fluctuations. It is a cumulative process when additional events add to previous
fatigue life expenditure. If there are a sufficient number of events causing high
transient torques, the accumulated fatigue may reach a threshold where the
probability of fatigue crack initiation in areas of high stress concentration will
be significant. Once initiated, cracks may propogate to sizes which result in
irreversible shaft damage and eventual break.
The fatigue life N, of a component is defined as the number of stress or strain
cycles of a specified magnitude that can be withstood before failure occurs. The
S-N diagram is a plot of cyclic stress amplitude against the number of cycles to
failure. The fatigue limit (also called endurance limit) is the limiting value of
the median fatigue strength as the number of cycles (N) becomes very large.
Hence, stress below fatigue limit results in negligible fatigue life expenditure.
A typical S-N diagram for a particular shaft section is shown in Fig.1.2.

The torsional mode damping (defined as the rate of decay of torsional os-
3.0
2.0
Shaft
Torque
(p.u.)
1.0
10 5
Cycles To Failure
Figure 1.2.
A typical SIN curve
cillations at a torsional mode frequency) is the most important factor that

is responsible for the shaft life expenditure due to an event causing transient
torques. The damping is measured by logarithmic decrement (8) which is defined as the natural logarithmic ratio of the successive peaks of oscillations.
The decrement factor (0") is equal to the mode frequency in Hertz multiplied
by log-dec.
The damping is either due to mechanical or electric origin. The mechanical
damping includes factors such as windage, bearing friction and hysteresis loss.
The damping due to steam forces on the turbine blades results in damping
which increases with the load. The net decrement factor (0") for a mode is the
sum of the mechanical damping (O"m) and electrical damping (O"e), i.e.
( 1.4)
(O"e) generally tends to be negative with series compensated systems. The

problem of transient torque arises from the reduction in 0" and the possibility of
shaft life expenditure. A major event that can cause high amplitude torques is
the reinsertion of capacitors after the clearing offault ( The series capacitors are
bypassed during a fault and automatically reinserted after the fault is cleared).
INTRODUCTION
1.3
INTERACTIONS WITH POWER SYSTEM CONTROLLERS
Power system controllers such as PSS and HVDC converter controls are designed to improve system stability under contingency conditions and thereby
improve system security (minimize probability of cascading outages and loss of
system integrity).However,it is generally observed that the performance of the
controllers can be affected due to the torsional interactions unless care is taken
in designing them.
The complexity in system behaviour in the presence of controllers is not new.ln
the mid sixties, when faster excitation systems were being installed to improve
voltage regulation and transient stability of generators, it was observed that
fast exciters with high gain Automatic Voltage Regulators (AVR) caused oscillatory instability.To damp the low frequency electromechanical oscillations,
PSS were designed to act as supplementary controllers with input signal derived from speed,electrical power or bus frequency. With speed input stabilizers,it was discovered that the first torsional mode can be destabilized unless
torsional filters are provided. The torsional filters introduce complexity in PSS
design. Subsequent developments in PSS design have overcome this problem by
introducing a composite control signal (derived from speed and power) which
is similar to the accelerating power.
While a case of adverse interactions with electro hydraulic type of turbine speed
governor has been reported Lee et al (1985),this is not a general problem. Even
in the reported case,the problem was solved by providing accurate linearization
of the valve characteristics which maintained a constant droop over the entire
loading range.As a precautionary measure, the provision of filters to eliminate
torsional components from the speed signal is desirable.
HVDC power transmission employing thyristor controls is a viable alternative
to ac power transmission,for long distance, bulk power transmission and asynchronous interconnection.ln addition,HVDC transmission is considered definitely superior to ac when submarine cables are to be used.HVDC cables do not
require charging currents in steady state and thus do not require any reactive
compensation.AC transmission (overhead or underground) has the drawbacks
of (i) power fransfer capability limited by stability (ii) increase in short circuit
levels and (iii) inability of asynchronous interconnection. Even if nominal frequencies of two systems are same, limitations of Automatic Generation Control
(AGC) can make the ac interconnections unviable.
The application of thyristor controllers in HVDC converter stations makes it
feasible to control the power flow in the dc link not only during normal conditions,but also during system contingencies. This is due to the speed and realiability of converter controls.Thus,it is possible to modulate power flows in dc
links to damp low frequency oscillations that threaten system security. It is also
possible to use a dc link for emergency control to prevent system collapse.
As damping controllers used to modulate power flow in a dc link are similar to PSS,it is reasonable to expect them to cause adverse torsional interactions.However,it was discovered during field tests on Square Butte HVDC
link,that basic current controllers used in converter stations can also destabi-
lize lower torsional modes.

Static Var Compensators (SVC) also employ thyristor controllers for fast control of reactive power and bus voltage. Because of the high speed of response
of SVCs,they are also used to damp low frequency oscillations by applying
auxiliary controls that utilize control signals derived from bus frequency, line
current or Thevenin voltage ( at the SVC bus) .The planning studies on SVC
have revealed that not only the auxiliary SVC controller, but the basic voltage
controller can have adverse torsional interactions.
In comparison with fixed series compensation,it can be said that the problem of adverse torsional interactions with PSS ,HVDC and SVC controls is
less severe.Also,the problem can be overcome by modifying or augmenting the
controllers. For example,Subsynchronous Damping Control (SSDC) can be provided with HVDC converter control.Simple low pass filters can be used with
PSS and SVC.
With fixed series compensation, countermeasures are required to overcome the
problem of SSR.These include passive elements like Static Blocking Filters and
active controllers such as NGH damping, Dynamic stabilizer (using a shunt connected Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR) at the generator bus for active filtering ) or Supplementary Excitation Damping Controller (SEDC) similar to
PSS.
NGH damping [Hingorani (1981)] employs thyristor controlled resistor across
the series capacitor. The thyristors conduct only when subsynchronous frequency voltage component (across the capacitor) is detected.The successful
demonstration of this concept [Hingorani et al (1987)] has led to the application of Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) where a TCR is used in
parallel with the series capacitor.As TCR losses are minimal,TCR conduction
can be used even under normal conditions to vary the compensation level for
flexible operation of the ac link.ln addition,TCR conduction can ensure mitigation of SSR.
The TCSC is an extension of the application of thyristor controllers for power
flow control in ac lines. This concept has been extended to propose FACTS
(Flexible AC Transmission System) controllers for the purpose of flexible operation of ac networks by controlling voltage ,phase angle or impedance for power
flow control.
1.4
1.4.1
FACTS CONTROLLERS
General
The expansion in power transmission networks has taken place not only due to
the increase in generation and loads but also due to the extensive interconnection among different power utilities. The major factor responsible for system
interconnections is the economy resulting from reduced generation reserves to
achieve the same level of reliability of supply.
Except for the limited number of HVDC links in a system, the vast majority of
transmission lines are ac. The power flows in ac lines are uncontrolled and are
INTRODUCTION
determined by Kirchhoff's laws. This is in contrast to HYDC links where the

power flow has to be regulated by converter controls. The lack of control in ac
networks can be considered as an advantage from the point of view of avoiding
additional equipment. However ac lines have the following disadvantages.
1. The power flow in parallel paths is determined according to their reactances.
For example in Fig.1.3, the power flow in line 1 is twice that of flow in line 2
although the capacity of line 2 may be comparable to that of line 1.
}Jl
)(
Figure 1.3.
Power flow in parallel paths
As a first approximation, the power flow in ac networks can be compared

to the current flow in dc resistive network where the resistance is analogous
to the reactance. The operation of KYL (Kirchhoff's voltage law) implies that
the network is often not optimally utilized.
2. The power flow in ac lines (except short lines of lengths below 150 km)
is limited by stability considerations. This implies that the lines may operate
normally at power levels much below their thermal limits .
3. The operation of KYL and lack of control in ac lines implies that the normal
power flow in a line is kept much below the peak value which itself is limited by
stability (as mentioned earlier). This margin (or reserve) is required to maintain system security under contingency conditions.
4. The ac transmission network requires dynamic reactive power control to
maintain satisfactory voltage profile under varying load conditions and transient disturbances.
5. AC lines while providing synchronizing torque for oscillating generator rotors may contribute negative damping torque which results in undamped power
oscillations(particulariy with fast acting static exciters and high gain automatic
voltage regulators).
6. The increase in load levels are accompanied by higher reactive power consumption in the line reactances. In case of mismatch in the reactive power
balance in the system, this can result in voltage instability and collapse.
Reactive power compensation of ac lines using fixed series capacitors can solve
some of the problems associated with ac networks. However the slow nature of
control using mechanical switches (circuit breakers) and limits on the frequency
of switching imply that faster dynamic controls are required to overcome the
problems of ac transmission networks.
Recent developments involving deregulation and restructuring of power indus-
10
try, are aimed at isolating the supply of electrical energy ( a product) from the
service involving transmission from generating stations to load centres. This
approach is feasible only if the operation of ac transmission lines is made flexible by introducing fast acting high power solid state controllers using thyristor
or GTO valves (switches). The advent of high voltage and high power thyristor valves and digital controllers in HVDC transmission has demonstrated the
viability of deploying such controllers for power transmission. Thyristor controllers were also utilized in late seventies to control current in reactors and
switch capacitors and this led to the development of Static Var Compensators
(SVC).
Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) is a concept proposed by N.G.
Hingorani (1991,1993) that involves the application of high power electronic
controllers in ac transmission networks which enable fast and reliable control
of power flows and voltages. The objectives are:
1. Regulation of power flows in prescribed transmission routes.
2. Secure loading of lines nearer their thermal limits.
3. Prevention of cascading outages by contributing to emergency control.
4. Damping of oscillations which can threaten security or limit the usable line
capacity.
There are several FACTS controllers which have been developed or proposed.
These include:
1. Static Var Compensator (SVC)
2. Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC)
3. Thyristor Controlled Phase Angle Regulator (TCPAR)
4. Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) or Static Condenser (STATCON)
5. Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC)
6. Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)
Among these, SVC is considered as a first generation FACTS Controller and is
commercially available. These are three prototype (demonstration) projects of
TCSC (all in U.S.A.). There are two projects of STATCON, one in Japan and
one in Tennessee U.S.A. The first phase of a prototype of UPFC was commissioned at Inez Station in 1997 in U.S.A [Schauder et al (1997)]. STATCON and
UPFC use voltage source converters employing GTO devices which have the
capability of turn-off by injecting gate current. The technology using thyristor
valves is available for commercial use. However, the control of phase angle is
(in general) more expensive than the control of impedance.
FACTS Controllers have also been proposed in distribution systems for control of power quality [Hingorani (1995),Akagi (1996)]. The objectives are to
limit voltage fluctuations and reduce the impact of momentary interruptions
that would affect sensitive loads. In addition, distribution type FACTS devices
can be used to eliminate harmonics and voltage flicker introduced by nonlinear
loads that would affect other loads in the proximity.
In addition to the FACTS controllers mentioned above, NGH damping and
Thyristor Controlled Braking Resistor (TCBR) [Jiang et al (1994),Rao and
11
INTRODUCTION
Nagsarkar (1984)) for stability improvement are also considered as part of the
FACTS family. Thyristor controllers are also being proposed for Fault Current
Limiter (FCL) [Salama et al (1993),Sugimoto et al (1996)) and overcurrent
protection along with metal oxide varistors [Sarkozi et al (1994)).
1.4.2 A General Description of FACTS Controllers

Based on the treatment given by Gyugyi (1992), the influence of a FACTS
Controller in a transmission line can be viewed as injection of a shunt current
source and a series voltage source. (see Fig.1.4). This is the most general
description of a FACTS Controller, such as a UPFC.
Ignoring active power losses in the controller, the following constraint equation
applies
(1.5)
O-------,Jr---)-Z-P__ (~)t--+__
Is--10
0--<-.1___
Vs
Figure 1.4.
Circuit representation of a FACTS Controller
It is assumed that both e s and ip are sinusoidal and can be expressed as

phasors in steady state. Eq.(1.5) shows that there are three independent variables (for example, magnitude and phase angle of es and the value of reactive
component of current in ip ) that can be manipulated to control power flows
(active and reactive) in a line.
It is to be noted that in the general case, a FACTS controller may contain an
energy source and thus even constraint Eq.(1.5) does not apply. However this
is unlikely except in the case of STATCOM which may use a battery energy
storage system for providing electrical energy during interruptions caused by
system faults.
Except for UPFC most of the FACTS controllers use only single control variable
as listed in Table 1.1
12
Table 1.1 Constraints and control variables associated with FACTS controllers
Controller
Constraint Equations
Control Variable
1. SVC
2. TCSC
3. TCPAR
4. STATCOM
(without energy source)
e. = 0, ip = jBsvcVp
ip = 0, e. = jXTcscI.
Vpi; = e.I; , V. = Vpe}q,
Bsvc
XTCSC
c/J
5. STATCOM
(with energy source)
6. SSSC
(without energy source)
7. SSSC
(with energy source)
es
= 0, Re[Vpi;J = 0
ipr (reactive current)
e.
=0
ipa(active current),ipr
ip
= 0, Re[e.I:J = 0
e .. (reacti ve voltage)
ip
=0
e.r,e.a (active voltage)
Note: SSSC is the special case of UPFC when only series element is used.
1.5
METHODS OF ANALYSIS OF SSR
The problem of self excitation is a steady state problem involving instability of the system operating (equilibrium) point.The analysis of stability of the
opearating point is conveniently performed using linearized models of the various components that form the system. There are two major methods in the
small signal stability analysis l.Eigenvalue analysis based on time-domain formulation [Nolan et al (1976)
,Fouad and Khu (1978), Anderson et al (1990)]
2.Frequency domain analysis
(a) using the concepts of synchronizing and damping torque [Canay (1982)]
(b) using frequency scanning techniques [Agrawal and Farmer (1979)]
Eigenvalue analysis is an exact method and can employ detailed system models.
However, frequency domain methods are simpler to use and could be computationally attractive, although they tend to be approximate. The concept of
damping torque is useful in the analysis of TI while the frequency scanning
techniques can be applied for screening type study of induction generator effect
(IGE) and TI.
In contrast to the analysis of self excitation (or steady state SSR), the analysis
of transient SSR (or study of transient shaft torques) cannot be carried out
using linearized models. This is in view of the fact that transient SSR problem results from large disturbances such as faults and reinsertion of capacitors.
The model is nonlinear and the system simulation is required (involving numerical integration of differential equations) . As the network transients have to
be modelled in detail, , the simulation is conveniently performed using EMTP
[Gross and Hall (1978)] or special purpose simulation programs [Carlsen et al
(1975)]
INTRODUCTION
13
System Modelling for SSR analysis

Mathematically, a power system is described by a set of nonlinear differential
equations:
x=
f(X, U)
(1.6)
where X is state vector and U is the set of reference or control inputs. Assuming,the system is in equilibrium (steady state) ,for constant Ue (the equilibrium
value of the input vector),the following nonlinear algebraic equations govern
the equilibrium state.
(1.7)
The system model can be linearized by assuming
= Xe + X
U = Ue + U
(1.8)
where
x = 6.X , u = 6.U
The small signal model of the power system is described by
:i: = [A] x
+ [B]u
(1.9)
CU]
,[B] = [U].It is to be noted that the partial derivatives are

where [A] =
evaluated at X = Xe and U = Ue .
The equilibrium state Xe is stable if all the eigenvalues of the system Jacobian
matrix [A] have negative real parts. Even if a particular equilibrium state is
stable, change in the operating conditions can result in instability. For example,
if series compensation level is increased,a complex pair of eigenvalues can cross
imaginary axis at the critically stable level of compensation.
The eigenvectors of the system (Jacobian) matrix, [A] display the information
on the relative magnitude of the response of individual state variables in the
mode represented by the corresponding eigenvalue.!f some of the elements of
the eigenvector are close to zero, it can be inferred that the state variables
corresponding to those elements do not respond to the activation of a particular
mode. Eigenvectors relating to a second order state equation
x = [F]x
(1.10)
corresponding to (negative) real eigenvalues of matrix [F] are also termed as

mode shapes.(It is to be noted that a negative real eigenvalue of the matrix [F]
corresponds to an oscillatory response of x).
Mugwanya and Van Ness (1987) describe the concept of mode coupling which
implies that a mode of response in one part of the system may also appear
in another part of the system.Although they defined the mode coupling in
the context of low frequency oscillations, this concept can also be extended
for modes involving subsynchronous (frequency) oscillations. As a matter of
fact,subsynchronous resonance is the result of mode coupling between an electrical mode in the series compensated network and a torsional mode in a turbine
generator feeding the network.
14
The eigenvalues that are close can result in mode coupling (although not always).Actually,the mode coupling arises from the similarity between eigenvectors.What makes the phenomenon of mode coupling interesting is that it may
occur in two dissimilar subsystems.lt will be shown later that torsional interactions with HVDC converter controlers are also the result of mode coupling.
( between a HVDC system mode and a torsional mode).
It is not necessary that adverse torsional interactions are always due to mode
coupling. The TI in PSS or shunt FACTS controllers is not the result of mode
coupling. While a PSS may introduce an exciter mode,it has no influence on the
torsional mode.
An interesting observation in SSR analysis is that the change in the damping
of the electrical mode (as an important parameter is varied) is opposite in sign
to the change in the damping of the coupled torsional mode. For example, increase in the series compensation level results in the monotonic decrease in the
damping of the subsynchronous frequency (electrical) network mode if torsional
modes are neglected.However,in the presence of a torsional mode,the damping
of the network mode is increased while the torsional mode (with which it is
coupled) is negatively damped. Depending on the compensation level, the degree of coupling also varies.
The modelling of system components such as turbine-generator,transmission
network for SSR analysis is different in nature compared to stability studies
involving only low frequency (0.2 - 2 Hz) responses.The generator must consider the stator transients in addition to the torsional dynamics represented by
multimass rotor model.The network transients also cannot be ignored and have
to be modelled by differential equations.However,it is not necessary to model
the transmission lines by a distributed parameter network as the frequency response of the model needs to be accurate only up to second harmonic of the
system frequency.
Damping Torque Analysis
This is a widely used frequency domain analysis. If it is assumed that the generator rotor is oscillating sinusoidally (superimposed on the constant speed
of rotation),restoring torques are set up to oppose the oscillatory motion.The
component of the torque in phase with the rotor angle (D.o) is termed as the
synchronizing torque (which is directly proportional to the deviation in the angle) and the component of the torque in phase with the per unit rotor speed
(D.w) is termed as the damping torque.For stability of the rotor motion, both
components should be positive at the frequency of oscillation.
The production of the electrical torque is the response of the electrical system
to the oscillation in the rotor speed (and angle).This is shown in Fig.1.5.
It can be seen that the system eigenvalues (closed loop poles) satisy the
followig equation.
(1.11)
The frequency response of the electrical torque (D.Te) is given by
(1.12)
INTRODUCTION
15
Llw
- (."
Zm(s)
LlTe
Ye(s)
Figure 1.5.
Torque angle loop
where TSe and TDe are the synchronizing and damping torque coefficients
of the electrical system.
The complex eigenvalues of the system can be obtained from the approximate
second order equation,
( 1.13)
where Hi is the modal inertia constant for the ith mode ,TD and Ts are the
net damping and synchronizing torque coefficients given by
TD = TDe + TDm
Ts = TSe + TSm
(1.14)
(1.15)
TDm and TSm are the damping and synchronizing torque coefficients of the
mechanical system, calculated from
(1.16)
It will be shown later (in chapter 2) that Zm (s) has contribution from all the
torsional modes and can be expressed as
Zm(s)
L
m
i =2Hs2
l'
.
+ Ds
, + It ,'WB
(1.17)
where Di and f{i are the modal damping and spring constants. The frequency
of the torsional mode Ud is given by
Ii = ~Jf{iWB
(1.18)
211"
2Hi
In the application of the damping torque analysis for SSR studies,it is assumed
that that (i) the frequency of the torsional mode is unaffected by the electrical
system and (ii) the coupling between different torsional modes is neglected (In
computing the damping of a particular torsional mode, the remaining modes
can be neglected)
16
1.6
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Chapter two is devoted to the derivation of the turbine-generator model. The

synchronous machine model is derived from first principles and the application
of Park's transformation.The final machine equations are derived using flux
linkages as state variables and stability constants (transient and subtransient
paramaters).The mechanical rotor system equations are also analyzed by applying electrical circuit analogy.This enables direct derivation of modal inertias
and other parameters.
Chapter three is devoted to the derivation of the ac network model using D-Q
variables.The state equations are derived from circuit topology and the element
equations. The complexities involved in the choice of state variables are illustrated.The relations between immitance functions based on D-Q variables and
phase variables are derived.
Chapter four presents the analysis of SSR with fixed series compensation. Both
IGE and TI effects are considered.Both damping torque and eigenvalue analysis are explained with illustrative examples. An iterative method for computing
eigenvalues for torsional modes is presented.The countermeasures for SSR are
described.
Chapter five discusses torsional interactions with PSS.The modelling,PSS design and analysis of TI are explained and illustrated by a case study.
Chapter six deals with the analysis of TI in HVDC systems. The HVDC converter controls are described in detail leading to the development of the system
model.The study of TI based on damping torque and eigenvalue analyses is
explained with examples.A simplified analysis gives an insight into the phenomenon of interactions and highlights the important aspects.
Chapter seven discusses interactions with shunt FACTS controllers - SVC and
STATCON.These FACTS controllers are described to develop their models.
The analysis is illustrated with the help of case studies.A simplified analysis
focusses on the basic characteristics of the voltage regulator that affects TI.
Chapter eight deals with the study of interactions in TCSC and SSSC (series
FACTS controllers).The controller models are described along with nature of
their response to subsynchronous oscillations. Examples are presented to illustrate the eigenvalue analysis and their correlation to the results from simulation
of the system (subjected to small disturbances).
Appendix A gives data on IEEE Benchmark Model systems. Appendix B presents
the calculation of initial conditions of system state variables required for both
system simulation and small signal analysis.
2.1
MODELLING OF TURBINE
GENERATOR
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the detailed mathematical models of a turbine generator (T-G)

unit are presented in a form that can be directly utilized for small signal analysis
and system simulation. The synchronous machine is represented in detail with
three phase stator windings, the field winding and amortisseur (damper) circuits. The electrical damper action of a solid rotor turbo-generator is normally
modelled by three equivalent damper circuits - two on the quadrature axis and
one on the direct axis. Including the field winding, there are four rotor electrical circuits and the detailed model of a synchronous machine is designated as
(2.2) where the first digit refers to the numbers of windings on the d-axis and
the second digit refers to the number of windings on the q-axis [IEEE(1986)].
The most detailed model discussed in the literature is (3.3) with five damper
windings and is also known as Jackson and Winchester (1969) model. While
there is strictly no restriction on the number of equivalent damper windings
that can be considered to model the eddy current effects in a solid rotor machine, the availability of machine data (measured parameters) has practically
restricted the most detailed model to (2.2) with three damper windings.
With the usual assumptions that govern the basic equations of a synchronous
machine, it is possible to transform the stator (phase) quantities (currents, voltages and flux linkages) to 'dqo' variables by Park's transformation. The major
advantage of this transformation is that the inductance coefficients (both self
18
and mutual) are transformed from time varying to constant values (neglecting
magnetic saturation).
The mechanical system associated with the turbine generator consists of generator rotor, various steam turbine rotors such as High Pressure (HP), Intermediate Pressure (IP) and Low Pressure (LP) stages. In addition, there is
exciter rotor also to be considered if rotating exciter is used. All the rotors are
connected by long elastic shaft sections. While it is possible to model in detail,
the complex structures on the turbine rotors, for SSR studies it is adequate to
treat all the rotors as lumped masses interconnected by springs (shaft sections).
The torsional (mechanical) system can thus be modelled as a linear, lumped
mass-spring-damper network, which is analogous to a lumped, linear R-L-C
(electrical)network. Modal analysis of the torsional system is used to compute
the modal masses, mode shapes and resonant frequencies. It will be shown that
the analysis of the electrical analogue also yields some of these results.
2.2
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODEL
The synchronous machine considered is shown in Fig. 2.1. This shows a three
phase armature windings (a,b and c) on the stator and four windings on the
rotor including the field winding '/'. The amortisseur (or damper) circuits in
the salient pole machine or the eddy-current effects in the rotor are represented
by a set of coils with constant parameters. Three damper coils, 'h' in the d-axis
and g, k in the q-axis are shown in Fig. 2.1.
The following assumptions are used in the derivation of the basic equations
of the machine.
1. The mmf in the airgap is distributed sinusoidally and the harmonics are
neglected.
2. Saliency is restricted to the rotor. The effect of slots in the stator is neglected.
3. Magnetic saturation and hysteresis are ignored.
The representation of the saturation will be considered later in this chapter.
In what follows, the machine is assumed to have two poles. There is no loss
of generality in doing this as the rotor angle () (with respect to a stationary
axis) is assumed to be the electrical angle and the equations are invariant with
respect to the number of poles. The mechanical angle ()m is related to () by
(2.1)
where P is the number of poles.
2.2.1
Flux linkage equations
The stator and rotor flux linkages are given by

(2.2)
MODELLING OF TURBINE GENERATOR
19
q-axis
d-axis
Figure 2.1.
Synchronous machine
(2.3)
where
1/1; = [1/Ia 1/Ib 1/Ic]

1/1; = [1/If 1/Ih 1/Ig 1/Ik]
[ia ib icJ,
[if i h ig ik]
The matrices [Lss] and [Lrr] are symmetric and also [Lrs] = [Lsr
From two
reaction theory [Park (1929)]) it is possible to express the inductance coefficients
as follows.
cos2B
Laa2 [ cos(2B - 211'/3)
cos(2B + 211'/3)
Laao Labo Labo

[ Labo Laao Labo
+
Labo Labo Laao
cos(2B - 211,/3) cos(2B + 211'/3)
cos2B
cos(2B + 211'/3)
cos(2B - 211'/3)
cos2B
[ Lss
1=
(2.4)
(2.5)
20
1=
[ L.r
[Ldsr
l--
[ L1r
1=
[L;rJl
[[L~r)
(2.6)
M.f,o,O
MaJcos(8 - 21r/3)
MaJcos(8 + 21r/3)
MahCOs8
MahCOs(8 - 21r/3)
MahCOs(8 + 21r/3)
M."inO
Mag sin (8 - 21r /3)
Magsin( 8 + 21r /3)
M ak sin8
Maksin(8 - 21r/3)
Mak sin( 8 + 21r /3)
1
1
Note that [Lsr) is a function of 8 and is time varying as the rotor rotates at
constant speed. [Lss) is also a function of 8 if Laa2 :I O. This is true for salient
pole machines.
2.2.2
Voltage equations
The voltage equations for the stator and rotor coils are given below.
_
d~.
_ [R.)i.
dtPr -Tt
[R r ).lr
= v.
(2.7)
= Vr
(2.8)
where
v;
[ Rs
Ra
1= ~
[ Rr
= [-vJ
0 0 0)
~a ~a
[f
0
Rh
0
0
0
0
Rg
0
0
0
0
Rk
[U3 ) is a unit matrix of dimension 3

Note: Generator convention is used in expressing the voltage equations. The
currents are assumed to be leaving the coil at the terminals and the terminal
voltages are assumed to be voltage drops in the direction of the currents. This
is contrary to the motor convention (see Fig. 2.2)
Because ofthe generator convention, the sign associated with vJ is negative (to
sustain a field current in steady state). Note that both v J and i J are assumed
to be positive in steady state.
21
_!!:.
!!:.
dt
dt
(a) Generator
(b) Motor
Figure 2.2.
Illustration of convention used
2.2.3 Torque equation

It is assumed for the time being that the inertia of the turbines (prime mover)
can be clubbed with that of the generator rotor (by assuming the shaft to be
rigid). In this case, the equation of motion of the rotor is given by
J d2Bm
dt 2 +
where
J
D
Tm
Te
is
is
is
is
the
the
the
the
D dBm = T. _ T.
dt
m
e
(2.9)
combined moment of inertia of the rotor

damping (assumed to be viscous) coefficient
mechanical torque in the direction of rotation
electrical torque opposing the mechanical torque
Note that for a two pole machine, Bm = B. For P =f. 2, the equation (2.9) can
be transformed to
2 d2B
dB
(2.10)
P (J dt 2 + D dt ) = Tm - Te
The electrical torque Te is given by
T.
e
where
= _ 8W' = _!:.- 8W' = P T'

88 m
2 88
(2.11 )
T~ = - ~ is the electrical torque of the equivalent two pole machine,

W' is the co-energy expressed as
W'
= ~ [ it i~ 1 [L..
Lrs
2
Lsr] [ ~s ]
Lrr
Ir
(2.12)
Substituting (2.12) in (2.11) and noting that [Lrr) is a constant matrix, we get
T'e =
sr ).]
ss
t
_~2 [.t[8L
Is 88 ).Is + 2Is [8L
88 Zr
(2.13)
22
Substituting (2.11) in (2.10) we get
J' d 2 0
dt2
where
= T'm
+ D' dO
dt
- T'
(2.14)
ftY is the equivalent inertia
J'
D'
D.(
r/n
2~m ,is the mechanical torque of the equivalent two pole machine
J.(
fr)2
is the equivalent damping coefficient
The above equation represents the transformation of 'P' pole machine to a 2

pole machine. The mechanical torque is reduced by a factor of
The inertia
ft.
and damping are reduced by factor of (fo)2. However, since all the equations
are expressed in per unit (to be introduced later) there is no loss of generality
in assuming that the machine has two poles (as stated earlier).
2.3
PARK'S TRANSFORMATION
The combined voltage equations (for the stator and the rotor) can be expressed
as
(2.15)
where
[ L
1=
[Lss
Lrs
Lsr],
Lrr
[ R
1=
[ORs
= [.tZs
0 ]
Rr
.t]
Zr
Alternatively, the voltage equations can also be expressed as
= [L]-l[_[R]i 1/J = [L]i
~[%]i -
v] }
(2.16)
Although it is possible to solve the equations (2.15) or (2.16) numerically, it is

almost impossible to obtain analytical solution even when iJ = ~ is constant.
This is due to the fact that the inductance matrix [L] is time varying and the
computation of inverse of [L] is required.
It would be advantageous if the time-varying machine equations can be transformed to a time invariant set. This would result in the simplification of the
23
calculations both for steady state and transient conditions. R.H.Park (1929)
introduced the following transformation
(2.17)
where fa can be either voltage, current or flux linkage of the stator winding a
(a = a, b or c). [C p ] is defined by
kdCOSe
kqsine
kqsin(e - 27r/3)
kqsin(e + 27r/3)
[Cp] = [ kdCOS(e - 27r/3)

kdCOS(e
+ 27r/3)
ko
ko
ko
where k d, kq and ko are constants appropriately chosen.

transformation kd = 1.0, kq = -1.0 and ko = 1
The inverse transformation is given by
In original Park's
where
k1COSe
k1cos(e - 27r/3)
k3
k3
[Cpr 1 = [ k 2sine k2sin(e - 27r/3)
k1
2.3.1
(2.18)
k1COS(e + 27r/3)
k2sin(e + 27r/3)
k3
221
= 3k d ' k2 = -3k ' k3 = -3k

q
Transformation of flux linkages
[ ~: ] =
[C; ~4] [~:qO
(2.20)
where U4 is a unit matrix of order 4 and 1/J~qo = [1/Jd 1/Jq 1/Jo]

The L.H.S. of Eq. (2.20) can be expressed as
[ 1/Js ]
1/Jr
= [Lss
Lrs
0] [ ~dqo
Zr
Lsr] [Cp
Lrr
0
U4
(2.21)
Substituting (2.20) in (2.21), we get
[ cpt
o
0] [Lss
Lrs
U4
Lsr] [Cp
Lrr
0
C~~~sr
[ L~s
L~s
] [
i~:o
0] [ Zz:drqO
U4
]
(2.22)
24
where
0
Lq
0
Ld
[
[L~31 =
0
Ld = Laao - Labo + Laa2 }

Lq = Laao - Labo - 2 Laa2
Lo = Laao + 2Labo
[L~rl =
[(~)
~
(~)
(~)
q
q
0
0
[L:.I
(Afc:h)
0
0
(IMaJkd)
(2Mahkd)
0
= [
(~Magkq)
(~Makkq)
Remarks
1. [L~slt
f.
[L~rl unless
2
kd =
(2.23)
3' kq = 3
:[
(2.24)
(2.25)
(2.26)
2. The mutual inductance terms between the stator and rotor coils in the qaxis are negative for kq < 0 unless Mag and Mak are both negative. It is to
be noted that when the q-axis is lagging the direct axis (in the direction of
rotation) as assumed in Fig. 2.1, Mag and Mak are positive. These terms
are negative only if q-axis is assumed to be leading the d-axis.
Hence, if d-axis is assumed to lead q-axis, it would be convenient to choose
positive value of kq.
3. Note that there is no transformation of the rotor currents and flux linkages.
Hence the self inductance matrix of rotor coils is not altered.
4. Eq. (2.22) shows that stator coils 'a','b' and 'c' are replaced by fictitious
'd', 'q' and '0' coils from Park's transformation. Out of these, '0' coil (in
which zero-sequence current io flows) has no coupling with the rotor coils
and may be neglected if io = O. Since the (transformed) mutual inductance
terms between d,q coils and the rotor coils are constants, it can be interpreted
that d and q coils rotate at the same speed as the rotor. Furthermore, as
mutual inductances between the d-coil and the rotor coils on the q-axis are
zero, it can be assumed that d-coil is aligned with the d-axis. Similarly, it
25
".
Figure 2.3.
Synchronous machine with rotating armature windings
can be assumed that q coil is aligned along with the q-axis. This is shown
in Fig.2.3
5. The following trigonometric identities are useful
transformed equations.
cosO
211"
211"
+ cos(O - 3) + cos(O + 3)
sinO + sin(O _
2
In
cos 0 + cos (0 -
2;) +
211"
sin(O +
2;)
211"
3) + cos 2(0 + 3 )
sin 20 + sin2(O _ 2311")
+ sin2(O + 2;)
the derivation of the
o
o
3
2
3
2
Although, the physical interpretation of Park's transformation is useful in gaining an intuitive understanding of its implications, it must be understood that it
is not essential in the mathematical analysis of the synchronous machine. This
is true of any mathematical transformation whose main objective is to simplify
the analysis. From this point of view, the major benefit of Park's transformation is to obtain the machine equations in time-invariant form which simplifies
the analysis. The transformation of stator voltage equations will clarify this
point.
26
2.3.2
Transformation of stator voltage equations
Applying Park's transformation, Eq. (2.7) can be rewritten as

(2.27)
The first term on the L.H.S. of Eq.(2.27} can be expressed as
(2.28)
where
kqcosB
kqcos(B -
}
kqcos( B + 2f}
dep
dB
~ 1 [Cp][Pd
=
(2.29)
and
Substituting (2.28) in (2.27), we get
From (2.30), we obtain
dtPdqo
.[]
-~ - B Pl tPdqo - Razdqo
= Vdqo
(2.31)
after substituting for [R.] = Ra [U3]

Eq. (2.31) can be expanded as
(2.32)
where w = B
The rotor voltage equations are unchanged and can be written in the expanded
27
form from Eq. (2.8) as
(2.33)
2.3.3
Transformation of the torque equation
After applying Park's transformation to Eq. (2.13), the electrical torque is

expressed as
T.e =
-21 [.tZdqo [CP ]t[()Lss

7iiJ ][CP ].Zdqo + 2ztdqo [Cp ]t[OLsr].]
7iiJ Zr
oL
[Sin2B
[ o;s] = -2Laa2 sin(2B - 2;)
sin(2B + 2311')
sin(2B - 2;)
sin(2B + 2;)
sin2B
sin(2B + 2;)
sin2B
sin(2B - 2311')
(2.34)
(2.35)
(2.36)
where
(2.37)
(2.38)
28
After some manipulations, the expression for electrical torque reduces to
3kk[(MaJ.
T.e = 2
d q Zq -k-zJ
d
Mah.
d + -k-Zh
+ -3 L aa2 Z.)
2
. (Mag.
Zd -k- Zg
q
Mak.
+ -k-Zk
q
3
.)]
- -2 L aa2Zq
(2.39)
Since
(2.40)
(2.41 )
Utilizing (2.40) and (2.41) in Eq. (2.39)'
Te
~kdkq[iq{1/Jd ~kdkq[iq1/ld -
(Ld -
~Laa2)id} -
id{1/Jq - (Lq +
~Laa2)iqH2.42)
(2.43)
id1/lq]
as
Ld 2.3.4
2Laa2 =
Lq
+ 2Laa2 =
Laao - LabO
Choice of constants kd , kq and ko
The transformation [Cp ] defined by Eq. (2.18) is most general as no assumptions are made regarding the constants kd , kq and ko . However, original Park's
transformation used
kd = 1, kq = -1 , ko = 1
Since same transformation is applied for currents and voltages, it can be shown
that in general,
(2.44)
Proof: L.H.S. of Eq. (2.44) can be expressed as
V!bciabc = V~qo[Cp]t[CP]idqo
(2.45 )
[Cp]t[Cp] is a diagonal matrix given below

(2.46)
Power Invariant Transformation
A transformation [Cp] is said to be power invariant if it is orthogonal, i.e.
(2.47)
29
The choice of kd,kq and ko to get power invariant transformation are

kd =
/'f, /J, If
kq =
(2.48)
ko =
We will assume only positive values of the constants thereby defining a power
invariant Park's transformation given by
1 [V2COSB
[ep] = y'3
3
V2cos(B - 23")
V2cos( B + 2;)
V2sinB
V2sin(B - 2;)
V2sin(B + 2;)
(2.49)
The major advantage of a power invariant transformation is that the mutual

inductances in the transformed network are reciprocal.
For example,
Md'J
VI,
= MkdaJ
and M
Jd
= 2"3 M aJ k d
MdJ = MJd = ftMa J

For kd =
In what follows, we will use a power invariant transformation by selecting the
following values
kd =
/J
= k q, ko =
If
As mentioned earlier, the positive value of kq indicates that q-axis is lagging the
direct axis, whereas in the original transformation by Park, q-axis is assumed
to lead d-axis. Although an IEEE committee report (1969) recommended a
revision of the old convention (of q leading d) usage in power industry is often
based on the old convention.
It should also be noted here that the use of generator convention in expressing
the stator voltage equations is consistent with the choice of d-axis leading qaxis. Similarly the earlier motor convention is consistent with q-axis leading
d-axis. To summarize, the basic differences in the two conventions are shown
in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1
Comparison Between Conventions
Features
I Original
Convention
Revised
Current direction
Orientation of
axes
motor
'q' leading 'd'
generator
'd' leading 'q'
Constants
kd = 1.0, kq = -1
kd = kq =
VI
Note that although the armature currents, even in the original convention, are
considered to flow out of the generator, the signs associated with these currents
(in flux calculations) are negative. (consistent with the motor convention). As
mentioned before, the revised convention is adopted here.
30
2.4
PER UNIT QUANTITIES
It is common to express voltages, currents and impedances in per unit by

choosing appropriate base quantities. The advantages of an appropriate per
unit system are
1. The numerical values of currents and voltages are related to their rated
values irrespective of the size of the machine.
2. The per unit impedances on the machine base lie in a narrow range for a
class of machines of similar design.
3. The number of parameters required is minimized.
It is to be noted that the base quantities for the stator and rotor circuits can be
independently chosen with certain restrictions which result in per unit mutual
reactances being reciprocal. If power invariant Park's transformation is used,
the constraints imply selecting the same base power for all the circuits.
2.4.1
Stator base quantities
The base quantities for the stator d-q windings are chosen as follows
Base power ,5B
Three phase rated power
Base voltage, VB
Rated line to line voltage (RMS)
Base current, IB
J3 x Rated line current
= Y.a _ Rated line to neutral voltage
Base impedance, ZB
~ Rated line current
Base flux linkages, 1/;B
WB
Base inductance LB
~ = ~
WB is the base angular frequency in radians/sec. (This is also the rated angular
speed for a 2 pole machine)
The stator equations in per unit, based on the quantities defined above, are
__
1_~ _ WB
.J!L.I. WB aL
o/q
1
-WB
Tt +
d1/;
Ra td =
W - -;
WB 1/;d - RaZq
Vd }
Vq
(2.50)
where the per unit quantities are indicated by the bar over the variables. For
example,
Remarks
1. The base voltage and current used in the previous literature are
VB
Peak rated voltage per phase
IB
Peak rated line current
The choice of these base quantities are consistent with the original Park's
31
transformation. This is because the per unit voltage (or current) in the old
system is identical to that in the revised system defined above (which IS
consistent with the power-invariant version of Park's transformation)
2. The base impedances in both systems are identical. This fact combined with
the identity of per unit quantities implies that the equations (in per unit) in
both systems are identical (except for the differences in the orientation of dand q-axes) thus eliminating the confusion about different versions of Park's
transformation.
3. Anderson and Fouad (1977) use different base quantities for voltage and
current along with power-invariant Park's transformation. They define VB as
(rms) rated line to neutral voltage and IB as rms line current. Although this
results in identical base impedance as defined before, the per unit voltages,
currents and fluxes are different which leads to different equations using
inconvenient factors (of )3).
4. The choice of base quantities for the rotor is related to the choice of stator
base quantities. Although in the original Park's transformation, the mutual

inductances are not reciprocal, the selection of appropriate base quantities
for the rotor will result in reciprocal per unit mutual inductances
5. The expression for the base three phase power in the old system is
which leads to per unit power expression of
(It is assumed that the zero sequence power is zero). In the revised (new)
system,
PB = 5B = VBIB
which leads to the same per unit power expression given above.
6. If the operating frequency is same as the base frequency, the per umt m~uctances a~e identical_ to per unit corresponding reactances. Thus Xd =
Ld, XdJ = MdJ, Xad = Lad etc.
2.4.2
Rotor base quantities
The base power and frequency are same as for the stator circuits. The base
currents for the rotor circuits in the d-axis are chosen such that the base field
current or base d-axis damper current (in h coil) produces the same mutual flux
(in the air gap) as produced by the base current flowing in the stator d-axis
32
coil. Similar conditions apply for q-axis coils. The mutual flux linkages in the
d-axis are given by
(2.51)
where Lau is the leakage inductance of the stator. IJB and hB are the base
currents in the field and damper windings (in d-axis).
From Eq. (2.51),
Lad
Lad
(
)
IJB
M IB, hB
-M IB
2.52
#
dh
where
Lad = Ld - Lau
The base flux linkages for the rotor circuits are chosen such that
(2.53)
Similar relations apply for q-axis coils also. The base currents and flux linkages
for the g and k coils are gi ven by
Laq
Laq I
hB= MIB
qg B,
qk
1/JBIB 1/JkB = 1/JBIB
-,
hB
19B
19B
1/JgB
(2.54)
(2.55)
where
Remarks
1. The per unit system is chosen such that the per unit mutual reactances M#
and Mdh are equal and can be expressed as
Similarly
2. The choice of rotor base quantities is not unique. In general, the per unit
mutual inductances can be expressed as
MdJ
Mqg
Mdh = Ld - Lel
Mqk = Lq - Lc2
where Lel and Lc2 can be arbitrarily chosen (assuming magnetic linearity).
It is only when representing saturation that it is convenient to define the
per unit mutual inductances as given earlier. The leakage inductance of
33
the stator Lau, is normally assumed to be constant (unaffected by saturation) while the mutual inductances are functions of the mutual flux linkages
(considering saturation).
3. The selection of base quantities for the rotor circuits can be avoided if it is
assumed that the rotor quantities can be referred to the stator using appropriate turns ratio (which are not always uniquely defined). The equivalent
circuit referred to the stator can then be described in per unit quantities (on
the stator base). This is explained in the next section.
2.4.3 An alternative approach

Consider a set of 'n' coupled coils. The flux linkage of
'!/Jk
By expressing
'!/Jk
kth
coil is given by
Lkjij
(2.56)
j = 1
and ij in per unit given by

(2.57)
Eq. (2.56) can be rewritten as

'!/Jk
where
Lkj
~ Lkj
L . J ( - l j B ) ij
j=l '!/JkB
L.JLkjij
j=l
(2.58)
is the per unit mutual inductance given by

Lkj
Similarly the per unit
Lkj
--ljB
'!/JkB
Ljk is given by
Ljk
If Ljk =
Lkj , the reciprocity
Ljk
--hB
'!/JjB
in per unit mutual inductances require
IjB
hB
'PkB
'PjB
-:;:- = -:;:- for all J and k

which implies same base power for all the coils. It is assumed that the base
frequency is same for all the coils.
If it is assumed that the measurements are carried out at the terminals of one
coil (which may be labelled as 1 without loss of generality), the mutual flux
between coils 1 and j can be expressed as
./.
'Plj
= L'
IjZj = L'"
IjZj
(2.59)
34
where
./
tj
IB ).
(Nj ).tj,
= ( -IjB
tj = Nl
can be considered as the current in coil j referred to coil 1 using the turns
ratio
(~).The base current
and flux in coil are defined as IB and 'lj;B dropping
the subscript 1. Equation (2.59) suggests the possibility of first referring the
quantities to coil 1 using turns ratio (if specified) and then expressing them
in per unit with respect to the base quantities defined for coil 1. Thus i 1j is
expressed as
(2.60)
where
Remarks
1. If turns ratios are known, the base currents (and fluxes) for coil j (j=2,3 ... n)
are defined in terms of the base quantities for coil 1 and the turns ratios.
2. Ifturns ratio are not explicitly defined, it is possible to choose base quantities
such that
L~j
= Ll -
11,
= 2, 3.... n
where II is the leakage inductance of coil 1. The advantage of this choice is

that the (n - 1) per unit mutual inductances are made equal and the total
number of circuit parameters are reduced.
3. The per unit mutual inductances can be made reciprocal even if
by proper choice of base quantities.
2.4.4
Lkj
f:.
Ljk
Rotor electrical equations in per unit
Expressing Eq.(2.33) in per unit quantities, we obtain,
(2.61 )
(2.62)
35
The per unit flux linkages are related to per unit currents by
(2.63)
~g + [ ~qg
Xqk
] [ lk ]
(2.64)
Remarks
= Xdh = Xad with Xad arbitrarily selected as

Xad = Xd - xau
similarly, Xqg = Xqk = Xaq with Xaq arbitrarily selected as
1. Note that xdf
Xaq
= Xq - xau
2. The per unit inductances are identical to per unit reactances.

3. In general, Xfh
xdf
Xdh
Xde
"# Xad.
Xde
Xdh
However, Canay (1983) showed that if
Xd - Xc,
xdf
where Xc is the per unit characteristic reactance, then

Xfh
4. The use of Bfd (instead of vf) is convenient as, in steady state, the open
circuit voltage at the terminals of a synchronous machine is Bfd .
5. In what follows, the per unit quantities will be used and denoted (for convenience) without placing any bar on the symbols. For example, Xd will be
per unit direct axis reactance (or inductance)
2.5
2.5.1
OPERATIONAL IMPEDANCES AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
Operational impedances
Taking Laplace transforms of Eqs(2.61) to (2.64) and expressing the Laplace

transforms of stator flux linkages as
Wd(S)
wq(s)
+ xdflf(s) + Xdhh(s)
= xqlq(s) + xqgIg(s) + xqk1k(s)
= xd1d(s)
(2.65)
(2.66)
It is possible to finally express Wd (s) and Wq (s) (by eliminating rotor currents)
as
(2.67)
Wd(S) = Xd(s)Id(s) + G(s)Efd(S)
wq(s)
= Xq(s)Iq(s)
(2.68)
where
x ( )_
d S
+ sTd)(1 + ST~/)
1 + sTdo 1 + sTdo
xd(1
(
)(
/I
(2.69)
36
(2.70)
Xq(l
+ sT~)(l + sTq")
X (s) - --:-':----:=-"---:--::~
q - (1 + sT~o)(l + sT~~)
(2.71)
where T~o and T~~ are termed as the direct axis, open circuit transient and
subtransient time constants respectively. T~ and T~' are defined as the short
circuit transient and subtransient time constants. Similar nomenclature applies
to the quadrature axis time constants.
The above equations show that the expressions for 'lj;d and 'lj;q require the knowl' Tildo' T'd' Tild an d Til)
ed ge 0 f fi ve (Tdo'
de an d t'lour (T'qo' Tilqo' T'q' Til)
q parameters
apart from Xd and x q . Generally, the synchronous machine data is expressed
as
I
"T'T"
Xd, xd'
xd'
d' dan d Xa" (or Xc ) on d-axis.
I
"T'T"
.
Xq,Xq,X
q, q' q an d Xa" on q-axls.
x~ and x~ are termed as direct axis transient and subtransient reactances. Similar nomenclature applies to x~ and x~. These are defined from
1
1
Xd(S) = Xd
+ (x~
sT~
1
- x) 1 + sT~
+ (x~
sT~'
x~) 1 + sT~'
(2.72)
1
1
1
1
sT~
lIsT;'
-=-+(---)
+(---)
Xq(s)
Xq
x~
Xq 1 + sT~
x~
x~ 1 + sT~'
(2.73)
From Eqs.(2.69) and (2.72), we have the following relations

(2.74)
(2.75)
Similarly from Eqs.(2.71) and (2.73), we have
(2.76)
(2.77)
2.5.2
Direct and quadrature axis equivaJent circuits
Equation (2.67) can be viewed as representing a two port network shown in Fig
2.4 where the fluxes are analogous to voltages. The d-axis equivalent circuit
shown here is made up of resistor (R) and capacitor (C) elements rather than
inductance(L) and R elements.
Similarly, Eq.(2.68) represents a single port network (q-axis equivalent circuit)
37
shown in Fig. 2.5. Canay(1983) has shown that d-axis equivalent circuit can
be redrawn with Xaa (armature leakage reactance) replaced by Xc and in this
case X rc can be eliminated in Fig.2.4.
The presence of armature leakage reactance in d and q-axis eqiuvalent circuits
shown in Fig. 2.4 and 2.5 has no real significance in deriving the final equations
if saturation is neglected. A common approximation is to assume that only
Xad and Xaq are affected by saturation. Since saturation is difficult to model
accurately, it is desirable that the number of parameters in the equivalent
circuits is minimized. It was mentioned earlier that q-axis equivalent circuit
requires only four independent parameters. Hence Fig.2.5 can be replaced by
that shown in Fig.2.6, where
E = !!:L':!!..I1..EJd(S)
Xd/ S
Figure 2.4.
d-axis equivalent circuit
R':!!..I1..
k s
Figure 2.5.
Xg/
q-axis equivalent circuit
(2.78)
38
Xq
.E.I<.L
S
Figure 2.6.
T q"
Simplified q-axis equivalent circuit
(2.79)
Often, the d-axis equivalent circuit is simplified by assuming X rc = 0 ( as
the parameter X rc is usually not known). Alternatively if it is assumed that
T~~ = T~' ( in the expression for G(s)) it can be shown that Fig. 2.4 can be
reduced to that shown in Fig.2.7, where
Figure 2.7.
Simplified d-axis equivalent circuit
Xhl
"
xdxd
I
xd -
"
(2.80)
xd
I
xfl
Xdxd
Xd -
xd
(2.81)
Remarks
1. From the d- and q-axis equivalent circuits, it can be inferred that Xd(S)
and Xq(s) are impedance functions of R-C networks. These have the property
[Ternes and Lapatra (1977)]:
39
(i) poles and zeroes lie on the negative real axis and they alternate.
(ii) the nearest to the origin is a pole
2. From the above, it can be shown that
T~o > T~ > T~~ > T~'

and T~o > T~ > T~~ > T~'
2.5.3 State space equations

From the d-axis equivalent circuit shown in Fig.2.7, the following equations can
be derived.
(2.82)
1
x~
-d7/JJ
=
-,[-7/JJ + 7/Jd +
EJd]
dt
Td
Xd - xd
I
./,
'Pd
".
- x~) ./,
(Xd - x~) x~ ./,
= xdld
+ (x~ xd
'Ph +
-''PJ
Xd
xd
I
(2.83)
(2.84)
From the q-axis equivalent circuit shown in Fig.2.6, the following equations can
be derived
(2.85)
(2.86)
(2.87)
The stator equations (2.50) can be expressed as
(2.88)
(2.89)
The armature current components id and iq are not independent, but can be
expressed in terms of the flux linkages from Eqs.(2.84) and (2.87).
Combining Eqs.(2.82) to (2.89), we can write in the state space form as
Xe
= [Ae]Xe + [Be1]EJd + [EdUe

Y e = [Ce]Xe
(2.90)
(2.91)
40
where
x! =
[1/!d
1/!q
1/!f
1/!h
1/!g 1/!k
= [Vd Vq ]
Y; = lid iq ]
U:
The nonzero elements of [Ae], [Bed, [Bd and [C e] are defined below.
Remarks
1. The matrix [Ae] has constant elements (ignoring saturation) except for elements Ae{l, 2)
-A e{2, 1)
-w. If the generator rotor speed w is held
41
constant at wo, then [Ae] is a constant matrix independent of the operating

point.
2. If model (1.1) is considered (ignoring damper windings hand k), the equations (2.84) and (2.87) reduce to
(2.92)
'ljJq
,.
Xql q
(x q
x~)
Xq
'ljJg
,.
Xql q -
'
Ed
(2.93)
where E~ and E~ are the d and q-axis components of the fictitious voltage
source and are governed by
(2.94)
dE~ = ~[-E'
dt
T'q
_ ./,
'Pq
x~]
Xq -
(2.95)
3. Magnetic saturation affects all the parameters of the machine. However it

can be assumed that Xd and Xq are affected most. If it is assumed that
leakage parameters in the equivalent circuits shown in Figs. 2.5 and 2.6
are not affected, then Eqs(2.82), (2.83),(2.85) and (2.86) are unaffected by
saturation. Also, the influence of saturation on Eqs.(2.84) and (2.87) is
not significant. Hence in what follows, the effect of saturation will not be
considered explicitly.
4. Many authors use subtransient quantities on the q-axis even though only
one damper winding(say k) is considered. In such cases, it can be assumed
that x~ = Xq and Eq.(2.85) is ignored.
2.6
MODELLING OF EXCITATION CONTROL SYSTEM
There are two IEEE Committee Reports (1968, 1981) which have described
the modelling of the various excitation control systems based on block diagrams. The functional block diagram of an excitation control system is shown
in Fig.2.8.
In Fig.2.8, the load compensation permits the regulation of the voltage at terminals other than the generator. For example, the voltage at an internal bus
can be regulated to enable reactive power sharing among parallel connected
generators. AVR stands for Automatic Voltage Regulator while ESS stands for
Excitation System Stabilizer. PSS stands for Power System Stabilizer which
acts on a control signal derived from rotor speed to damp low frequency oscillations of the generator rotor.
42
VREF+~VERR
--+-"0
Vs
Figure 2.8.
Functional Block diagram of excitation control system
There are three distinct types of excitation systems based on the power source
for the exciter.
1. DC excitation system(DC) which utilizes a DC generator with commutator.
2. AC excitation system(AC) which uses alternators and either stationary or
rotating rectifiers to produce the direct current for the field.
3. Static Excitation system (ST) in which the power is supplied through transformers and rectifiers.
The first two types of exciters are also called rotating exciters which are
mounted on the same shaft as the generator and driven by the prime mover.
A simplified block diagram of a Static (ST) or AC type with controlled rectifier
is shown in Fig.2.9.
The equations for this excitation system are given below.
(2.96)
Ejd
if
VR
< VR < Ejdmax

if VR < Ejdmin
Ejdmin
Ejdmin
= Ejdmax
if
VR
> Ejdmax
43
Ejdmax
KA
1 +sTA
VR
=-;
Ejd
Ejdmin
Figure 2.9.
Simplified block diagram of a static excitation system
The signal Va is the output of Power System Stabilizer (PSS). The modelling
of PSS is considered in chapter five.
2.7
2.7.1
MODelLING OF TURBINE GENERATOR MECHANICAL SYSTEM
General
The rotor of a Turbine Generator (T-G) unit is a complex mechanical system

made up of several rotors of different sizes, each with mechanical shaft sections
and couplings. Turbine sections contain a number of discs which may be integral or attached to the rotor. The length of the rotor system may extend over
50 m and weigh several hundred tons. The system also has a number of smaller
components including turbine blades, rotor coils, retaining rings, blowers and
pumps.
While an exact analysis of the rotor system may require an advanced continuum
model, for the study of torsional interactions, lumped multimass model is adequate [Ramey et al (1980)]. Here each major rotor element (generator, various
turbine stages and rotating exciter) is considered to be a rigid mass connected
to adjacent elements by shafts that are modelled as massless springs. This
lumped multimass model has natural resonant frequencies below the system
(electrical) frequency. The torsional mode oscillations, induced by transient
(such as a sudden change in the air gap torque caused by network switching)
are lightly damped even when torsional interaction with the transmission network is neglected. The total damping forces are due to (A) Steam pressure
on turbine blades (B) bearing friction and windage on shaft elements (C) hysteritic damping in the rotor steel and (D) electrical damping due to generator,
exciter and the transmission network. The first component is dependent on
the generator loading while the last component can be negative. The hysteritic
damping arises due to the energy dissipated in the material subjected to alternating stress.
In what follows, it is assumed that the position of each rotor mass is measured
with respect to a synchronously rotating reference frame rotating at the (angular) frequency woo (Note that in general, Wo "# WB where WB is the base
44
angular frequency}. This can be stated as
0i = wot + eli
(2.97)
where
Oi is the position of a rotor mass 'i' with respect to a stationary reference.
2.7.2
Lumped multimass model
The mechanical system consisting of rotors of generator, exciter and turbines,

shafts can be viewed as a mass-spring-damper system (see Fig.2.10). The equation for the ith mass (connected by elastic shaft sections to mass (i - I) and
mass (i + I)} is given by
M. d2 eli D,deli D~. (deli _ deli-I) D'. (deli _ deli +1)

o dt2 +
0 dt + 0,0-1 dt
dt
+ 0,0+1 dt
dt
+I<i,i-I(eli - eli-d + I<i,i+l (eli - eli+d = Tmi - Tei
(2.98)
Combining all the equations, for a N mass system,
[M]p 2 el + [D']pel + [I<]el = [Tm]- [Te] = T
(2.99)
where [M] is a diagonal matrix, [D'] and [I<] are tridiagonal symmetric ma-
Figure 2.10.
Torsional system with six masses
trices.
[Tm] and [Te] are the N vectors of mechanical and electrical torques. [Te] has
only one non-zero element corresponding to the generator rotor (neglecting rotating exciter). Also, the mechanical torque directly acting on the generator
rotor is zero. It is not difficul t to see that the matrix [I<] is singular (the
45
columns add up to zero). It is to be noted that the damping is usually small

and assumed to be viscous. The inertia Mi is given by
Di
Di=-
. _ 2Hi
M,,
WB
(2.100)
WB
where Hi is the inertia constant defined as Hi =

inertia. Di is the per unit damping coefficient.
~ Js:~' Ji is the moment of
2.7.3 Alternate representation using electrical analogy:

The mechanical system equations can also be written from analogy to an electrical (RLC) network. Defining the per unit slip of a mass (Mi) as
Wi -WB
5i = - - -
(2.101)
wB
We can express
d5i
2Hidt
at =
dw
+ Di(5i -
5io)
wB(5i - 5io)
+ Di,i-d5i -
(2.102)
+ Di,i+d5i - 5i+d
+T;,i-l + Ti,i+l = Tmi - Tei
5i-d
(2.103)
(2.104)
(2.105)
where T;,i-l is torque in the shaft section connecting mass i and (i-I). It is not
difficult to see that the inertia (2H) is analogous to a capacitance, slip analogous
to voltage and torque analogous to current. The spring constant in pu (/{WB)
is analogous to the reciprocal of inductance. The per unit damping coefficient
(D) is analogous to conductance. For the six mass system shown in Fig.2.1O,
the electrical analogue is shown in Fig.2.11. There is no loss of generality in
assuming 5io (slip at the operating point) as zero. Actually, at equilibrium
point all the slips will be equal (50)' If 50 is not zero, it is equivalent to saying
that the voltage of the reference bus in Fig.2.11 is nonzero. This has no effect,
particularly when linearized analysis is done. Note that the state variables for
the network shown in Fig.2.11 are only 11 given by
xt m = [51
52
53
54
55
56
T12
T23
T34
T45
T56]t
(2.106)
The additional state variable (required when writing equations for the electrical system) is c5m (rotor angle corresponding to the generator rotor). The
equation for c5 m is given by
(2.107)
46
Figure 2.11.
An electrical analogue for the torsional system of Fig.2.l0
where Sm is the generator rotor slip. In this formulation (using electrical network analogy) only one rotor angle(corresponding to the generator) belongs to
the set of state variables. Hence, whenever there is no ambiguity, the subscript
'm' can be dropped for the angle and only J is used to denote the generator
rotor angle.
2.7.4
Analysis of the mechanical system from electrical analogy
Considering only small perturbations around the operating (equilibrium) point,

the linearized mechanical system equations are represented by the electrical
network shown in Fig.2.12. The one port passive network consists of only passive elements R,L and C. In deriving this network, the mechanical torques are
treated as constants, hence the current sources corresponding to small variations in these torques vanish. The only current source is t6.Te (connected at the
generator bus).The impedance function (in Laplace domain) at the generator
bus is defined as
(2.108)
If the damping is neglected, the impedance function Zm (s) corresponds to that
of L-C network and can be expressed as [Ternes and Lapatra (1977)]
(s2jJi + l)(s2jJ~ + 1) .... (s2 jJ J.,_1 + 1)
Zm(s) = 2HTS(s2)..i + l)(s2)..~ + 1) .... (s2)..J.,_1 + 1)
(2.109)
47
tJ.Sm
ONE PORT
D_m___-'---2_H_m---{]
PASSIVE
r--__
NETWORK
Figure 2.12.
~T.
Linearized system of Fig.2.11
where
(2.110)
i=1
The poles of this function belong to the set of eigenvalues of the mechanical
system. There are (N-1) complex pairs (with real part equal to zero) given by
Sk
= ..L
= jwk
Ak
k = 1, 2 .... (N - 1)
(2.111)
where Wk is the radian frequency. The zeroes of the impedance function occur
at (radian) frequencies,
Ik
=J.lk
k=1,2, .... (N-1)
(2.112)
It is known from the properties of the impedance function of a L-C network,

that
0<,1 < WI < 12 < w2 < Ik < Wk < IN-I < WN-I
(2.113)
The impedance function of (2.109) can also be expressed as

(2.114)
All the residues ai, i = 1, 2 ... (N - 1) are positive. The impedance function of
(2.114) represents the equivalent circuit shown in Fig.2.13. Here, there are N
impedances connected in series. For torsional mode i, the impedance consists
of an inductance ai in parallel with a capacitance of
parallel combination is given by
A;ai . The equation for this

(2.115)
48
Figure 2.13.
Realization of L.C.impedance function
where 6.Si and 6.6 i are the slip and angle corresponding to the torsional mode
z. 6.Si is the voltage across capacitor (see Fig.2.14). Noting that
(2.116)
we can express Eq.(2.115} as
(2.117)
where Hi =
A;
2ai
is the modal inertia and Ki = _1_ is the modal spring conWBai
stant. The generator rotor slip (and angle) can be expressed as
ai
~
a,
Figure 2.14.
Modal equivalent circuit

N-l
6.Sm
= 6.so + L
6.Si
(2.118)
i=1
N-l
6.6 = 6.6
+L
i=1
6.6 i
(2.119)
49
where /).SO and /).6 are the slip and angle components corresponding to the
mode zero. If damping is present, it is hypothesized that Zm(s) can be represented as the equivalent circuit shown in Fig.2.15. Di is the damping associated
with mode i. The damping associated with mode zero is
(2.120)
n'
Note: Inductance
Figure 2.15.
ai
= WB
-.!...-K.
Realization of R-L-C impedance function
Remarks
l.The mode zero corresponds to the frequency zero (determined from the analysis of the mechanical system alone). However interaction with electrical system
results in a nonzero frequency (normally in the range of 0.2 to 2.0 Hz). The
low frequency oscillations correspond to the mode zero. It is obvious from
Eqs(2.118)and(2.119) that in the absence of torsional oscillations, only zeroth
mode is present in which all the rotors participate equally. As there is no relative motion among rotors (in the absence of torsional oscillations), it is in order
to club all the turbine inertias together with the generator rotor.
2. Some authors model the mechanical system in terms of modal parameters
(inertias, damping and spring constants).One of the reason for this is that
the damping is normally known in terms of modal damping (determined from
decrement tests). Also the 'N' second order equations (for N modes including
mode zero) are all uncoupled.
3. Neglecting damping, Zm(s) has the properties of the immitance function of
a single port LC network. These are
(i)Zm(s) is an odd function ofs, that is Zm(s) = -Zm(-s)
(ii)It has only one simple pole at s=O
(iii)As s-+ 00, there is a zero
(iv)Zm(s) has only simple poles and zeroes; all are located on the imaginary
axis in the's' plane and they are interlaced
50
(v) The residues at all poles are real and positive
2.7.5
Determination of modaJ inertia from transformation
The modal inertia (Hi) and spring constant (l<d of ith mode were defined
earlier in terms of the circuit parameters (see Fig.2.14) determined from the
impedance function Zm (s). This is a novel approach not discussed previously in
the literature. The usual method of obtaining the modal parameters is through
transformation of Eq.(2.99). Neglecting damping, Eq.(2.99) reduces to
(2.121)
where T is the applied torque vector. A transformation defined by
(2.122)
can be substituted in Eq.(2.121) and we get
(2.123)
Premultiplying both sides of the above equation by [Q]t, we have
(2.124)
or
(2.125)
By proper choice of [Q] both [Mm] and [Km] can be made diagonal matrices.
However there is no unique choice of [Q] which has this property (of reducing
[Mm] and [Km] to diagonal matrices).
The transformation matrix [Q] can be obtained from the properties of eigenvectors of real symmetric matrices. A real symmetric matrix (such as [K]) has
only real eigenvectors (corresponding to real eigenvalues) which are mutually
orthogonal. That is if [P] is a matrix whose columns are eigenvectors of a real
symmetric matrix [K'] where
(2.126)
then
(2.127)
where [D 1 ] is a diagonal matrix. As eigenvectors are not unique, the matrix
[D 1 ] is also not unique. It can be made a unit matrix if the Euclidean norm of
each eigenvector is chosen as unity. It can also be shown that
[K'][P] = [p][n]
(2.128)
where [n] is a diagonal matrix of eigenvalues of [K'] which are actually the
squares of the radian frequencies of the torsional modes (w~, k = 1, 2 ... N with
51
= 0 corresponding to mode zero). Premultiplying both sides of Eq.(2.128)

by [P]t we have,
WN
(2.129)
where [n'] is a diagonal matrix. If [Q] is chosen such that
(2.130)
then,
(2.131)
Also,
(2.132)
As [P] is not unique, [Q] is also not unique. However if each vector of [Q]
is selected such that its element corresponding to the generator rotor is unity,
(which is equivalent to selecting each eigenvector of [I<'] with element [Mm] ~ in
the row corresponding to the generator rotor) then [D 1] is the diagonal matrix
of modal inertias. This is because for each mode, the linearized equation can
be expressed as
(2.133)
(Note that I<o = 0, M O = 2HT as superscript
WB
corresponds to mode zero).
Remarks
1. The modal inertias from the above procedure are same as that defined from
circuit parameters.
2. Several publications do not stress the importance of unique choice of [Q]
matrix for the determination of modal inertias. The importance of the choice
is that R.H.S of Eq.(2.133) is same for all the modes (that is each modal
inertia is acted upon by the same (electrical) torque resulting from the generator
interaction with the external electrical network).
3. It can be shown that [Q] is also the matrix of eigenvectors of the matrix
[M]-l[I<]. However the latter is not a symmetric matrix. In general, the
vectors of matrix [Q] are not orthogonal.
4. The radian frequency of torsional mode i is given by
W' = JWBI<j
I
2H'
(2.134)
5. The column vectors of the matrix [Q] are also called as mode shapes. The
elements of a vector determine the participation of different masses (in relation to that of the generator rotor) in a particular mode of torsional oscillations.
52
2.7.6 State equations

The state equations for the mechanical system can be expressed either based on
(a) coupled multimass model or (b}decoupled modal model. Both approaches
will be illustrated by taking an example of a four mass system made up of High
Pressure (HP), Intermediate Pressure(IP), Low Pressure (LP) turbines and the
generator rotor. (see Fig.2.16). There are four masses and three shafts sections.
As described earlier, the number of state variables is eight and defined by,
Xm = [6
Sm
nG
SLP
--
TIL
IP
TLG
LP
--
SHPl t
THJ
;---
THI
HP
TIL SIP
GEN
--
'---
Figure 2.16.
A four mass system
The state equations are given below.

(2.135)
dSm
2HmTt = -(Dm + DLG}Sm
+ nG + DLGSLP -
dTLG
--;u= WB!\'LG(SLP dSLP

2HLP--;U- = -(DLG
Te
Sm)
+ DLP + DIL}SLP + DLGSm +

DILSIP + TIL - TLG + FLpTm
(2.136)
(2.137)
(2.138)
53
(2.139)
dSIP
2HIP----;[t = -(DHI
dSHP
2HHP~ = -(DHP
+ DIP + DIL)SIP + DHISHP +

DILSLP + THI - TIL + FIPTm
+ DHI)SHP + DHISIP -
THI
+ FHpTm
(2.140)
(2.142)
where DHI, DIL and DLG are mutual damping terms associated with shaft
sections connecting HP-IP, IP-LP and LP-GEN respectively. Tm is the net
mechanical torque produced by the prime mover. FHP, FIP and FLP are the
fractions of the mechanical torque (or power) produced by HP, IP and LP
turbines respectively. It is assumed that initial slip (Smo) is zero.
Eqs.(2.135) to (2.142) can be expressed in the compact form as
(2.143)
where Am is a matrix of order 2m x 2m where m is the number of masses, Bml
and Bm2 are column vectors of order 2m.
State Equations Using Modal Quantities
As mentioned earlier, it is possible to transform the system equations into
decoupled form using modal inertias, spring constants and damping parameters.
These equations for the four mass system shown in Fig.2.15 are given below.
To simplify the notation, the modal quantities are denoted by subscripts.
(2.144)
dSo
2H0Tt = -DoSo + (Tm - Te)
dOl
at =WBSl
d~
2Hl Tt
= -DlSl - JilOl
(2.146)
+ (Tm1
- Te )
d0 2
at =W B S2
dS2
2H2Tt = -D2S 2 -
-'
1\2 02
+ (Tm2
- Te)
d03
dS3
(2.147)
(2.148)
at = WBS3
2H3Tt = -D3S3 - Ji303
(2.145 )
(2.149)
(2.150)
+ (Tm3
- Te)
(2.151)
54
+ 51 + 52 + 54
d = do + d2 + d3 + d4
5 m = 50
(2.152)
(2.153)
where Ho, HI, H2 and H3 are modal inertias corresponding to modes zero,
one, two and three respectively. The frequency of mode zero is zero and the
mode three has the highest frequency. Do, D l , D2 and D3 are modal dampings.
T,!, , T;, and T! are defined by
(2.154)
pt = [PHP PIP PLP 0]

Ql, Q2 and Q3 are columns of [Q] matrix (eigenvectors of the matrix [M-l][K]
corresponding to the torsional modes 1,2 and 3). [M] and [K] are defined below
[ M
[ K
1
1
1
WE
2H HP
2HIP
0
0
0
0
2HLP
0
0
0
KHI
[ -KHI
o
o
-KHI
(KHI + KIL)
-KIL
0
0
0
0
2Hm
0
-KIL
(KIL+KLG)
-KLG
The eigenvectors of [M]-1 [K] are chosen such that their last elements (corresponding to generator rotor angle) are all equal to unity.
Eqns.{2.144) to (2.153) can be written in the generic form
where the non zero elements of [Am], [Bmd, [B m2 ] and [Cm] are given below
Am{l, 2)
Am{4,4)
Am{5, 6)
Am{7, 8)
Bmd2)
-fit
= WE,
Am{2, 2) =
Am{3,4) = WE,
= -1ft, Am{4,3) =-1ft
= WE, Am (6, 6) = - fit, Am{6, 5) = -!t
= WE, Am{8, 8) =
Am{8, 7) =-!ft
= 21
0 ,
q'F
Bmd4)
*,
-!tt,
Bml(6)
=~
Bml(8) = ~
Bm2(2) = 2Ilo Bm2(4) = 2Ill Bm2(6) = 2Il2
Bm2 (8) = 2Il3
Cm (1, 1) = Cm{l, 3) = Cm{l, 5) = Cm{l, 7) = 1
C m (2, 2) = C m (2, 4) = C m (2, 6)

It is to be noted that
Do
= C m (2, 8) = 1
= DT = DHP + DIP + DLP + Dm
Ho = HT = HHP
2.8
55
+ HIP + HLP + Hm
MODELLING OF TURBINE AND GOVERNOR
An IEEE Committee Report (1973) has described the modelling of steam turbine system and also the generic model of the speed governor. The simplified
block diagram for a tandem compound, single reheat steam turbine system is
shown in Fig 2.17. The general model for the speed governor for the speed
turbine system is shown in Fig.2.18.
f-----+.., L
+
+
Figure 2.17.
Block diagram of a steam turbine model
-J5-
Pmax
~w
K(1+sT2)
l+sT,
Pup
T3
r
J
Pdown
1
s
J
Pmin
Figure 2.18.
General model of speed governor for the steam turbine
Pev
56
The steam turbine model represents the delays introduced by the storage of
steam in the steam chest, reheater and crossover piping. FHP, F[p and FLP
are the fractions of the total turbine power developed, in the HP, IP and LP
turbines respectively. The typical values of FHP, F[p and FLP are 0.3. 0.3 and
0.4 respectively, the sum adding to unity. Typical values of T CH , TRH and Tco
are
TCH = 0.1- 0.4
TRH = 4 - 11
Tco = 0.3 - 0.5
The speed governor for steam turbine can be either (a) mechanical-hydraulic
type or (b) electro-hydraulic type. The diagram shown in Fig.2.18 can represent either type with suitable choice of parameters. For example, for electrohydraulic governor, typical values of parameters are Tl
T 2 , T3
0.025 0.158, K = 20
2.9
MODElLING AND ANALYSIS OF THE MECHANICAL AND

PRIME MOVER SYSTEM
The models for the steam turbines and the speed governor described in section 2.8 can be combined with the multimass model of the T-G rotor system
described in section 2.7 to give the combined model of the mechanical and
prime mover system. For the analysis of SSR involving torsional interactions,
the model needs to be linearized around an operating point. This is equivalent to ignoring the limiters in the block diagram representation of the prime
mover system involving turbines and the speed governor. The linearized system
equations can be expressed in the compact form as
(2.155)
(2.156)
where
Yk
= [~o ~Sml
In general, it can be said that due to the slow response of the prime mover
system, it is adequate to ignore its dynamics and assume that the mechanical
power is constant for the analysis of SSR.
Example 1
Consider a hydrogenerator with only two rotor masses- the generator and the
hydraulic turbine. The rotor system equations are
_1 [2H t
WB
o ] [ 4.~ ] + _1
2Hg
WB
+[
[Dt + Dtg
-Dtg
Ktg
-K tg
(2.157)
57
Defining the transformation matrix [Q] as
(2.158)
The unknown element q1t can be determined from the constraint equation that
(2.159)
where [Mm] is a diagonal matrix. If,
Dg _ Dt
Hg
Ht
(2.160)
it can be shown that [Q]t[D][Q] is also a diagonal matrix, where [D] is the
matrix of damping coefficients. It can be observed that [Q]t[K][Q] is always a
diagonal matrix irrespective of the value of q1t. The constraint equation (2.159)
can be satisfied only if
Hg
(2.161)
q1t = - - =-n
Ht
Hence, the modal inertia for the (only) torsional mode is given by
Hl
= n2Ht + Hg = n(Ht + Hg) = nHo
(2.162)
where H 0 is the inertia for mode zero. It can be also derived that the modal
damping Dl is given by
(2.163)
where Do = D t + D g , is the damping of mode zero.
The decrement factor O"ml for the torsional mode is given by
(2.164)
The ratio of generator to turbine inertia, n varies from 7 to 30 for hydro units
with Kaplan turbine. For units with Francis and Pelton wheel turbines, n varies
from 10 to 40. [Andersson et al (1984)]. This implies that the modal inertia for
a hydro unit is high (see Eq. 2.162). This is advantageous in that the electrical
damping which can be negative with series compensated lines and HYDe links,
is reduced. This results from the fact that the decrement factor from electrical
damping, O"el is given by
O"el
TDe
= -4Hl
( 2.165 )
where TDe is the damping torque (coefficient). For similar values of TDe, 0" el is
reduced as H 1 increases. This explains the fact that SSR has not been observed
on hydro units. In the past, it was argued that as the frequency of torsional
mode is around 10 Hz or less, the torsional interactions do not occur with series
58
compensation at practical levels (not excuding 70%). However, while it is true

that the torsional frequency of the Kaplan unit is in general 10 Hz or less,
for the Francis and Pelton wheel units, it lies between 10 and 24 Hz with an
average around 18 Hz.
Remarks
1. It is to be noted that in general, that the damping of torsional mode Dl is
greater than the damping of zeroth mode.
2. The torsional mode frequency is given by
(2.166)
If Ho remains constant,
H-!b.
1 n .
It is unaltered if
n. However, in this case,
Example 2
This example is taken from IEEE First Benchmark Model (1977). The data for
this single machine infinite bus (SMIB) system are given in Appendix A. The
columns of transformation matrix [QJ are calculated as normalized eigenvectors
of the matrix [MJ-l[KJ with elements of each eigenvector corresponding to the
generator rotor set equal to unity. The columns of [QJ are shown in Table
2.2. The sixth column has all its elements equal to unity and corresponds to
mode zero. It is to be noted there is a sign change in the elements of column
(corresponding to the torsional mode 1). There are two sign changes in column
two, three sign changes in column three, four sign changes in column 4 and
five sign changes in column 5. The modal quantities (frequencies, inertias and
spring constants) are shown in Table 2.3. It is interesting to observe that the
modal inertia is highest for mode 5 and least for mode 1. It is to be expected
that mode 1 undamping resulting from any torsional interaction will be most
severe. The inertia of mode 5 is so high that it is unlikely to be affected from
TI.
Table 2.2 The Transformation Matrix [QJ
I Rotor I Column
#1
HP
IP
LPA
LPB
GEN
EXE
-2.0824
-1.5644
-0.9178
0.2993
1.0000
2.6806
Column
#2
-2.9408
-1. 7303
-0.4019
1.0571
1.0000
-26.7648
Column
#3
6.0260
2.0624
-1.3839
-0.5753
1.0000
-1.5206
Column
Column
#4
-1.3927
0.0700
0.8103
-1.6117
1.0000
-0.6072
#6
176.64
-224.25
25.399
-4.7335
1.0000
-0.2119
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
Mode
#1
Table 2.3
Modal Quantities
I Mode
#2
Mode
I #3
I Mode
#4
Mode
Mode
#5
#0
Frequency
(rad/sec)
Inertia
98.7248
126.9921
160.5289
202.8517
298.1878
0.00
2.70
27.80
6.92
3.92
11297
2.894
Spring
constant ([(i)
139.627
2376.4
945.894
856.303
5328600
0.00
(Hi)
2.10
59
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR MODElLING FOR TRANSIENT

SIMULATION
It was mentioned in chapter 1 that the study of transient SSR is best carried
out by transient simulation of the system including the detailed model of the
synchronous generator. Electromagnetic Transients Program (EMTP) is well
suited for this purpose. Although this program was originally developed for the
study of lightning and switching transients [Dommel(1969)], the program has
been extended subsequently to incorporate detailed model of the synchronous
generator for the study of SSR. [Brandwajn and Dommel (1977), Gross and
Hall (1978), Lauw and Meyer (1982)].
The synchronous machine equations are, in general, nonlinear and time varying. The solution of synchronous machine equations along with the network
equations require a suitable interface technique. Several interface techniques
have been reported in the literature. These can be classified as those which do
not requires prediction of the voltages or currents at the generator bus [Gross
and Hall (1978)]' and those which require the prediction of voltage or current
[Brandwajn and Dommel (1977), Gole et al (1984)]. In the first category of
the interfacing techniques, the principle of superposition is used to include the
effect of the synchronous machine on the network.
If the stator of a synchronous machine can be represented by an equivalent
circuit, this will simplify considerably, the problem of interfacing the machine
and network. Ramshaw and Padiyar (1973) presented such a model where the
stator of synchronous generator is represented by constant (subtransient) inductances [(] in parallel with current sources Is which are dependent on the
rotor flux linkages (see Fig 2.19). The inductances matrix [L~] is naturally a
constant matrix if L~ = L~ (there is no subtransient saliency). However, if
L~ f. L~, the matrix can still be made constant by introducing a dummy coil
along the rotor of the q-axis. The mutually coupled stator inductances can
be included as part of the external network in the same manner as any other
mutually coupled three phase branch.
The current source Is is given by
(2.167)
60
ic
,------------------------------------+-----0
ib
,------------------+-----0
Figure 2.19.
Equivalent circuit of stator
where,
= A[COS(J
st = A[Sin (J
211"
2311")
cos((J
+ "3)]
(2.168)
sin( (J _ 2;)
sin ((J
+ 2311")]
(2.169)
cos((J -
Id = C}1/!,
+ C21/!h
Iq = C3 1/!g + C4 1/!k
(2.170)
+ C5 1/!c
(2.171)
Xc is the self reactance of the dummy coil which can be chosen as x q.1/!c is the
flux linkage of the dummy coil. [L~] is defined by
1
1
1+
2Ld
/I
_1
1
3_1
2
(2.172)
61
where Lo is the zero sequence inductance and L~ is the d-axis subtransient

inductance.
Rotor Electrical Equations
The equations for the rotor flux linkages can be written in the state space form
as
(2.173)
where
(2.174)
The nonzero elements of the [ARJ and [BRJ matrices are given below.
AR(1,2) = wBRJxJ~
XJXh -
x Jh
AR(2,2) = _ wBRhX~
XJXh-xJh
A R (3,4) = WBRgxg~
XgXk -
Xgk
AR(4,4) = _ wBRkX~
XgXk -
Xgk
A R (5,5) = - Tc
B R(1, 1) =
wBRJ(XhXdJ - :dh X Jh),
BR(1, 3) =
wBRJ
x J x h - x Jh
x dJ
BR(2, 1) =
WBRh(XJXdh - 2xJhXdJ)
XJXh-xJh
BR(3, 2)
= wBRg(XkXqg XgXk -
BR(4, 2)
:qkXgk)
Xgk
= wBRk(XgXqk XgXk -
BR(5, 2) =
2XgkXq9)
x gk
Jxc(x~
x~)
Interface with the Network Model

By including the constant [L;J with the network, the overall network equations
(including the machine stator) can be expressed as
[YJV(t) = I(t)
where [YJ is the nodal conductance matrix
V(t) is the column vector of nodal voltages at time t
I( t) is the column vector of injected current sources including I.
(2.175)
62
There is need for prediction of I.(t) which involves the prediction of Id(t), Iq(t)
and B(t). Linear prediction, defined below, of these quantities works well.
Ired(t) = 2Id(t - h) - Id(t - 2h)

Ired(t) = 2Iq(t - h) - Iq(t - 2h)
Bpred(t) = wa t + d'pred(t)
d'pred(t) = 2d(t - h) - d'(t - 2h)
where h is the step size.
Since the predictions of Id(t) and Iq(t) in turn involve the predictions of the rotor flux linkages which vary slowly (as they are not directly affected by network
switching) the interface technique using the circuit model of the synchronous
machine is inherently better and more robust than the technique which involve
the prediction of stator currents, voltage or flux linkages. The prediction of the
generator speed is also avoided in this method as speed voltages do not appear
explicitly in the equivalent circuit of the generator stator. This feature along
with the handling of subtransient saliency using a dummy coil, simplifies the
interface between the generator and network considerably.
The generator model and the interfacing technique has been studied by Senthil
(1990). The results indicate the following.
1. The interfacing technique is inherently numerically stable with time steps
as large as 1 ms. Gross and Hall (1978) suggest using 100 fJS as step size to
avoid numerical problems.
2. The time constant Tc of the dummy coil is to be selected as an arbitrarily
low value to avoid errors. A value of Tc = 0.1 ms gives reasonably accurate
results.
3.1
MODELLING OF THE ELECTRIC

NETWORK
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the modelling of the elements of the AC network, external

to synchronous generators, is discussed. The AC network primarily consists of
transformers, transmission lines, shunt and series reactive compensation devices
and loads. In power system modelling, a transformer is represented by leakage
impedances connected in series. Shunt reactors, shunt and series capacitors are
also represented by linear impedances.
In recent times, FACTS Controllers are embedded in the AC network for
improvement of power transfer, system stability and voltage regulation. The
modelling of these devices will be considered in chapters 7 and 8. In this
chapter, only passive components of the AC networks are considered. The
equations for the 3-phase AC network are linear and time-invariant. However,
to interface with the generator and FACTS models, it is desirable to express the
equations on Kron's (synchronously rotating) reference frame. These equations
can be derived conveniently from stationary, decoupled Q' - f3 sequence networks
obtained by applying Clarke's transformation. In this chapter, procedure for
obtaining both state equations and impedance functions are described. The
latter are useful in frequency domain analysis. The problems of interfacing
generator and network models are also discussed.
64
3.2
3.2.1
TRANSMISSION LINES
General
Transmission lines are basically distributed parameter devices. For the study
of fast switching transients, it is necessary to model them in some detail. For
example, the frequency response of a line can be approximated by cascaded
connection of 11" networks - a lumped parameter model. However for power
system dynamic performance studies involving frequencies below fundamental
(synchronous frequency), the representation by a single 11" circuit is adequate.
As a matter of fact, for studies involving low frequency transients, the transmission lines can be assumed to be in quasi-steady state - the voltages and
currents can be assumed to be sinusoidal with slowly varying amplitudes and
phase angles.
A basic assumption in the modelling of three phase transmission lines is
that they are symmetric. This implies that the self impedances of all the three
phases are equal. Also, the mutual impedances between any two phases are
equal. An additional assumption is that the line parameters are constant - the
network is linear. It can be shown that, in steady state, a symmetric three
phase linear network connected to synchronous generators has only fundamental frequency voltages or currents. On the other hand, a lack of symmetry leads
to unbalanced currents (with negative sequence components) which can result
in third harmonic voltage generation.
The symmetry is disturbed during unbalanced faults such as single line to
ground or line to line faults. However, their duration is brief and the presence
of harmonics can be neglected.
3.2.2
Modelling of transmission network
A single phase 11" equivalent of a transmission line is shown in Fig. 3.1. However
it is to be noted that the coefficient matrices, inductance [L] the resistance [R]
and capacitance [C] are all 3x3 matrices. These are defined as
2-
[L]
~rvvY\
VI
T2
Figure 3.1.
1c]
12
[R]
IVVV\
2T
llCI
2
0
A single phase 11" equivalent of a transmission line
MODELLING OF THE ELECTRIC NETWORK
Ls
[LI = [ Lm
Lm
Lm
L.
Lm
Lm
Lm
L.
[R] =
[ Rm
R,
Rm
[el =
C.
[ Cm
C.
Rm
R.
Rm
Cm
C.
Cm
65
Rm]
Rm ,
R.
Cm
Cm
C.
The network equations are

d
d: + [R]i = Vl -
[L]
(3.1 )
V2
(3.2)
(3.3)
where Vl, V2, i 1, i2 and i are three dimensional vectors, with phase variables as
elements. For example,
t
[.
ib ieJ,
v 1 - Vl a Vlb Vl e]
v~ = [V2a V2b V2e]
l
la
t _ [
3.2.3
Transformation to D-Q components
If generator is described by variables in d-q components, using Park's transformation, it stands to reason that the external network equations should also be
expressed in d-q components. However, there is one problem and that is Park's
transformation is not unique and each generator has individual d-q components
(corresponding to the individual transformation).
For a connected network, it is obvious that the entire network is to be
transformed using a single transformation with reference to a common, synchronously rotating reference frame. Such a transformation is termed as Kron's
transformation defined as
[ ~: 1= Ii [ cos(Bo - 2f)
cosBo
cos(B o +
fe
where f1 Qo = [JD
fQ
fo]
2f)
sinBo
sin(Bo sin(Bo -
J'2
2f) Vi1
2f) 1
Vi
(3.4)
66
f can be any variable, voltage or current. 80 is defined
as
(3.5)
where Wo is the operating (synchronous) frequency in the network in steady
state and, is a constant. The difference between Kron's transformation [GK]
and Park's transformation [Gp] lies in 80 being replaced by 8 in Park's transformation. 8 is defined by
(3.6)
It is to be noted that 0 is dependent on the generator and not a common
variable. [GK] is defined such that
(3.7)
In other words, [GK] is an orthogonal matrix and satisfies the condition for a
power invariant transformation.
The relationship between Park's transformation [Gp] and [GK] is given by
(3.8)
where
[Td =
COSO
-sino
si no
coso
0
0
0
1
(3.9)
It is to be noted that [T1 ] is also an orthogonal matrix. Actually, [Td defines

the transformation between Park's and Kron's variables, as
(3.10)
where fd, fq are Park's components and fD, fQ are Kron's components (with
respect to a synchronously rotating reference frame).Note that subscripts D,Q
are associated with Kron's transformation. This convention will be followed
throughout.
Applying Kron's transformation to Eq. (3.1) results in
(3.11)
L1
diQ
dt -
WoLllD
dio
L 0dt
+ RllQ =
+ R'oZo = V10 -
V1Q -
V20
V2Q
(3.12)
(3.13)
67
The last equation can be neglected if no zero sequence voltages are present.
L 1 , R1, Lo and Ro are defined by
= L& - L m ,
R1 = R& - R m ,
= L& + 2Lm
Ro = R& + 2Rm
L1
Lo
It is to be noted that L1 and R1 are positive sequence (or negative sequence)

quantities. Applying Kron's transformation to Eqs. (3.2) and (3.3) gives
dV1D
woe
.
2'Ie1 ~
+ 2 1VIQ = ZlD -
.
ZD
(3.14)
Ie1
dVIQ
woe
.
.
- - - - I VID=ZIQ-ZQ
(3.15 )
Ie
(3.16)
dt
2'
dV2D
1~
woe
+2
1 V2Q
.,
ZD - %2D
1 dV2Q
woe
.,
(3.17)
1-- - 1V2D = ZQ - Z2Q
2
dt
2
The zero sequence variables are normally neglected and their equations can be
omitted. e 1 is positive sequence capacitance given by
-
Denoting
i = iQ
+ jiD,
VI
VIQ
+ jVlD,
V2
V2Q
+ jV2D
(3.18)
Eqs. (3.11) and (3.12) can be expressed as

L I di
dt
"
. L)~
o I Z = VI
+ (R I + JW
"
- V2
(3.19)
(3.20)
From Eq. (3.10)' we have
cosd/d + sind/q
-sind/d + COSd/q
From (3.20), we can obtain
(3.21)
From (3.21), we can express (3.19) as
. L )~/l
("'
o 1 Z = VI
dt + J.dd
dt L 1 Z~I + (R I + JW
[L 1 di'
where
"')
- V2
(3.22)
68
Simplifying (3.22) we get

d~1
Z
L I dt
. L I )~IZ = VI + (R I + JW
'I
'I
V2
(3.23)
where
W
do
Wo
+ dt
Eq. (3.23) can also be derived directly from applying Park's transformation.
Eq. (3.21) is a very useful relation and can be represented by a phasor diagram
shown in Fig. 3.2.
D
Figure 3.2.
3.3
Phasor diagram showing relationship between d-q and D-Q variables
TRANSFORMATION USING a -
{3
VARIABLES
Stationary three phase symmetric networks can be decoupled through transformations involving constant real matrices. The most well known among these is
Clarke's transformation using Q' - f3 variables. Using a power invariant transformation given by
(3.24)
where
o
[Gc] =
J3
1
J3
1
73
+ Cl
69
Cl
o~_la_T~2____________2_T~_~a~o
(a) a- sequence network
i
-.1lL.
~
+
L1
rvvV\.
Rl
_I...c;~_ _
o~V_l~__-r-L__~_l________________~_l_-rL-_~__~~O
(b) (3- sequence network
Figure 3.3.
Sequence circuits for network of Fig. 3.1
Eq. (3.1) is transformed to three decoupled equations given below

(3.25)
(3.26)
(3.27)
The advantage of using Clarke's a, (3, 0 components is that a three phase

network is transformed to three decoupled networks, 'a',' (3' and zero sequence.
Out of these, the' a' and' (3' networks are identical and zero sequence network
can be generally neglected (in the absence of zero sequence currents). Thus,
the circuit shown in Fig. 3.1 is transformed to two decoupled circuits shown
in Fig. 3.3. Although the two circuits are identical, it is to be noted that the
currents and voltages are different in the' a' and' (3' circuits.
The transformation from a(3o to DQo components is given by
(3.28)
70
where
sinO o
cosO o
It is to be noted that [T2J is similar to [Td in that c5 is replaced by 00 , It is

not difficult to see that transformation from a{3o to dqo component is given by
(3.29)
where
cosO
-sinO
[T,l = [
3.4
sinO
cosO
STATE EQUATIONS
The advantage of using a{3 variables for a stationary network is that the state
(differential) equations for the network can be obtained on a single phase basis.
For the single phase' a' network, the general state equations are
(3.30)
where X a are the state variables which consist of inductor currents and capacitor voltages (Note that only those inductors which form part of cotree (links)
and capacitors which form part of tree are considered). The equations for' (3'
network can be expressed as
(3.31)
The structure of Eq. (3.31) follows from the fact that' {3' network is identical
to the 'a' network. Ua and U{3 are input variables (in a,{3 components) which
may include voltage and current sources in the network. It is convenient to
apply D-Q transformation to Eqs. (3.30) and (3.31). Expressing Xa and X{3
in terms of X D and XQ as
COSOoXD + sinOoXQ }
-sinOoXD + cosOoXQ
(3.32)
the transformed network equations are
XD
= [AnJXD -
XQ = [AnJXQ
+ [Bn]UD
(3.33)
+ WoXD + [BnlUQ
(3.34)
woXQ
71
where UD and UQ are input variables transformed to D-Q components. Equations (3.33) and (3.34) can be combined and expressed as
(3.35)
t -- [X Dt X Q'
t]
where X N
[BN] = Diag[Bn
t -- rutD
UN
Ub]
Bn] and
(3.36)
[I] is a unit matrix of dimension equal to size of the vector Xa or Xf3 (XD
or XQ). The dimension of [AN] is twice the dimension of [An]. The following
theorem relates the eigenvalues of [AN] and [An].
Theorem: The eigenvalues (AN) of the matrix [AN] are related to the
eigenvalues (An) of the matrix [An] by the following relation.
(3.37)
The eigenvector v'N for the eigenvalue (An - jwo) of the matrix [AN] is given
by
V'N
= [v n
The eigenvector vt for the eigenvalue (An
vt
= [v n
(3.38)
jVn]t
+ jwo)
is given by
- jVn]t
(3.39)
where Vn is the eigenvector of [An] for the eigenvalue An

Proof: Given that [An]v n = Anvn,
it is easy to verify that
AnI
[ Wo
-Awol] [ ~n ]
n
JVn
= (An _ jwo)
] = (An +jwo)
~n
JVn
(3.40)
and
[ An
woI
-woI] [
An
(3.41)
Example 1
Consider the a-sequence network shown in Fig.3.4. This can represent a series
compensated transmission line which is connected to a generator at the sending
end and an infinite bus at the receiving end. Ia is the a-sequence component of
the generator armature current and Ea is the a-sequence component of the infinite bus voltage. Cp represents the positive sequence line charging capacitance.
The state equations are
72
Figure 3.4.
(}- sequence network
. (it
=c
~
~
J'Jh - rl( - R'
*"
VC",
l 'l ",
+ V'" - VC", ) - &L
l",
J (f", -
(3.42)
i",)
Eq.(3.42) can be expressed in the form of Eq.(3.30) with

x~
[ An
= [vc",
l:[~~
U",
i", v",],
~
_RWB
~
XI
be
XI
-~
bep
1'
[ B"
= [I",
E",]t
1: [ :
bep
0
-~
XI
where b ep = WBCp , XI = wBL, be = WBC. It is to be noted that Eq.(3.30)

is unaltered even when per unit quantities are used.
The final equations in D-Q components are expressed as follows
where
X~ = [vcn vCQ
u~
The nonzero elements of [AN] are
in iQ
= [In
IQ
Vn
vQ]'
En
EQ]
WB
AN(3, 1) = - - ,
Xl
RwB
AN(3, 3) = - - ,
AN(3, 4)
Xl
AN(4,2)
= _WB ,
Xl
AN(4,3)
WB
AN(4,6) =-,
Xl
= -Wo,
=WO,
AN(5,3)
AN(3, 5)
AN(4,4)
= - WB
b'
cp
WB
AN(6,4)=-b'
ep
73
= WB
-Xl
= -RwB
Xl
AN(5,6)
= -WO
AN(6,5)=wo
The nonzero elements of EN are
It is be noted that ID and IQ are D and Q components of the generator armature current which are related to the Park's components by the relation (3.20)
or(3.21).
Example 2
In this example, the 0: sequence network is assumed to be derived from Fig.3.4
by omitting Cp. In this case, neither Vo: or io: can be treated as a state variable.
The only state variable is Vc 0: and the state equation is
dvco: _ ~I
dt - C 0:
(3.43)
The state equations in D-Q components are
dVCD
- - = -wovcQ
dt
+ WB
-.
ID
be
(3.44)
(3.45 )
The voltage components at the generator bus, VD and vQ are computed from
VQ + jVD = (R+ jwoL)(IQ + jID) +sL(IQ + jID) + (vcQ + jVCD) + (EQ + JED)
(3.46)
By noting that
(3.47)
we can also obtain
Vq+ jVd = (R+jwL )(iq+ jid)+sL(iq +jid)+( vCQ +jVcD )e- j6 +(EQ +JED )e- j6
(3.48)
74
3.5
INTERFACE BETWEEN THE NETWORK AND GENERATOR
In chapter 2, the generator electrical equations were expressed as
Xe =
[Ae]Xe
+ [BedEJd + [BdUe
Ye = [Ce]Xe
(3.49)
(3.50)
where
x! = [tPd tPq tPJ tPh tPg

U! = [Vd vq ], Y; = lid
tPk]
iq ]
In example 1 given in the previous section, Ue can be expressed as

(3.51 )
where VD and vQ form the subset of the state variables XN. [P] is the transformation matrix defined from Eq.(3.20} as
[P] = [c~sc5
smc5
-Sinc5]
(3.52)
cosc5
It is easy to see that current sources ID and IQ, which are treated as input
variables for the network, are expressed as
(3.53)
while Eq.(3.53} is still applicable for the network of Example 2, Eq.(3.51} is
not applicable in general, unless there is a shunt capacitor at the generator
terminals.
In general, The input vector Ue can be expressed as
(3.54)
where
[Zg] = [
Req
-wLeq
wLe q ]
Req
With reference to example 2, we have Req = R
(3.55)
Leq = Land
[F n] = [c~sc5 -sinc5 cos c5 - sin c5 ]

9
sm c5
cos c5
sin c5
cos c5
75
Example 3
Consider a simple system shown in Fig.3.5,where two generators are connected
by a single line which is modelled by a series impedance only (no shunt connected elements). In this system only one generator can be viewed as a current
source for the network. This implies that Eqns. (3.49) and (3.50) cannot always be used.
A convenient solution to this problem is to interchange the input and output
variables (Ue and Ye ) for the reference generator. This implies that the stator
equations are not viewed as state equations, but only as equations defining
the generator terminal voltage. The state variables for the reference generator (electrical system) are reduced to the set of rotor flux linkages only. The
equations are
(3.56)
GENl
8----+---'
Figure 3.5.
GEN2
1---+--8
A two generator system
(3.57)
where Uer = [i dr iqr

For the network shown in Fig.3.5, treating generator 2 on the reference generator, Eqs (3.56) and (3.57) apply to the reference generator. The generator 1
is represented by Eqs.(3.49) and (3.50) with Ue defined by Eq.(3.54). Here ED
and EQ are replaced by VDr and vQr (D and Q components of the terminal
voltage of the reference generator) which are given by
(3.58)
3.6
3.6.1
IMPEDANCE FUNCTIONS
General
In frequency domain analysis, the impedance functions of the network as viewed

from the generator terminals (or internal bus) is of significance. The impedance
can be expressed with respect to Kron's synchronously rotating reference frame
(D-Q ) or stationary reference frame(a - (3). It is to be noted that if Park's
reference frame has the same speed as Kron's reference frame ( if the generator
rotor speed is constant) then the impedance functions in both reference frames
are identical. This follows from Eq.(3.21) and if 0 is constant (say 00) there is
76
no loss of generality in putting 00 = O.
z.(p)
z.(p)
fJ -sequence
a -sequence
a -
Figure 3.6.
3.6.2
fJ
sequence networks
Impedances in D-Q axes
In a - fJ sequence networks (which are uncoupled), the following equations

apply relating voltages to currents (see Fig. 3.6)
Va = Z. (p)i a
(3.59)
(3.60)
where p =
Taking Laplace transforms on both sides of Eq.(3.59) and (3.60), we get
= Z.(s)Ia(s)
(3.61 )
Vj3(s) = Z. (s)Ij3 (s)
(3.62)
Va(S)
The D-Q components of the voltages are related to a - fJ components by the

relations
VD
= Va cos {)o -
vj3 sin {)o,
vQ
= Va sin {)o + vj3 cos {)o
(3.63)
Taking Laplace transforms on both sides of the above equation, we get (noting
that ()o = wot)
VD(S) =
~(Va(S -
jw o) + Va(s + jwo)]- 21j (Vj3(s - jw o) - Vj3(s + jwo)] (3.64)
VQ(s) = 21. (Va(s - jw o) - Va(s + jw o)] +

J
From the above equations, we get
~(Vj3(s 2
jw o) + Vj3(s + jw o)] (3.65)
VQ(S) - jVD(S) = -jV,,(S - jw o) + Vfj(S - jw o)
77
(3.67)
Substituting Eqs. (3.61) and (3.62) in the above equations, we get
VQ(S)
+ jVD(S)
= jZ.(s + jWo)I,,(s + jwo) + Z.(s + jWo)Ifj(s + jwo)

= Z.(s + jWo)[IQ(s) + jID(s)] (3.68)
(3.69)
In deriving the above equations, we have used the following expressions which
are analogous to (3.66) and (3.67)
IQ(s)
+ jID(s) = jI,,(s + jw o) + Ifj(s + jw o)
IQ(s) - jID(s) = -jI,,(s - jw o) + Ifj(s - jw o)
(3.70)
(3.71)
From Eqs. (3.68) and (3.69), it can be seen that Z. (s- jw) is complex conjugate
of Z.(s + jw) and we get,
ZDD(S) = ZQQ{s) =
~[z.(s -
ZDQ(S) = -ZQD(S) =
jwo) + Z.(s
+ jwo)] =
Re[Z.(s - jwo)] (3.72)
~[z.(s-jwo)-z.(s+jwo)] = -Im[Z.(s-jwo)]
(3.73)
As stated earlier, if 0 = 00 = constant, the expressions for impedances in

d-q axes are identical those in D-Q axes.
3.6.3
Derivation of equivaJent phase impedance from D-Q Axes impedances
Given the network impedances in D-Q axes, the identification of the phase
impedance (in stationary reference frame) is straight forward if the impedances
satisfy the relations
If the above relations are not satisfied, what is implied is that if sinusoidal balanced currents of frequency w flow in the network, other frequency component
is also present. This will be clear from the following analysis. Let the currents
in a and j3 sequence networks be
i"
= I coswt,
ifj
= -I sinwt
(3.74)
Then,from Eq.similar to (3.63),we have
iD = I cos(w - wo)t,
iQ = -I sin(w - wo)t
Since,
(3.75)
VD(S) = ZDD(s)ID(s)
+ ZDQ(s)IQ(s)
(3.76)
VQ(s) = ZQD(s)ID(s)
+ ZQQ(s)IQ(s)
(3.77)
78
in steady state, the voltages vD(t) and vQ (t) are sinusoidal quanti ties expressed
by phasors
+ jZDQ[j(W - wo)]}I = ADLD

VQ = {ZQD[j(W - wo)] + jZQQ[j(w - wo)]}I = AQLQ
VD = {ZDD[j(W - wo)]
(3.78)
(3.79)
In time-domain,vD(t) and vQ(t) are given by
VD(t) = AD cos[(w - wo)t + D] }

vQ(t) = AQ cos[(w - wo)t + Q]
(3.80)
Substituting Eq.(3.80) in the expression for (va:) given below

va:
= VD cos Bo + vQ sin Bo
(3.81)
we obtain
AD
va:(t) = T[cos(wt
+ A2Q [sin(wt
+ D) + cos[(2wo - w)t - DJ]
(3.82)
+ Q) + sin[(2wo - w)t -
(3.83)
QJ]
Considering only the component offrequency w, Va: can be expressed as a phasor

given by
(3.84)
where Z. (jw) is the equivalent impedance per phase and can be derived by
substituting Eqs.(3.78) and (3.79) in (3.84) as
1
Zs (jw) = "2 [ZDD [j(w-wo)]+ZQq[j(w-wo)]+j[ZDq[j(W-Wo)]-ZQD [j(w-w o)]]]
(3.85 )
Remarks
I.The injection of currents of frequency w also result in voltages of frequency

(2wo - w) in addition to the voltages of frequency w
2.1t is not difficult to see that the expressions (3.72) and (3.73) are consistent
with (3.85)
3.7
SIMULATION OF ElECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS
The simulation of transients in a nonlinear system is invariably carried out

digitally using numerical integration of the differential equations representing
the system. There are two categories of numerical methods, namely
1. Explicit
2. Implicit
In explicit methods, the algorithm gives an explicit solution of state vector, Xk
79
at the end of kth step, given the initial condition at the beginning of the step.
Implicit methods in general, require the solution of algebraic equations for the
calculation of X k . The algebraic equations are linear if the differential equations
are linear and nonlinear otherwise. Although, this requires more computation
per step, in general, implicit algorithms are numerically stable and allow larger
step size. In stiff systems, where both slow and fast dynamics are present,
the considerations of numerical stability require very small step sizes if explicit
algorithms are used. If only slow transients are of interest, implicit algorithms
are computationally efficient as larger step sizes can be used.
Trapezoidal rule is a second order implicit algorithm which has been widely
used in power system simulation. Given the differential equation.
x = f(X, t)
(3.86)
the algorithm is given by

(3.87)
where h is the step size, tk-l is the instant corresponding to the beginning of
the kth step, while tk is the instant corresponding to the end of h step.
For a linear system defined by
x = [A]X + [B]U
(3.88)
the trapezoidal algorithm is given by

(3.89)
Eq.(3.89) is a linear equation in X k which can be solved by any standard
algorithm (say, LV factorization). For an electrical network made of R-L-C
elements, the formulation of state equations is not a trivial task, particularly
for large systems. The network topology needs to be considered in the choice of
state variables. This can be cumbersome. Dommel (1969) proposed a methodology for component modelling which can overcome this problem.
Lumped inductors or capacitors are modelled as resistors in parallel with current sources dependent on past history. For example, for a linear inductor, the
current i(t) is given by,
i(t) =
~
L
it
v(r)dr
t-h
+ i(t -
h)
(3.90)
where v(t) is the voltage across the inductance L. Applying trapezoidal rule of
integration, Eq.(3.90) reduces to
i(t) =
2:
[v(t)
+ v(t
- h)]
+ i(t
- h)
(3.91)
Eq.(3.91) represents an equivalent circuit shown in Fig.3.7. In Fig.3.7, the
80
,--------------.---------------0
I~
I(t-h)
Figure 3.7.
i(t)
2L
h
Equivalent circuit for an inductor
2f
inductor is represented by a resistor of value

in parallel with a current source
I(t-h) which is determined from the current and voltage across the inductor at
the previous instant. I(t-h) is defined by
I(t - h) = i(t - h)
+ 2~ v(t -
(3.92)
h)
Similarly, by applying trapezoidal rule of integration to the equation of a linear

capacitor.
v(t) = -1
C
it
t-h
i(r)dr + v(t - h)
(3.93)
we can derive an equivalent circuit shown in Fig.3.8. Here, the resistor value is
2~ and the current source I(t-h) is defined by
I(t - h)
= _[2C v(t h
h) + i(t - h)]
(3.94)
For a given network made up of R, Land C elements, the individual Land C

0
~2~
let-h)
i(t)
Figure 3.B.
Equivalent circuit for a capacitor
elements can be modelled by equivalent circuits. The overall network becomes

resistive and is described by
[G]v(t) = I.(t) - I(t - h)
(3.95)
81
where J.(t) is vector of current sources impressed at the nodes, v(t) is the vector of node voltages to be solved and J(t - h) is the vector of 'history' terms.
Eq.(3.95) can be solved by triangularization of the matrix [G] with ordered elimination and exploitation of sparsity. If some node voltages are known, Eq.(3.95)
can be simplified by considering only those nodes whose voltages have to be
solved.
Remarks
1. Dommel's approach to the modelling of the network elements is incorporated
in the ElectroMagnetic Transients Program (EMTP) which is widely used for
transients simulation.
2. Although it appears that this approach avoids the problem of formulating state equations based on the network topology, the problem is not really
solved. This is because of the fact that while the trapezoidal rule filters out
high frequency currents in inductances connected to voltage sources, it also
amplifies high frequency voltages across inductances in situations when currents are forced into them. In the first case, the trapezoidal rule works as an
integrator, for which it performs well, whereas in the second case it works as a
differentiator for which it performs badly. The problem shows up as numerical
oscillations in cases where the derivative of the current changes abruptly (for
example, when a current is interrupted in a circuit breaker)
3. The above discussion shows that EMTP may not be suitable in the simulation of power electronics equipment involving switches. Often, snubber circuits
(across switches) are modelled in EMTP, not for its own sake, but to overcome
numerical oscillations.
4.1
ANALYSIS OF SSR WITH FIXED

SERIES COMPENSATION
INTRODUCTION
It was mentioned in chapter 1 that series compensated transmission lines connected to turbogenerators can result in Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR) in
which both Induction Generator Effect (IGE) and Torsional Interaction (TI)
can occur. In this chapter, the analysis of SSR with fixed series compensation
is presented. Both frequency domain and eigenvalue analysis are presented
with examples. The IGE is first investigated using frequency scanning method
followed by TI using damping torque analysis. The state space formulation enables a detailed consideration of both phenomena simultaneously. An iterative
algorithm for computing the torsional modes is proposed, which is computationally attractive.
Countermeasures for SSR problem with fixed series compensation are outlined
at the end of the chapter.
4.2
ANALYSIS OF INDUCTION GENERATOR EFFECT: FREQUENCY

SCANNING METHOD
4.2.1
A simplified analysis
Consider a synchronous generator connected to an infinite bus through a series

compensated transmission line as shown in Fig.4.1. If it is assumed that the generator is modelled by a constant voltage source behind a transient reactance(x')
84
Figure 4.1.
A series compensated system
then the equivalent circuit of the system of Fig.4.1 is shown in Fig.4.2. It is

assumed that R is the sum of line resistance RE and the resistances of the
armature and transformer. Xt is the leakage reactance of the transformer.
Following any disturbance, a transient current will flow in the generator ar-
x'
E g La
Xt
Xc
Figure 4.2.
Equivalent circuit of the system of Fig. 4.1
mature (and the transmission line) given by the following expression

(4.1 )
where
Jk;B
a= - 2x.
Wn =WB
f!:
c
-,
Xs
X.=XE+Xt+ X'
(4.2)
(4.3)
(4.4)
is the base (rated) system frequency in rad/sec. A and j3 are determined

from initial conditions. If a is small, then Wer ~ W n .
The value of the decrement factor a can be determined from observing the
WB
85
ANALYSIS OF SSR WITH FIXED SERIES COMPENSATION
transient and measuring the amplitudes of successive cycles of oscillation. Experimentally, it is observed that 0:' is in general less than the value given by
Eq. (4.2).Sometimes, it may even be negative. This phenomenon occurs even
when the generator speed is considered to be a constant and is termed as the
Induction Generator Effect (IGE).
To understand IGE, it is not adequate to model the generator stator by a
voltage source in series with an impedance. It is necessary to consider the differential equations given by
1 d1/Jd
Wo
- - - - -1/Jq = Vd
WB dt
WB
1 d1/Jq
WB dt
Wo
WB
- - - + -1/Jd =
(4.5)
(4.6)
Vq
Taking Laplace transforms of the Equations (4.5) and (4.6) we can express
them as a complex equation given by
(4.7)
(It is to be noted that armature resistance is neglected for convenience.)

For machine model (1.1), flux linkages are given by
(4.8)
' . - E'd
= Xqlq
.1.
'Pq
If it is assumed that x~
(4.9)
= x~ = x', then
(4.10)
The rotor electrical equations are given below
dE~ = -1, [ -Eq,

-d
t
Tdo
+ ( Xd
.
- Xd, ) ld
dE~
1 [ , (
--;It
= T'
-Ed - Xq
qo
+ EJd 1
(4.11 )
, ). ]
- Xq lq
(4.12)
Assuming T~o = T~o = T~ and Xd = Xq = x, for simplicity, we can express

Equations (4.11) and (4.12) (using Laplace transforms) as
,
.,
(x - x') (
-Ed + JEq = (sT~ + 1) Iq
.)
jEJd
(4.13)
+ J1d + (sT~ + 1)
Combining Equations (4.10) and(4.13) and substituting in (4.7), we can obtain,

.)['
(x-x')](
- ( s + JW o x + (sT~ + 1) Iq
.)
+ J1d
j(s+jwo)
(
(sT~ + 1) EJd = Vq
.)
+ J Vd
WB
4.1
4)
86
From Equation (4.14) it is observed that the armature currents (Iq

encounter an impedance given by
()_(s+jw o)[,
(x-x')]
dq s wB
X + (sT~ + 1)
+ j1d)
(4.15)
(Note that the negative sign in Equation (4.14) results from the fact that (Vq +
jVd) is a voltage rise in the direction of the current). It is shown (in chapter 3)
that the impedance in the d-q reference frame is related to the impedance in
the stationary (say Q' - f3 sequence) reference frame, Z. as follows
(4.16)
Substituting Equation (4.16)in equation (4.15), we get
Z ()
s [ ,
= WB
(x - x')
+ (s - jWo)T~ + 1)
(4.17)
L of the
In the above expression, the first term represents the inductance WB
equivalent circuit of Fig.4.2. The second term in the impedance is given by
Z()
.2 S -
s(x-x')
WB[(S - jWo)T~
It is not difficult to see that at a frequency

negati ve resistance gi ven by
(4.18)
+ 1]
below w o , the impedance has
R _ _ w(x - x')
(wo -w)T~
WB
(1 + [(wo - w)T~]2)
(4.19)
The magnitude of the resistance is zero when W = 0 and W = Woo It has a

maximum value at some intermediate frequency. It can also be shown that
IR.I--+O as T~--+oo. This implies that in the absence of the damper winding and
when flux decay(in the field winding) is neglected, IGE does not exist. It is to
be noted that the use of the classical model (of the synchronous machine) of a
voltage source behind a constant impedance implies that flux decay is neglected.
4.2.2
Detailed anaJysis of IGE
A simplified analysis of IGE was given in the previous section to explain the
phenomenon. The assumptions of Xd
x q , x~ x~ and T~o T~o were made
in the simplified analysis. Also, the generator was represented by model( 1.1).
In what follows, a detailed model(2.2) is considered. The only assumption is
that the rotor is running at constant speed Wo'
The stator flux linkages 'lid and 'lI q (in Laplace domain) are given by
(4.20)
87
For model (2.2), the transfer functions Xd(S),Xq(s) and G(s) are given by
(4.22)
(s) - -;xq.:...(:.....1_+-::s::c-T-7~7)(:.....1_+_s=T,-2~-:'-/)
q - (1 + sT~o)(l + sT~~)
G( )
(1
(4.23)
(1 + sT~~)
+ sT~o)(l + sT~~)
(4.24)
T~~ is a time constant determined from the d-axis equivalent circuit. The other
time constants and reactances are well known. Substituting Equations (4.20)
and (4.21) in (4.7) we get
-(s+jw o)[Xq(s)Iq(s)+jXd(s)Id(s)]-j(s+jwo )G(S)EJd(S) = WE [Vq(S)+jVd (s)]

(4.25)
From Equation (4.25), we can derive
= z;!-Xd(S) , Zdq(S) = ~Xq(s)

Zqd(S) = -;;:;xls) , Zqq(s) = w'Bxls)
Ed(S) = - WSB G(s)EJd(s)
Eq(s) = ;;:;G(S)EJd(S)
It is to be noted that, in general Zdd(S) # Zqq(s)
where Zdd(S)
and Zdq(S) # -Zqd(S)

Thus, it is not possible to get a single complex equation from Equation( 4.26).
The phase impedance (encountered by armature currents) at a frequency w can
be derived as [see chapter 3]
Zs (jw) =
21 [Zdd(j(w -w o)) +Zqq(j(w -w o)) +j[Zdq (j(w -wo)) -
Zqd(j(W -wo))]]
It is observed that the real part of Zs(jw) is negative when w < woo
4.3
(4.27)
ANALYSIS OF TORSIONAL INTERACTION(TI)
A major component of the generator, that needs to be modelled in order to

study TI is the mechanical system which is the source of torsional modes. To
simplify the analysis, it is in order to ignore IGE by neglecting damper windings and flux decay.
88
4.3.1
Synchronizing and damping torque
In chapter 2, it was shown that the linearized mechanical system can be represented by one port passive network made up of R-L-C elements(see Fig. 2.15).
The admittance function of this network is defined as Ym(s) where
(4.28)
The input variable for the (linearized) mechanical system is !:l.Te which is
obtained from the electrical system equations. In the Laplace domain, the
electrical torque !:l.Te can be related to the generator rotor slip by
!:l.Te
(
!:l.Sm (s) = Ye s)
(4.29)
The combined system (mechanical and electrical) is represented (at the generator port) as shown in Fig.4.3. The equation for this equivalent network is
given by
(4.30)
where the system eigenvalues are solutions of the scalar equation
Figure 4.3.
Combined system (mechanical and electrical)
(4.31)
For the eigenvalues corresponding to torsional modes, the following approximate equations are applicable
(4.32)
where
Wk
is the frequency of the
kth
torsional mode. Actually,

(4.33)
89
where TDe and TSe are the damping and synchronizing torque coefficients (calculated from the analysis of the electrical torque). Similarly, one can define
.)
()
.TSm(Wk)
Ym ( JWk = TDm Wk - J
WB
Wk
(4.34)
Substituting (4.33) and (4.34) in (4.32), one gets

TS(Wk)
= TSm(Wk) + TSe(Wk) = 0
(4.35)
The above equation determines the oscillation frequencies. In general, TSe has
very little effect on the zero crossing of Ts (which determines the oscillation
frequencies corresponding to torsional modes). The instability of a torsional
mode (Wk) is determined from the criterion
(4.36)
The above equation is equivalent to the net decrement factor (iT) being negative,
that is
(4.37)
where
iT =
:;i' Hi
is the modal inertia. The Eq.(4.37) is approximate and assumes
that the oscillation frequency is unaffected by the electrical system [Canay

(1982)]
4.3.2
A simplified analysis
In SSR phenomenon ,the torsional interaction (TI) is much more important and
complex than the induction generator effect. Thus it is convenient to ignore
the flux decay, damper circuits and transient saliency in the analysis of TI.
Assuming that the generator rotor oscillates (about a constant speed of
Wo )sinusoidally, the per unit speed (w) is given by
w = Wo + Asinwmt
(4.38)
where Wm is the oscillation frequency of the rotor about a synchronously rotating axis in radians per seconds. The single phase equivalent circuit (0' sequence) of the generator stator is shown in Fig.4.4.
This consists of a voltage source (e a ) behind a transient inductance.e a is given
by
(4.39)
e a = wE' sin(wot + 0)
Since
do
dt
= (w -
Wo)WB
substituting from Eq.(4.38) gives
0= 00
AWB
(--)
Wm
coswmt
(4.40)
90
L'
Figure 4.4.
a-sequence stator equivalent circuit
If it is assumed that the amplitude (A) of the rotor oscillation is very small,the
induced voltage in the stator,e a , consists of three sinusoidal components, one
of frequency fo,and other two components of frequencies fo fm .This follows
from substituting Eqs.(4.38) and (4.40) in (4.39) and noting that
AE'
AE'
ea(t) = woE' sin(wot + 6) + -2- cos[(w o - wm)t + 6]- -2- cos[(wo + wm)t + 6]
(4.41)
We also note that
AE'
-2- cos[(wo - wm)t + 6]
>:::i
AE'
-2- cos[(wo - wm)t + 60 ]
AE'
-2- cos[(wo + wm)t
>:::i
AE'
-2- cos[(wo + wm)t
and,
+ 6]
+6
0]
Also,
woE' sin(wot
= woE' sin(wot
+6
0 ) -
+ 6) >:::i woE'[sin(wot + 6 + (6 0 )
woAE' {cos[(w o - wm)t + 60 ]

2w m
60 ) cos(wot
+6
0 )]
+ cos[(wo + wm)t + 6
Thus,
ea(t)
= woE' sin(wot + 6
0 ) -
AE' (wo - wm ) cos[(w o - wm)t + 60 ]
2w m
AE'
---(wo + wm ) cos[(w o + wm)t
2w m
(4.42)
+6
0]
The voltage source ef3 in the (3 sequence equivalent circuit is given by
ef3
= wE' cos(wot + 6)
(4.43)
91
Substituting for W from Eq (4.38),in the above expression,we get

e{3 = woE' cos(woHt5)- A:' sin[(w o-w m )Ht5]+ A:' sin[(w o+w m )Ht5] (4.44)
The first term on RHS is given by
(wot + 15 )
' cos(wot + 150 )
= woE
woE'cos
= woE' cos(wot + 15 0 )
AE'w o sm
. (wot + ~
+ ---
0 0
Wm
+ AE'wo {sin[(w o + wm)t + 15 + sin[(w o 0]
2w m
) coswmt
wm)t
+ t5o]}
Thus,
(4.45)
The subsynchronous frequency component of the voltage source,e", is

(4.46)
It can be easily derived that
e~ub =
2AE' (wo - wm ) sin[(w o - wm)t

Wm
+ 15
0 ]
(4.47)
When these voltages are applied to the 0: and (J sequence networks respectively,the subsynchronous frequency currents flow(in steady state) and are given
by the expression
(i~ub
If Z(s) = R + Ls
+ ji~ub) = Z-l[j(w o _
wm)](e~ub
+ je~ub)
(4.48)
+ Js
Z[j(wo - wm)] = R + j[(wo - wm)L - (
Wo
_1
Wm
)C] = ZsubL<Psub
Note that L includes L', the transient inductance of the generator. If the
resonance frequency fer defined by
fer
= 2Ti"fLC
is close to (fo - fm),the impedance is small.It is resistive when(fo - fm) = fer

and capacitive when fer> (fo - fm),otherwise it is inductive (when fer <
(fo - fm)). The d-q components of the currents are given by
( 4.49)
92
From Eqs.(4.46)-(4.48), we have
i~ub(t) = -
2 A~ (w o - wm ) cos[(w o - wm)t
wm sub
+ do -
lsub]
i~ub(t) =
2 A~ (w o - wm ) sin[(w o - wm)t + do - lsub]

wm sub
Substituting Eqs. (4.50) and (4.51) in (4.49), we get
(4.50)
(4.51)
(4.52)
The component of the torque T:ub, due to subsynchronous frequency currents,is
given by
Tesub
(Wo = E' tq'sub = - 2A(E')2

Z
wm sub
) . (
Wm sm wmt
The supersynchronous frequency voltage components

supersynchronous frequency currents given by
e~up
A..)
+ '!'sub
and
e~up
(4.53)
results in
(4.54)
.sup
tfj
=2
AE'
Z
(wo+wm)sin[(wo+wm)t+do-lsup]
Wm sup
(4.55)
where ZsupLlsup is the network impedance at supersynchronous frequency

,viewed from generator (internal) bus. The magnitude of Zsup tends to be
large compared to Zsub and lsup is usually positive(the impedance is inductive) .
The quadrature axis components (i~UP)due to the supersynchronous currents
can be obtained as
(4.56)
The component of the torque due to the supersynchronous currents,T:up is
given by
'sup _ A(E')2 (
Tesup -_ E' Zq
- 2
Z
Wo
Wm sup
. (wmt - '!'sup
A..)
+ Wm ) sm
(4.57)
Note that both torque components ,T: ub and T:up have same frequency Wm ,the
frequency of oscillation of the generator rotor. The damping torque coefficient
TDe is given by
(E')2 [(wo - wm )
A..
(wo + wm )
A..
]
T De -- --2-Z
COS'!'sub Z
cos'!'sup
wm
sub
sup
(4.58)
93
The net damping tends to be negative due to the fact that

Z.ub Zsup and
tP.ub ~ 0 while tPsup ~ 90 0
in series compensated system when a torsional oscillation frequency is approximately equal to the complement of the electrical resonance frequency ,that
IS
10 - 1m ~
ler
(4.59)
FigA.5 shows the phasor diagram giving the position of the torque components
in relation to the rotor velocity. What is interesting is that the supersynchronous
frequency currents in the network give rise to positive damping torque(although
of small amplitude).It is the subsynchronous frequency components of network
currents that cause negative damping.The smaller the oscillation frequency
,higher is the negative damping. Thus the first torsional mode(with the smallest
frequency) can cause the most severe problem if the network impedance is
minimum at that mode.
tP.ub
Figure 4.5.
Phasor diagram
Remarks
1. In the literature,[Kilgore et al (1977)] the negative damping introduced by
the torsional interaction is expressed as
(4.60)
where G is the conductance of the electrical network viewed from the generator
bus defined as G(wo - wm ) = Re[Z-l[j(wo - wm )]. H m is the modal inertia
corresponding to frequency Wm .It is not difficult to see that the above expression is derived from Eq.4.58 by assuming E' ~ 1.0 and neglecting the positive
damping introduced by the supersynchronous frequency currents.A better approximation to the damping (decrement) factor (J' e is
(4.61)
94
ANALYSIS OF SUB SYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
2. The negative damping, measured in terms of the decrement factor (u e )

due to the electrical system is also dependent on the modal inertia and the
frequency in addition to the conductance of the network at the subsynchronous
frequency.
3. If passive shunt compensation is used instead of the series compensation, it
is possible to damp the torsional modes. This is due to the fact, the electrical
resonant frequency shifts to supersynchronous range with fixed shunt capacitor.
4.3.3 An alternative derivation using immittance functions

The electrical torque (~Te) as a function of the change in the per unit rotor
speed (~Sm) can be derived from the knowledge of the impedance functions in
the D-Q axes.
For the simplified generator model considered in section 4.3.2, the change in
the electrical torque can be expressed as
(4.62)
From the relation,
iQ cos 6 + i D sin 6
(4.63)
we can derive
(4.64)
where
There is no loss of generality in assuming the operating value of 6 = 60 as

zero. Hence, Eq.(4.64) can be simplified as
(4.65)
At the generator internal bus, the following equation applies (assuming that
the generator is connected to an infinite bus through a passive impedance)
(4.66)
where,
~eD
=E
sin60~Sm
Wo
+ -E
WE
cos60~6
(4.67)
(4.68)
95
AeD and AeQ are derived from the fact that the generator voltage (at the
internal bus) has only a q-axis component (e q ) given by
and eq is related to eD and eQ by
eD = eq sin 15
eQ = eq cosJ
Assuming 150 = 0 (as before), we get
Wo
'
AeD = - E AJ
(4.69)
= E'ASm
(4.70)
WB
AeQ
YDD, YDQ, YQD and YQ Q are the admittance functions and can be expressed as
(see chapter 3)
YDD(S)
YDQ(S)
= YQQ(s) = ~[Y(s + jwo) + Y(s -
= -YQD(S) = ~[Y(S -
jwo)
jwo)]
(4.71)
+ Y(s + jwo)]
(4.72)
where
Y(S) = Z-l(s)
(4.73)
and Z(s) is the impedance function (per phase) viewed from the generator internal bus.
Since,
AJ
= WB ASm
S
(4.74)
we can derive the expression for AiQ as

Wo
AiQ(s) = [YQD(S)S
+ YQQ(s)]E ' ASm
(4.75)
Substituting Eqs.(4.71) and (4.72) in (4.75) we get

E'
AiQ(s) = 2s [(s - jwo)Y(s - jwo)
+ (s + jwo)Y(s + jwo)]ASm
(4.76)
From Eqs.(4.62) and (4.65), we can derive
(E')2
- --[(wo-w )G(wo-w) -(wo+w)G(wo+w)] (4.77)
2w
96
where
G(wo - w) = Re[Y(j(wo - w))]

G(WO + w) = Re[Y(j(wo + w))]
The damping torque coefficient (TDe) evaluated for a particular torsional mode
of frequency, Wm can be obtained by substituting w = Wm in Eq.(4.77). It can
be observed that the expression for TDe given above is identical to that given
in Eq.(4.58).
Remarks
1. The derivation for TDe given here for the simplified generator model can
be extended to the case of the detailed generator model. This can be done
by noting that the total impedance viewed from the generator internal bus is
the sum of generator and the network impedance. In d-q axes, the generator
impedances are defined from Eq.(4.26). However, this approach is cumbersome
and will not be pursued. Instead, it is convenient to derive the transfer function
Ye(s)
from the state equations of the electrical system.
2. In general, the electrical system equations can be expressed as
= :J:(t.l),
XE = [AE]XE + [BEM]YM
YE = !:l.Te = [CMelxE
(4.78)
(4.79)
where
x~ = [x~ x~ XN],
yk = [!:l.d'
From Eq.(4.74), we can write
YM = [
!:l.~m
!:l.Sm]
] = [
i ]
!:l.Sm
m(s)!:l.Sm
(4.80)
From Eqs. (4.78) to (4.80), we can derive

(4.81 )
where
~1
m(s) = [ ]
The details of the various matrices are given in the next section.
4.4
4.4.1
STATE EQUATIONS AND EIGENVALUE ANALYSIS
Analysis of Induction Generator Effect
To isolate the Induction Generator Effect from Torsional Interactions, it is convenient to assume that the generator rotor speed is constant. Hence only the
97
electrical equations are to be considered for analysis.In the absence of magnetic

saturation and neglecting excitation system(treating Eld as constant) the system equations are linear.
The system equations are defined from putting together the equations for
the synchronous machine (rotor electrical) and the external network. These
equations are reproduced below from chapters 2 and 3.
(4.82)
Ye = [CelXe
XN = [AN1XN
(4.83)
+ [BNdEb + [BN2]UN2
YN = [CN1XN
(4.84)
(4.85)
where
UN2 can be expressed as
(4.86)
where
[ p ] =
-sino]
smo coso
[c~so
(4.87)
If the ac network is as shown in Fig.3.4 with a shunt capacitor connected at

the generator terminals, it is possible to express
(4.88)
In this case, Eqs. (4.82) to (4.88) can be combined and expressed as

XE = [AE] XE
+[
BOl ] Eld
+ [ B~l
] Eb
(4.89)
where
x1 =
[X!
XJvl
and
(4.90)
The stability of the system is determined by the location of the eigenvalues of
matrix [AE]. The system is stable if the eigenvalues are stable. It is to be noted
that when the generator rotor speed is constant, [Pl is a constant matrix. It
can be shown that the eigenvalues of [AE] are independent of the value of o.
Hence it is convenient to assume that 0 = 0 and in this case [Pl becomes a unit
98
matrix of order two.

A Special Case
When there is no shunt capacitor is connected at the generator terminals (as in
Fig.4.1), Eq.(4.88) is not applicable. For the network of Fig.4.1, the following
equations apply
[
~c
D ]
vCQ
[0 -wo]
0
(4.91)
Wo
~: ] =
WXL ] [
RL
[
cosJ
sin J
~d ] + XL
lq
- sin J ] {[
cosJ
WB
Vc D ]
vCQ
1,f
]+
Tt
+[
(4.92)
0 ] Eb}
1
where RL and XL are the series resistance and inductive reactance seen from the
generator terminals.lt is to be noted that Eq.(4.92) is similar to the Eq.(3.54)
in chapter 3. After substituting for the derivatives of the armature currents, it
is possible to express Ue in the following form
Ue = [F][G]Xe
+ [F][P]{YN + [ ~b
]}
(4.93)
where
[F] = [/2 - XL [Ce][Bdtl
(4.94)
[G] = [ZL][Ce] + XL [Ce][Ae]
(4.95)
wB
WB
[ZL] = [
[YN] = [
l!:L
-WXL
vCD ]
VCQ
WXL]
RL
(4.96)
= [CN]XN
(4.97)
In this case, [CN] is a unit matrix of order two.

The network and the generator (electrical) equations can be combined to give
(4.98)
where
[AEl ] = [Ae] + [Bd[F][G]

[AE2] = [Bd[F][P][CN]
[A E3 ] = [BN][P]t[C e]
[A E4 ] = [AN]
BN
= [ WBXC
o
WBXC
Beb = [Bd[F][P] [
99
Example 1
Consider IEEE FBM, the data for which is given in Appendix A. The eigenvalues of 8X8 matrix [AE] are shown in Table 4.1. This also shows the eigenvalues
for the case with the generator model (1.1).
Table 4.1 Eigenvalues of [Ae]

Model (2.2)
Model (1.1)
Comments
-4.7112 j 616.5856
-2.7675 j 137.4162
-0.9665
-4.3197
-20.3930
-33.1394
-4.4189 j 612.3871
-3.2675 j 141.5400
-0.9589
-4.1916
Supersynch. mode
Subsynch. mode
The result shows that there are two network modes (a) Subsynchronous and
(b) Supersynchronous. The sum of the frequencies of the two modes add to
2fa as their frequencies are given by fa fer where , fer in the frequency of
the series resonance in the network. The frequency (fer) can be approximately
evaluated as
c
(4.99)
fer = fa
+
~
XL
Xg
where
Xg
= Xd~Xq
for machine model (1.1)
= x~ ~x~
for machine model (2.2)
The difference in the real parts of the eigenvalues corresponding to supersynchronous and subsynchronous modes arises from the Induction Generator Effect. It is seen that model (1.1) gives optimistic results on the negative resistance introduced by IGE.
The influence of the series compensation level on the IGE is shown in Table 4.2
which gives the network modes as a function of the series capacitor (xc).
100
Table 4.2 Network modes as a function of Xc
Xc
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
I Subsynchronous Mode I Supersynchronous Mode

-4.0610
-3.8786
-3.6974
-3.5040
-3.2902
-3.0479
-2.7675
-2.4366
-2.0385
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
286.5116
248.9655
220.1662
195.8918
174.5094
155.1826
137.4162
120.8897
105.3842
-4.5301
-4.5857
-4.6231
-4.6517
-4.6748
-4.6943
-4.7112
-4.7260
-4.7393
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
467.4484
504.9972
533.8001
558.0792
579.4679
598.8043
616.5856
633.1358
648.6800
It is interesting to observe that the damping of the subsynchronous mode

continues to decrease while that of the supersynchronous mode increases slowly
as Xc is increased. In general, IGE is expected to cause self excitation only at
high levels of series compensation.
IGE is also a significant function of the quadrature axis (open circuit) time
constant. The network modes as a function of Xc are shown in Table 4.3 when
T~o = 0.085 s instead of 0.85 s.
Table 4.3 Network modes as a function of Xc (T~o=0.085)
Xc
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
I Subsychronous Mode I Supersysnchronous Mode I

-2.7676 j
-1.8881 j
-1.0293 j
-0.1341 j
0.8260 j
1.8699 j
3.0096 j
4.2469 j
5.5655 j
288.1034
251.3094
223.1370
199.4519
178.6663
159.9813
142.9413
127.2715
112.8049
-5.0799
-5.3567
-5.5425
-5.6841
-5.7989
-5.8955
-5.9789
-6.0522
-6.1176
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
465.7574
502.6424
530.9375
554.7892
575.8020
594.7985
612.2674
628.5270
643.7982
The results show self excitation occurring at Xc > 0.20. The negative damping of the subsynchronous mode goes on increasing with increase in Xc.
4.4.2
Analysis of torsional interaction (TI)
The analysis of Torsional Interaction requires the modelling of the mechanical

system in addition to the electrical system. Also, since the overall model is
nonlinear, the analysis requires the linearization of the models for the study of
self excitation.
101
Mechanical System Equations

The linearized mechanical system equations (using multimass or modal model)
can be expressed as (see chapter 2)
XM = [AM]XM + [BM]~Te
YM = [GM]XM
(4.100)
(4.101)
where XM is the state vector of small perturbations in the mechanical system

variables ( inclusive of the rotor system, turbine and governor). YM is defined
as
(4.102)
The per unit electrical torque acting on the generator rotor is given by
(4.103)
Te = t/idiq - t/iqid
Linearizing Eq. (4.103), we get
~Te
iqo~t/id
= [iqo - idol [
+ t/ido~iq -
~~;
= [Get]xe
t/iqo~id
ido~t/iq
+ [-t/iqo t/ido] [
~~;
+ [-t/iqo t/ido] [Ge]Xe

= [Gmelxe
where Xe =
~Xe
(4.104)
and
(4.105)
The nonzero elements of [Get] are defined by

Get (1) = iqo , Get (2) = -ido
Electrical System Equations
In the previous subsection, the excitation system was ignored. The linearized
equations of the excitation system (including AVR, exciter and PSS) can be
expressed as
Xr = [Ar ]Xr + [Br ]u e + [Brm]YM

Yr = ~Efd = [Gr]Xr
(4.106)
(4.107)
where U e = D..Ue. Combining Eq. (4.106) with linearized Eqs.(4.82) and (4.83),
we get
[ !: ] = [~e
B~~r] [ ~:
+[
IJ;r2 ] U e +
B~m
] YM
(4.108)
This can be written as
Xer = [Aer]xer + [Bedu e + [Ber1]YM

Yer = [D..id D..iq]t = [Ger]xer
(4.109)
(4.110)
102
where
[C er ] = [Ce 0]
If the generator is connected to an infinite bus through a series R, L, C network, Eq.(4.92) applies. It can be shown that the combined state equations
(including the network model) can be obtained using Eqs. (4.109) and (4.110).
In deriving the linearized state equations, both c5 and Sm are to be treated as
variables. The final equations can be written as follows.
(4.111)
where
xk
= [x!
x~ x~]
= [x~r
x~], XN
= ~XN
[AE] = [AEI
AE3
AE2]
AE4
[AEd = [Aer] + [Ber2 ] [F][G 1]

AE2 = [Bed[F][P][CN]
AE3 = [BN][p]t[Cer ]
AE4 = [AN]
The matrix [F] is defined by Eqn. (4.94). [GI] is defined by
[G I ] = [ZL][Cer ] + XL [Cer][Aer]
wE
(4.112)
The matrix [BEM] can be expressed as

(4.113)
where
(4.114)
BE2 has two columns. The first column is given by
Bb = [
Ber2F[DP]{CNXNo + [
BN[Dp]tCerXerO
The second column of [BE2] is given by
ib ]} 1
(4.115)
103
where
X ero and XNO are the operating values of vectors Xer and XN. It can be shown
that the nonzero elements of [DAer] and [DZd are given by
DAer(1,2) = -WB, DAer(2, 1) = WB
DZL(l, 2) = XL, DZL(2, 1) = -XL
Combined System Equations
Equations (4.100) and (4.101) can be combined with Eq.(4.111) to give the
total state equations. ATe can be expressed as
(4.117)
where
[CME] = [Cme 0 0]
The final system equations can be expressed in the compact form
(4.118)
where
x~ = (xk
x:W-]
The eigenvalues of the matrix [AT] indicate system stability at the operating
point considered.
Example 2
The IEEE FBM model is taken up for study. The data are given in Appendix
A. The mechanical damping is assumed to be zero. The eigenvalues [AT] matrix
are calculated for three cases, namely
(i) No load (Pb = 0, Qb = 0)
(ii) Full load (Pb = 1, Qb = 0)
(iii) Case (ii) with static exciter modelled with KA
200, TA 0.025 s
The excitation system is modelled by
KAA\!t]
(4.119)
A\!t = Vdo AVd + Vqo AVq
(4.120)
AEJd = TA [-AE Jd
vto
\!to
104
The system matrix [AT] is assembled as described above. The elements of the
matrix are functions of the operating point (which needs to be computed from
power flow analysis). The calculation of initial conditions of the system state
variables is described in Appendix B. The eigenvalues of [AT] for the three
cases considered are shown in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4 Eigenvalues of [AT]
Full Load
(Pb=1.0)
-4.712 j 616.62
0.000 j 298.18
0.001 j 202.86
0.023 j 160.38
-2.899 j 136.93
0.046 j 127.18
0.020 j 99.71
-1.562 j 10.42
-33.141
-20.288
-1.216
-0.966
-4.712 j 616.64
0.000 j 298.18
0.000 202.79
0.032 j 160.26
-2.981 j 136.69
0.080 j 127.27
0.057 j 99.99
-0.631 j 11.23
-32.943
-20.371
3.883
-0.268
I Full load
with AVR
-4.707 j 616.67
0.000 j 298.18
-0.001 j 202.80
0.027 j 160.26
-2.396 j 137.11
0.053 j 127.26
0.003 j 99.93
-0.120 j 11.56
-38.903
-20.289
-2.820
-19.920
j 21.59
Comments
Supersyn. Mode
Torsional Mode 5
Torsional Mode 4
Torsional Mode 3
Subsyn. Mode
Torsional Mode 2
Torsional Mode 1
(Swing) Mode 0
Exciter Mode
It is interesting to observe that while the network modes (particularly the

subsynchronous) are damped, the modes 1 to 4 are undamped due to TI. The
effect of full load is to marginally increase the negative damping of the critical
torsional modes. However, the mechanical damping is least for the no load
condition. Interestingly, the effect of the AVR is to marginally reduce the negative damping of the torsional modes while reducing significantly the damping
of mode zero or the low frequency swing mode. This latter effect is well known
and will be discussed in chapter 5.
To summarize the results, it is adequate to study TI at no load conditions,
neglecting AVR as this will not only simplify computations, but also represents
the worst conditions as the mechanical damping is the least for the no load
conditions.
Effect of Series Compensation

The effect of series' compensation is considered by varying the compensation
level from 10% to 90%. The eigenvalues of [AT] are computed for the no load
conditions. The network and the torsional modes are shown in Table 4.5 and
4.6 for different values of xc. (from 0.05 to 0.45 pu) excluding for Xc = 0.35,
which is already given in Table 4.4.
105
Table 4.5 Network and Torsional Modes

xc=0.05
xc=O.lO
xc=0.15
xc=0.20
-4.532 j 467.47
-4.071 j 286.42
0.000 j 298.18
-0.011 j203.07
-0.013 j 160.62
-0.055 j 126.97
-0.031 j 99.15
-1.011 j 8.45
-4.587 j 505.02
-3.900 j248.77
0.000 j 298.18
-0.003 j 203.13
-0.012 j 160.63
-0.055 j 126.97
-0.031 j 99.19
-1.075 j 8.70
-4.624 j 533.83
-3.788 j219.70
0.000 j 298.18
0.059 j 203.32
-0.010 j 160.66
-0.054 j 126.97
-0.030 j 99.23
-1.146 j 8.98
-4.652 j 558.11
-3.880 j 196.24
0.000 j 298.18
0.331 j 202.39
-0.001 j 160.72
-0.054 j 126.98
-0.029 j 99.29
-1.228 j 9.28
Table 4.6 Network and Torsional Modes

xc=0.25
xc=0.30
xc=0.40
xc=0.45
-4.675 j 579.50
-3.420 j 174.12
0.000 j 298.18
0.004 j 202.82
0.070 j 160.93
-0.053 j 126.99
-0.027 j 99.37
-1.323 j 9.62
-4.695 j 598.84
-3.553 j 155.54
0.000 j 298.18
-0.009 j 202.90
0.445 j 159.93
-0.049 j 127.Q2
-0.021 j 99.50
-1.433 j 10.00
-4.726 j 633.17
-2.682 j 120.11
0.000 j 298.18
-0.014 j 202.95
-0.008 j 160.47
0.038 j 126.72
0.075 j 100.28
-1.718 j 10.91
-4.740 j 648.71
-5.154 j 103.00
0.000 j 298.18
-0.015 j 202.96
-0.012 j 160.50
-0.047 j 126.88
3.030 j 101.59
-1.910 j 11.48
It is interesting to observe that whenever the subsynchronous network mode

frequency is close to one of the torsional modes, the the corresponding torsional mode is destabilized. This is an illustration of the phenomenon of mode
coupling discussed in chapter 1. It can also be observed that mode 1 is the
most negatively damped torsional mode and this occurs when Xc = 0.45 (90 %
compensation level). In general, it can be said that the lower torsional modes
are the most affected at high compensation levels. Often, reducing the compensation level can solve the problem of TI, but this is not an economic solution.
Another point worth noting from the eigenvalue results is that the mode five
is not affected as its modal inertia is very high.
Synchronizing and Damping Torque Analysis
The variation of the synchronizing torque coefficient Ts m , which is defined

as
(4.121)
Tsm{w) = -~Im[Ym(jw)l
WB
as a function of w is shown in Fig.4.6.

Note that Ym{s) is defined from Eq.{4.28). In general, Zm{s) is obtained
from
(4.122)
where
[CSM] = [0 I][CM]
106
400
200
E
rn
I-
-200
-400
50
100
150
Figure 4.6.
200
Win Radls
250
300
350
400
Variation of TSm
In deriving Eq.(4.122) it is assumed that the prime mover model is neglected

in deriving the Eqs.(4.100) and (4.101) and only state variables corresponding
to the rotor system are considered.
The zero crossing of TSm (w) occurs at the frequencies corresponding to the
torsional modes. While this assumes that the interaction with the electrical
system is ignored, it can be shown that the consideration of TSe does not
significantly affect the frequencies.
Incidentally, the modal inertia (Hi) for ith mode can also be determined from
Hi = _ WB dTs m (w = wd
4Wi
dw
(4.123)
where Wi is the modal frequency. It is observed from FigA.6 that the pole and
zero near the frequency 298 rad/sec. are practically indistinguishable. One
could say that due to the pole zero cancellation, the mode 5 is not observable
in the electrical system. The computation of TSe and TDe are carried out from
the knowledge of Ye(s) which can be based on either simplified machine model
or detailed model. In simplified machine model, the flux decay and damper
windings are neglected and the stator is represented by a speed dependent
"
II
source behind a constant inductance (x~WB

+Xq). The variations of TSe and TDe
based on detailed machine model(2.2) are shown in Figures 4.7 and 4.8 respectively. It can be seen from FigA.7 that TSe has much smaller magnitude than
TSm and hence the torsional mode frequencies are unaffected even in the presence of TI. The variations of the damping torque coefficient TDe computed for
the simplified machine model is shown in FigA.9. It is observed that the simplified model gives a fairly accurate value of the negative damping introduced
by the network corresponding to the frequency f = fo - fer, where fer is the
series resonance frequency.
107
15
10
5
Q)
fJj
I-
0
-5
-10
-15
0
50
100
Figure 4.7.
150
200
Win radls
250
300
350
400
350
400
Variation of TSe [Machine model (2.2)]
150
100
Q)
0
I-
50
0
-50
0
50
100
Figure 4.8.
150
200
Win rad/s
250
300
Variation of TDe [Machine model (2.2)]
Example 3
The system considered here is taken from IEEE SBM the data for which is
given in Appendix A. The rotor shaft has four masses. In this system. only
one of the two parallel lines is series compensated. There are three torsional
modes having frequencies - 154, 203 and 321 rad/sec.
The eigenvalues corresponding to torsional and network modes for the series
compensation level of 55 % of are shown in Table 4.7.
108
-10
-20
Q)
-30
1--40
-SO
-60
-m~--~----~----~--~----~--~~---~I--~
SO
100
Figure 4.9.
1SO
200
Win radls
250
300
3SO
400
Variation of TDe [Simplified Machine model]
Table 4.7 Eigenvalues for IEEE SBM

Eigenvalue
Comments
-0.0492 j 321.0514
-0.0429 j 203.3862
0.4492 j 154.9207
0.0899 j 8.4796
-15.5494 j 605.4505
-15.4192 j 148.7232
Torsional Mode 3
Mode 2
Mode 1
Mode 0
Supersyn. Mode
Subsyn. Mode
It is observed that mode 1 is destabilized due to series compensation. Mode

zero is destabilized due to the excitation system (IEEE Type I) considered with
KA
400, TA 0.02 s, KE 1.0, TE 0.8, Kp 0.03, Tp 1.0
4.5
AN ALGORITHM FOR COMPUTING TORSIONAL MODES
It was mentioned previously that Eq .(4.31) can be used to compute system
eigenvalues. Often ,it is adequate to compute the eigenvalues corresponding to

the torsional modes which can be destabilized by TI with series compensation,
HVDC and FACTS controllers.
The effect of the electrical system on the mechanical system is depicted in the
block diagram shown in Fig 4.10.
Here, the transfer function of the mechanical system is G(s) defined as,
G(s) = Zm(s) = -CSM [s1 - AMr l [BMJ
(4.124)
The transfer function H(s) of the electrical system is given by
H(s)
= Ye(s) = CME [s1 -
AEr l [BEM]m(s)
(4.125)
109
6.Tm
Mechanical
System
6.Te
Electrical
System
Figure 4.10.
tems
Block diagram showing interaction between electrical and mechanical sys-
From Fig 4.10, the poles of the closed loop system satisfy the equation
1 + G(s)H(s) = 0
(4.126)
This is equivalent to the equation
F(s) = Ym(s)
Ye(s) = 0
(4.127)
This is a nonlinear equation which has to be solved by any convergent iterative method.Newton's method has quadratic convergence and is expected to
provide solution with minimum number of iterations. According to this method,
the algorithm for computing the estimate of the eigenvalue at the end of the
kth iteration is given by
(4.128)
where Sk-l is the estimate at the beginning of the iteration. F' is derivative of
F with respect to s and has to be updated for each iteration.
Since the eigenvalues corresponding to the torsional modes are close to the
imaginary axis and also since the variations in the imaginary part of Ym (jWi)
are quite large compared to the variations in Ye(s), it is possible to approximate
the magnitude of F'(s) corresponding to any torsional mode i as
(4.129)
110
The above equation follows from Eq. (4.123).The advantage of this equation
is that the derivation of F(s) remains constant at all iterations and requires no
additional computations.
The efficacy of this algorithm is checked by considering the example of IEEE
FBM, the results of which are given in Table 4.4. The initial values of the
eigenvalues are taken to be the eigenvalues of the matrix [AM l, except for
mode zero. For the latter,the initial value is assumed to be 6.28 rad/sec. The
eigenvalues at the end of each iteration for the case (a) Pb = 0.0 are given in
Table 4.8.
Table 4.8 Torsional modes at each iteration (Pb=O.O)
Initial Value
Iteration 1
Iteration 2
Iteration 3
0.0000 j 298.18
0.0000 j 202.85
0.0000 j 160.52
0.0000 j 126.99
0.0000 j 98.72
0.0000 j 6.28
0.0000 j 298.18
0.0009 j 202.86
0.0235 j 160.38
0.0386 j 127.17
0.0177 j 99.70
-3.1761 j 10.21
0.0000 j 298.18
0.0009 j 202.86
0.0237 j 160.38
0.0451 j127.18
0.0204 j 99.71
-1.5825 j 10.57
0.0000 j 298.18
0.0009 j 202.86
0.0237 j 160.38
0.0465 j 127.18
0.0205 j 99.71
-1.5423 j 10.43
The results for the case (b) Pb = 1.0 are given in Table 4.9.
Table 4.9 Torsional modes at each iteration (Pb=1.0)
Initial Value
Iteration 1
Iteration 2
Iteration 3
0.0000 j 298.18
0.0000 j 202.85
0.0000 j 160.52
0.0000 j 126.99
0.0000 j 98.72
0.0000 j 6.28
0.0000 j 298.18
0.0006 j 202.79
0.0314 j 160.26
0.0612 j 127.24
0.0510 j 99.96
-1.6845 j 12.85
0.0000 j 298.18
0.0006 j 202.79
0.0319 j 160.26
0.0751 j 127.26
0.05686 j 99.98
-0.6563 j 11.30
0.0000 j 298.18
0.0006 j 202.79
0.0319 j 160.26
0.0790 j 127.27
0.05719 j 99.99
-0.6277 j 11.23
For both cases, it is observed the eigenvalues converge to the exact values in
less than 5 iterations. This is in spite of approximating the derivative of F(s)
in terms of the modal inertia.
Remarks
1. This is a powerful algorithm and requires the evaluation of Ym and Ye at
each iteration. Computation of Ym (s) is relatively simple. The evaluation of

Ye(s) can be complex, but the overall computations are still much less than
what is required for the evaluation of the eigenvalues of [AT 1matrix.
2. Simplification of Ye(s) may be feasible to reduce the complexity. For example, the consideration of a simplified model of the generator may be adequate.
4.6
111
COUNTERMEASURES FOR SSR
The steady state problem should be avoided by proper planning. However it

may not be possible to identify all critical operating conditions (which give rise
to self excitation) while planning. The problem of transient torques is mainly
solved by providing proper filtering (to limit the magnitudes of torques) and
damping (with auxiliary devices).[IEEE (1980)]
In addition to the devices required for damping SSR, it is also necessary to
provide protective measures and relaying to monitor conditions that can lead
to damage.
4.6.1
System planning considerations
There are several things that can be considered during system planning. These
are listed below
(i) Series versus Shunt Compensation
The use of shunt compensators do not result in electrical resonant frequencies
below synchronous frequency. Actually, it can be shown that resonance due
to shunt capacitor is at supersynchronous frequencies. It can be shown, that
supersynchronous frequency currents result in positive damping of torsional
modes. As a matter of fact, the low (and resistive) network impedance at
supersynchronous frequency, increases the damping.
However, the shunt compensation cannot completely replace series compensation. The use of series compensation tends to be economical and more
flexi ble. The location of series capacitors in a line is not critical (com pared
to that of shunt compensation which should be located at the midpoint of
the line for maximum effectiveness). It is advantageous to use both series
and shunt compensation where possible. The controllable shunt compensation (using SVC) not only helps to regulate the line voltage but also reduce
the level of series compensation required.
(ii) Turbine-Generator Modifications
There are limitations on what can be achieved here. For example, it is
impractical (due to constraints on shaft and bearing size) to design machines
for which the lowest torsional (mode) frequency is greater than synchronous
frequency. The torsional mode frequencies of the turbine-generator can be
varied only within small limits. However, this has not much impact on the
SSR problem as changes in the network due to future growth/line outages
affect the critical electrical resonance frequency.
Another factor that has a critical bearing on SSR problem is the mechanical
damping of torsional modes. It would be desirable to increase this damping
but is considered as impractical. Another means of limiting shaft torques is
through the use of slip couplings which has not been investigated.
Pole-face Amortisseur Windings can be added to reduce the net negative resistance of the generator at subsynchronous frequencies (to control
the induction generator effect). It is relatively inexpensive to install pole-
112
face amortisseur windings in new machines. However, retrofitting on old

machines is not feasible. Also, the windings are not effective to control
torsional interaction and transient torques.
(iii) System Modifications
The steady state SSR problem is mainly due to the coincidence of electrical
resonant frequency (fer) with the complement of a torsional mode frequency
(fo - 1m). it is thus possible to adjust the series compensation to avoid
this coincidence. As the problem is more severe at lower frequency torsional
modes, reducing the level of series compensation helps. This can also be
done during system operation by bypassing some capacitor segments.
It is also possible to have coordinated series capacitor use with loading. As the mechanical damping decreases with the load, (power output
of the generator), it is practical to insert capacitors only when the loading
exceeds the minimum loading. As series capacitors are mainly required at
higher loadings, this procedure of coordinating the capacitor use with load is
consistent with the dual objectives of improved stability limit and avoidance
of steady state SSR problem.
Edris (1990) has proposed a fully passive scheme consisting of inductive and
capacitive elements, that can reduce the potential of SSR.The compensation
is carried out phase-wise by three different combinations of inductive and
capacitive elements. The three combinations have identical impedances at
the operating frequency,but unequal impedances at other frequencies. This
implies that synchronous currents have a negative sequence component and
the net torsional interaction is reduced.
(iv) Series Capacitor Protection and Reinsertion
It is not economically feasible to use capacitors that can withstand fault
currents. Thus, it is necessary to protect the capacitor banks against overcurrents (and voltages) by bypassing them. In earlier schemes of protection,
a spark gap flashes over as the voltage crosses a predetermined level. However, from system stability considerations, it is also necessary to reinsert the
capacitors within a few (3 to 5) cycles after fault clearing. This can be done
by opening the bypass switch. This process of reinsertion of capacitors produces transient voltages across the capacitors. When these voltages exceed
the spark gap setting, the gap may reflash resulting in failure to reinsert the
capacitors. The setting of the spark gap determines the protective level of
the capacitor. While higher gap setting is desirable for successful reinsertion, lower setting is necessary to reduce the transient torques during faulted
period. A dual gap (or extended range dual gap) protection scheme helps,
to achieve both objectives of capacitor bypass at lower fault levels (even for
remote system fault) and successful reinsertion.
In recent schemes, the capacitor overvoltages are limited by using a highly
nonlinear metal oxide resistor in parallel with the capacitor. (see Fig. 4.11).
The resistor is sized such that very small currents flow through it during normal
capacitor voltages. During faults, the resistor provides parallel path for the
113
SERIES CAPACITOR
NONLINEAR
RESISTOR
REACTOR
Figure 4.11.
Series capacitor protection
current and the voltage across the capacitor reaches a saturation level. Thus,
the capacitor is automatically bypassed and reinserted without any hitch. A
case study showed that a 15 MW-sec nonlinear resistor applied for 5 cycles
reduces the capacitor voltage from 3.5 to 2.2 pu with a corresponding reduction
in the peak shaft torque from 3.7 to 1. 7 pu.
4.6.2 Filtering schemes

Static Blocking Filter (SBF}[Farmer et al (1977)]
This is inserted in series with the generator step-up transformer winding on
the neutral end of the transformer high voltage winding. (see Fig. 4.12) It can
also be placed on the high voltage side of the transformer winding. The SBF
is a three phase filter made up of separate filters connected in series. Each
section of the filter is a high Q, parallel resonant circuit tuned to block electric
currents at (complementary) frequencies corresponding to each of the torsional
mode. Thus, this filter provides an excellent transient torque control if properly
tuned. The static blocking filter was first installed at Navajo Generating station
in Western U.S.A. in 1976.
Static blocking filter can provide solution to both steady state and transient
torque problems. Since each filter is tuned to protect an individual generating
unit, the filter performance is not much affected by system changes. However,
the tuning of the filter is affected by changes in the system frequency and
temperature sensitivity of the filter capacitor. A disadvantage of the filters is
that they take up space in the switch yard. Also there is the requirement of
increased insulation level of the generator transformer.
Bypass Damping Filter
The bypass damping filter is connected in parallel across the series capacitor
in each phase (see Fig. 4.13). The filter is useful for countering induction
generator effect as it can introduce significant positive resistance in the circuit
for subsynchronous oscillation frequencies up to 90% of the system frequency.
However, the effectiveness of the filter reduces at the higher frequencies.
The damping resistor is connected in series with a parallel combination of a
reactor and capacitor which is tuned at the system frequency. Thus the filter
114

TRANSFORMER NEUTRAL
CURRENT
LIMmNG
REACTOR
THYRlTE
BYPASS
SWITCH
Figure 4.12.
Static Blocking Filter
DAMPING
RESISTOR
,-------'\
SERIES CAPACITOR
Figure 4.13.
Bypass Damping Filter
has a very high impedance at the system frequency and the power losses in the
resistor are limited (under normal conditions). The damping resistor becomes
effective at subsynchronous frequencies.
The damping filter can be expensive at high voltage levels but in distribution
or subtransmission circuits where series capacitors are used (e.g. in resonant
link fault current limiting circuits) the filter has been applied.
4.6.3 Damping schemes
v,
l-
Vrcf
+~
~~----~
v,
115
AVR
Figure 4.14.
SEDC modal control structure
Supplementary Excitation Damping Control(SEDC)[Bowler

and Baker(1981)]
This is an extension of the PSS concept applied for damping torsional frequency
oscillations. It is well known that PSS used for damping low frequency oscillations is deleterious for torsional (mode) oscillations. This arises from the fact
that the net phase shift between the input speed signal and the electromagnetic
torque is such that the damping torque is negative at torsional frequencies.
For damping torsional modes, it is also necessary to utilize the concept of
observability. The speed signal can be measured from both ends (a)from the
rotating exciter and (b) the front (standard) end at H.P. turbine.
Although all modes are theoretically observable at each rotor location, from
a practical viewpoint, it is advisable to use both control signals (from the two
measurements). Also it is impractical to use a single dynamic compensator for
damping all the the modes.
The control objectives are met by parallel processing each mode as shown in
Fig. 4.14. Each mode is isolated from the relevant speed signal measurement,
by bandpass filtering at each torsional frequency. The necessary phase and
gain compensation are provided individually for each component mode and the
output of SEDC is obtained by summing the control signal for all the modes.
The phase compensation designed at Navajo generating station in 1975,
utilized two first order phase delay networks to allow compensation within
240. Such a large variation was found necessary to account for the variability
of phase produced by a bandpass filter around its centre frequency and lack of
knowledge of this frequency at the time of its manufacture. The bandpass filter
was designed with a sharp cutoff to eliminate interference between adjacent
signal channels. A desirable feature in the design of the SEDC is its applicability
116
ANALYSIS OF SUB SYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
~~r ~\~
o
0.2
0.4
0.15
;! ~>~ j
0.8
1.2
1."
1.6
1.8
(a}Fundamental frequency combined with DC
(b}Fundamental frequency combined with subsynchronous frequency

Figure 4.15.
Effect of presence of DC and subsynchronous components
to turbo-generators of different design. The SEDC tuned for different centre

frequencies (of the band pass filters) are required for different generators.
The rating of SEDC required while acting alone, to overcome TI and avoid
self excitation at Navajo was found to be equal to the rating of the unit. Hence,
the SEDC was designed to supplement the Blocking Filters which were designed
as the main countermeasure for SSR problem (both steady state and transient).
The use of SEDC improves the margin of torsional stability at the extremes
of operating condition. Tests carried out at Jim Bridger generating station
showed that SEDC with optimized phase settings (for resonant conditions)
provide greater damping as resonance is approached.
NGH Damping Scheme
This scheme was proposed by N.G. Hingorani to damp subsynchronous frequency currents in transmission lines and was first installed at Southern California Edison's Lugo substation in U.S.A. in 1984.[ Hingorani (1981), (1987})
The basic concept of NGH-SSR damping scheme can be explained with reference to Fig. 4.15. If a sinusoidal voltage of frequency fo is combined with a
dc voltage, it is seen that, for the combined voltage, alternate half cycles are
longer than the nominal half cycle period of ~. If a sinusoidal voltage of frequency fe < fo is considered instead of the dc voltage, again it is observed that
the combined voltage has some half cycles which are longer than ~. Similarly
any combination of a base signal of frequency fo with dc and subsynchronous
frequencies would result in some half cycles longer than the nominal half cycle
period.
The voltage across the series capacitor is a combination of fundamental frequency, dc and subsynchronous frequency components. The basic principle of
NGH damping scheme is to dissipate capacitor charges whenever the measured
117
SET TIME
RESISTOR
CAPACITOR
VOLTAGE
SERIES CAPACITOR
Figure 4.16.
Basic NGH - SSR damping scheme
half cycle period exceeds the nominal value. This is done by inserting a resistor
across the capacitor through thyristor switches (see Fig. 4.16). The thyristor
stops conducting whenever the capacitor voltage (and the thyristor current)
reaches zero. Thereafter, the measurement of half cycle period restarts from
a new voltage zero. No thyristor fires for half cycles which are shorter than
the set period. Two thyristors are needed for the two polarities. For high
voltages, the thyristor shown in Fig. 4.16 actually represents a series string of
thyristors. The resistor value is not critical although lower its ohmic value, the
more effective it is (except when it is too low). It is recommended that the
resistor's ohmic value within 5 to 10 percent of the capacitor ohmic value will
give satisfactory results.
The operation of the thyristor controller is independent for each phase. The
controller is simple and does not require detection of specific subsynchronous
signals. The control signal can be obtained at the platform level. Alternately,
it can be generated as the difference of two voltage signals from the measuring
devices (on each side of the capacitor) ofthe voltage with respect to ground. In
this case, the control circuitry could be located at the ground level and firing
pulses transmitted through optical links.
The objectives of the NGH damping scheme are
a) reduce transient torques
b) suppress steady state (self excitation) SSR problem
c) suppress offset of series capacitors
d) protect the series capacitors
The scheme may be designed for any or all of the above purposes. If transient
torque control is of major concern, the set period can be larger than the nominal
half cycle period so that in steady state (and with small perturbations) the
thyristors will not fire. The thyristors will fire only during large disturbances
such as faults followed by clearing. If steady state SSR problem is of major
concern, the set period can be slightly less than the nominal half period; then
the thyristor will conduct during steady state at the tail end of each half cycle
118
of the capacitor voltage; This will provide detuning effect against gradual build
up of oscillations. There will be continuous power loss in this case, but is very
small and of minor consequence.
The thyristors can help to protect the capacitors (and themselves) by firing
if the instantaneous forward voltage exceeds a set level. The resistor limits the
discharge current from the capacitor. The capacitor and thyristor protection
can also be implemented by employing nonlinear zinc oxide resistors across the
thyristors. The protection level of the zinc oxide resistor can be selected such
that it (in series with the linear resistor) provides adequate protection for the
capacitor. The bypass switch helps to relieve the thyristor/resistor when their
duty exceeds safe limits. The bypass switch is also required when capacitor is
to be bypassed and reinserted under normal operating conditions.
NGH scheme is a passive scheme-it does not require feedback signals. The
requirement of thyristors are well within the state of the art. For example, a
1000 A, 30 ohm capacitor may require a 80 kV thyristor string with a resistor
duty of 20-50 MJ per phase.
The studies carried out on NGH scheme indicate that it is an effective countermeasure for both steady state and transient SSR problems. However it was
found that some undamping can result for torsional modes which are 'off tune'
(not in resonance with the electrical system). It is suggested that the use of
SEDC can help to overcome this problem. In summary, the studies show that
NGH scheme with appropriate SEDC is beneficial in applying series compensation over a wider range (0-75%) whereas SSR problem limited the compensation
level to 15%.
Dynamic Stabilizer [Ramey et al (1981)]
This is a device based on the use of a modulated shunt reactance connected
to the isolated phase bus of a turbine-generator unit. The modulation of the
reactance is done with the help of thyristor control which acts in response to a
signal based on the generator rotor velocity deviation. See Fig. 4.17.
The shunt susceptance of the TCR (Thyristor Controlled Reactor) is given by
the relation
B (rr)
rr - sinrr
= ---rrXL
(4.130)
where rr is the conduction angle, XL is the reactance (at fundamental frequency)

of the shunt reactor. The conduction angle rr is related to the firing angle a by
the relation
(4.131)
rr=2(rr-a)
The firing angle a is modulated around a quiscent point in response to the
oscillation of the generator rotor. In the absence of the rotor oscillations, the
dynamic stabilizer appears as a continuous reactive load.
The design of the dynamic stabilizer is such that it generates sufficient current of appropriate phase to compensate for the critical subsynchronous frequency currents in the generator armature due to the network resonance.
The interesting thing to note about the operation of the dynamic stabilizer
is that under the worst (resonant) conditions, even a small modulation in the
119
UNIT TRANSFORMER
G~~T_O_R____- r______________- .______--<~~
STABILIZER
TRANSFORMER
FIRING
ANGLE
CONTROL
Figure 4.17.
Dynamic stabilizer
reactor current results in large oscillating current in the generator armature due
to amplification occuring at resonance. The amplification would be maximum
if the stabilizer is located at a point in the system when all inductive reactance
is on one side of stabilizer while all the capacitive reactance is on other side.
The advantages of dynamic stabilizer are
1. The connection as a shunt device eliminates the requirement to carry continuous generator load current (as compared to blocking filters)
2. The operation is not sensitive to variations in the system frequency or ambient temperature.
3. Maintenance requirements are expected to be minimal.
The disadvantageous of dynamic stabilizer are
1. It does not provide protection against induction generator or transient torque
problems. The damping is provided only when rotor oscillations are present.
2. Stabilizer introduces harmonic currents which can be minimized by a) connecting
the thyristor controlled reactors (TCR) in delta and b) providing two secondary windings, one connected in delta and other connected in star to
eliminate 5th and 7th harmonics (This arrangement is termed as 12 pulse
operation of TCR).
The first dynamic stabilizer was installed at San Juan generating station. This
is a 12 pulse TCR and has short time rating of about 20% of that of the
generating unit.
120
The dynamic stabilizer is essentially similar to the Static Var Compensator

(SVC). The only difference is that SVC also has fixed or thyristor switched capacitor and voltage control in addition to any auxiliary control. The damping
of torsional oscillations can also be done by providing an auxiliary (supplementary) controller with appropriate design. As the SVC is normally installed at a
location away from the generator, the required control signal can be synthesized
from locally measured variables of line currents and voltages. The generator
rotor velocity can also be sensed by computing the frequency of the (internal)
generated voltage. [Padiyar and Varma (1990)]
4.7
TORSIONAL OSCillATIONS IN PARAllel CONNECTED

TURBINE GENERATORS
In the analysis of SSR,only one (equivalent) turbine - generator (T-G) is considered.However when there are parallel connected T-G sets,it is not accurate
to consider a single equivalent generator as the magnitudes of shaft torques
are influenced not only by the common (or in-phase) modes of torsional oscillations,but also by the antiphase modes.lf there are N identical T-G sets
opearating in parallel and each T-G set has M rotor masses,there is one set of
M (common) modes in which the corresponding rotors in each unit oscillate in
phase and have the same amplitudes. These modes are excited by disturbances
external to the T-G sets. There will be (N-l) sets of identical M (antiphase)
modes representing intermachine oscillations [Alden et al (1977)]. These are
excited by disturbances within the N T-G sets such as unequal loading of the
generators. If the T-G units are not identical,the antiphase modes will have a
spread in frequency.
In general,the common mode has a lower frequency compared to the antiphase
mode. The difference in frequency is significant for mode '0' (or swing mode).
The antiphase mode corresponding to mode '0' has been termed as intraplant
mode in studies involving low frequency oscillations.Normally,intraplant modes
do not pose stability problems but if speed input PSS is used,there have been
instances of PSS destabilizing an intra plant mode.lt has been suggested by
Schlief et al (1979) to utilize a control signal containing only common mode
component of oscillation.
The difference in the frequencies of the common and antiphase modes corresponding to torsional oscillations is negligible. However ,the antiphase modes
have to be considered in the damping of torsional oscillations and design of
control schemes for this purpose [Iravani (1989}].Taking speed signal from one
T-G set as the control signal for an auxiliary SVC control may destabilize the
antiphase mode.
The design of notch filters can also be a problem with non-identical T-G sets
connected in parallel,because of the spread in the frequencies.
5.1
INTERACTIONS WITH POWER

SYSTEM STABILIZER
INTRODUCTION
Modern power systems are affected by the problem of spontaneous low frequency oscillations particularly when operating under stressed system conditions associated with increased loading on long transmission lines. These oscillations are due to swings of the generator rotors caused by disturbances.
It is to be noted that random load fluctuations are always present and if the
damping of the swings is inadequate (or even negative) the rotor oscillations
are observed in the transmission lines as power oscillations which can limit the
power transfer and threaten system security.
The frequency of these oscillations usually lies in the range of 0.2 to 2.0 Hz. It
can be shown that a N generator system has (N-l) modes of rotor swings. The
lower the frequency of oscillations, more generators participate. At the lower
end of frequency spectrum(0.2-0.8 Hz) the swing modes are termed as interarea modes. At the higher end (1.5-3.0 Hz) of the frequency spectrum, they are
termed as intraplant modes and the oscillations are limited to the generators
within a plant. In the intermediate range of frequencies (0.8-1.8 Hz) lie the
local swing modes corresponding to oscillations among generators within an
area. It is assumed that for the local mode oscillations, the generators within
a plant are coherent and swing against generators in another plant in the same
area.
The damping of intraplant modes is not a problem as the amortisseur circuits
122
or eddy current effects in the solid rotor of a turbogenerator are effective. It

is mainly the local or interarea modes which are not adequately damped. The
problem is aggravated by the high gain AVR's and fast acting excitation systems
using thyristor-controlled rectifiers. Such high performance excitation systems
have become the norm in present day power systems as they are considered to
be essential for maintaining steady state and transient stability of modern synchronous generators, apart from providing fast control of the terminal voltage.
However, these excitation systems can result in negative damping of the swing
modes. This problem has been extensively investigated. The major factors
that contribute to the oscillatory instability are (a) loading of the generator or
tie line (b) power transfer capability of transmission lines (c) power factor of
the generator and (d) AVR gain.
A cost effective and satisfactory solution to the problem of undamped low
frequency oscillations is to provide Power System Stabilizers(PSS) which are
supplementary controllers in excitation systems. The PSS has an input signal
(u) derived from rotor speed, bus frequency, electrical power or a combination
of these variables. The output of PSS (V.) is added to the summing junction
at the input of AVR. The main objective of PSS is to provide additional damping torque without affecting the synchronizing torque at the critical oscillation
frequencies.
It was observed [Watson and Coultes (1973)] that torsional vibrations can occur
on large thermal units using stabilizing signals based on shaft speed measurement. The problem was initially solved by locating the speed transducer at the
location near the node of the first torsional mode (which was responsible for
TI). However, this is not a general solution. Larsen and Swann (1981) have
suggested the use of properly designed torsional filters for this purpose. The
design of filters must ensure a sufficient margin of safety for torsional interaction, while at the same time have minimum phase shift at the low frequencies
for good stabilizer performance.
The design of the torsional filter is dependent on the nature of the PSS input
signal. Speed signal results in maximum TI while power signal results in minimum TI. But power input stabilizers cause adverse effects on voltage during
rapid load changes. The selection of the torsional filter parameters can be problematic as the filter introduces an additional mode (of oscillation) which can
be destabilized. The present trend is to simplify the PSS design by choosing a
composite input signal derived from the rotor speed and electric power.
In this chapter, the TI with PSS is investigated in detail. The study is illustrated by an example adapted from the IEEE FBM.
5.2
BASIC CONCEPT IN THE APPLICATION OF PSS
The requirement for the application of PSS is best illustrated with reference
to a single machine system shown in Fig.5.1. Considering model (1.0) for the
synchronous machine, (neglecting damper windings) the linearized model ofthe
system is shown in the block diagram given in Fig 5.2
123
INTERACTIONS WITH POWER SYSTEM STABILIZER
Xe
\!tLB
C9
(\f\(\(\
Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.2.
Re
MI\
~EbLO
A single machine system
Block diagram of the linearized system shown in Fig.5.l
In deriving the block diagram of Fig 5.2, the stator and network connected
to the generator are assumed to be in steady state. The constants Kl to K6
are termed as Heffron Phillips constants and are dependent on the operating
point.
If the losses in the stator and network are neglected, (Re = 0) then the expressions for the Heffron Phillips constants are given below.
(5.1 )
124
(5.2)
(5.3)
(5.4)
[{5
X~ VqoEb sin 00
(xe + x~)vto
= _ Xq VdoEb cos 00
(Xe
T.'
+ Xq)vto
1i6
Xe
= (xe+x
Vqo
)
d vto
I
(5.5)
(5.6)
where the subscript '0' indicates the operating value of the corresponding variable and Eq is defined from
(5.7)
It can be shown that
(5.8)
It is to be noted that ido is usually negative based on the convention used here
(that'd' axis leads 'q' axis).
For the typical range of the operating point (xe > 0,0 < 00 < 90 0 ), it can
be shown that the Heffron-Phillips constants are positive except for [{5. [{5 is
positive for low values of 00 and tends to be negative as 00 is increased. Increase
in Xe has the impact of reducing [{5.
If a single time constant excitation system is assumed, then
EXC(s)
If TA
J{A
= 1 +sTA
(5.9)
0, then the perturbation in the electrical torque is given by,
(5.1O)
In deriving this equation, the damping (D) is neglected. If it is assumed that
then Eq.(5.10) can be simplified to
(5.11)
125
The synchronizing and damping torque coefficients, Ts and TD are defined by

~Te(jw) _ T
~J (jw) -
jw T
+ wB
(5.12)
From Eqs.{5.11) and{5.12) we get

(5.13)
(5.14)
where
For the system to be stable,

oscillation frequencies. For Ts
Ts
and
TD
should be positive for all
> 0, the following conditions apply
(5.15)
(5.16)
These conditions are generally satisfied. For the damping torque coefficient
TD > 0, the following condition applies
(5.17)
As mentioned previously, J{5 can be negative under higher loading on the
generator and increased external reactance Xe. Under these conditions, the
inequality(5.17) can be violated and the system will experience oscillatory instability. For large values of K A , (5.17) can be simplified to
K5
>
(5.18)
Hence for AVR with large gain, low frequency oscillations are negatively damped
when the constraint (5.18) is violated. Actually there is an upper limit on J{A
when J{5 < and is given by
(5.19)
It is not practical to reduce the AVR gain to satisfy (5.19) as the gain is normally
determined from the requirement of voltage regulation. Hence, PSS is applied
to ensure that the net damping torque remains positive even when K5 < 0.
126
5.3
DESIGN OF PSS
The objective of PSS is to provide additional damping torque to overcome the

negative damping introduced by the fast acting, high gain excitation system.
This is to be achieved without reducing the synchronizing torque. The most
appropriate control signal for this purpose is the speed signal (t::.Sm ). This
can be obtained from the speed transducer mounted on the rotor shaft or
alternatively as the frequency of the induced voltage in the generator stator.
The voltage induced in the stator can be synthesized from the measurements
of the terminal voltage and armature currents.
The design of PSS depends on the transfer function GEP(s) defined as
GEP(s) = t::.Te(s)
t::.Vs(s)
(5.20)
From Fig.5.2, GEP(s) can be derived as

(5.21)
The design of PSS can be explained wth reference to Fig.5.3. Here t::.Teo is
the component of the electrical torque in the absence of PSS and t::.Tep is the
torque component introduced by PSS. KJe(s) is the transfer function ~(W
when t::. Vs = O. If PSS is to introduce only a damping torque, then the required
transfer function of PSS(s) is given by
Dp
PSS(s) = GEP(s)
(5.22)
where Dp is the required damping torque (coefficient) from PSS. Since this is
not realizable in practice, a practical PSS assumes a transfer function T(S)
with the following structure.
PSS(s)
sTw
= 1 + sTw T(s)
(5.23)
where T(s) is the transfer function of a dynamic compensator. A typical

T(s) is defined by
T(s) = Ks(l + sTd(l + sT3)
(5.24)
(1 + sT2)(1 + sT4)
where Ks is the PSS gain, Tw is the washout time constant, T J, T 2, T3 and T4 are
selected to provide appropriate phase compensation in the range of frequencies
( typically from 0 to 3.5 Hz). Since GEP(s) introduces phase lag, the PSS must
be designed to introduce phase lead. Hence TJ > T2 and T3 > T4 . A single leadlag stage of the dynamic compensator is usually adequate when static exciter
is used. The block diagram of a practical PSS is shown in Fig. 5.4. Here u is
the input (control) signal. The objective of the washout circuit is to act as a
high pass filter, preventing dc and very low frequency component. The value
127
Figure 5.3.
Block diagram with PSS
of Tw is not very significant. It is chosen in the range of 10 to 20 seconds to

ensure that PSS can act on the lowest frequency swing mode corresponding to
an interarea mode. The output of PSS is limited to ensure that PSS does not
counteract the voltage regulator action of AVR. The purpose of torsional filter
is to overcome the TI introduced by PSS.
Larsen and Swann( 1981) formulated rules for the selection of PSS parameters.
The phase compensation for PSS is designed from the following criteria.
(a) The compensated phase lag (phase of P(s)=GEP(s)PSS(s)) should pass
through 90 at the frequency around 3.5 Hz (for frequency input signal, this
can be reduced to 2.0 Hz)
(b) The compensated phase lag at the local mode frequency should be below
45, preferably near 20.
WASHOUT
DYNAMIC
T(s)
l+sT w
CIRCUIT
Figure 5.4.
1
COMPENSATOR
TORSIONAL
u, 1 ""T{.J
/
V,
FILTER
Block diagram of a practical PSS
(c) The gain of the compensator at high frequencies (this is proportional to

~;~!) should be minimized.
128
The first criteria is important to avoid destabilization of the intra-plant

modes with higher frequencies. The highest frequency is assumed to be below
3.5 Hz and hence the speed or power input stabilizer is designed to ensure
damping for the intraplant modes. The (bus) frequency input signal does not
contain any significant component of the intraplant modes and hence in this,
the phase compensation can be designed to damp only local modes ( in addition
to interarea modes).
It is also preferable to have compensated phase to be lagging at interarea
modes so that PSS provides some synchronizing torque at these frequencies.
The time constant of the washout circuit also can also affect the compensated
phase lag. The third criteria is required to minimize the noise amplification
through PSS.
The plot of the phase angle of (1 + sTd/(1 + sT2 ) is shown in Fig.5.5 as a
function of the frequency for different values of the centre frequency Ie which
is defined as
(5.25 )
The phase angle () shown in Fig. 5.5 is calculated for the value of n=2 where
'n' is defined as
(5.26)
1e=1
20
5 10
10
o~~~~~~~~~~~~
1~
1~
Figure 5.5.
1~
1~
1~
1~
Variation of phase angle of compensator
It can be shown that the maximum phase angle

max
= tan
-1
n- 1
(2,fii)
max
is given by
(5.27)
and occurs at the frequency I = Ie

The studies carried out by Larsen and Swann indicate that depending upon
129
the input signal used, PSS is to be tuned for a particular system condition
which has the highest stabilizer loop gain and phase lag. Full load on the
generator yeilds the highest loop gain. The operating condition also depends
on the external reactance (xe). It is claimed that for speed and power input
stabilizers, the strongest system (with lowest value of xe) results in highest
loop gain and phase lag. For frequency input stabilizers, the highest loop gain
occurs with weakest system (highest value of xe)
To select the dc gain of PSS (1<.)' a root locus analysis is performed. A typical
root loci for the two critical modes are shown in Fig.5.6. Here, there are two
possibilities. In the first case, (shown in Fig.5.6(a)) the swing mode becomes
unstable as the PSS gain is increased. In the second case, another mode, termed
as the exciter mode becomes unstable as the gain is increased. The exciter mode
originates from the dynamics of flux decay and the excitation system.
JW
JW
SWING MODE
EXC. MODE
SWING MODE
o
(a) Swing Mode instability
Figure 5.6.
(J'
(b) Exciter mode instability
Root loci with variation in stabilizer gain
The optimal PSS gain is chosen as the gain that results in maximum damping
of the least damped mode. (swing mode or exciter mode).
For input signals other than the rotor speed, the block diagram shown in Fig.5.3
is not valid. In such cases, the stabilizer loop is to be replaced by what is shown
in Fig.5.7.
130
Figure 5.7.
Stabilizer loop with arbitrary input u
Su (8) is defined as the input signal sensitivity factor and F Bu (8) is defined
as the input signal feedback factor. For power input stabilizer,
(5.28)
F Bp (8)
R::
G EP(s)
(5.29)
For the general case, the plant transfer function in the stabilizer path is given
by
Pu(s)
~Tep(8)
Su(8) PSSu (8)GEP(8)
(5.30)
~Sm (8)
1 - F Bu (8) P S Su (8)
For speed input stabilizer, Su = 1.0, F Bu = O. The design criteria is unchanged

for a PSS with arbitrary input except that P(s) defined in Eq.(5.30) is used
for the design of phase compensation. It is to be noted that in general, the
PSS gain also affects the phase compensation unless F Bu (8) is small at the
frequencies considered.
5.4
TORSIONAL INTERACTION WITH PSS
The PSS provides phase lead at low frequencies, much below the first torsional
mode frequency. At the first torsional mode and higher frequencies, the PSS
provides a constant gain of (KT~I
The plant transfer function GEP(s)
has increased phase lag at the torsional mode frequencies. Hence there is a
danger of instability at one or more of the torsional modes due to reduced gain
margin because of PSS. One of the solution to this problem of TI is to provide
a torsional filter which is primarily a low pass filter. A typical second order
filter has the transfer function
.).
FILT(8) =
82
2
Wn
+ 2(W n 8 + W~
(5.31)
where ( and Wn are two tunable parameters that have to be selected. The
choice of Wn requires the knowledge of the first torsional mode frequency. Although the torsional filter provides attenuation at the torsional frequencies, it
also contributes additional phase lag. Hence the design of the filter becomes
critical. It has also been reported that torsional filter contributes new exciter
mode(s) which can be destabilized by increasing PSS gain, thereby limiting the
131
damping of the swing mode for which PSS is applied.

Lawson, Swann and Wright (1978) have proposed a band reject filter instead
of the low pass filter.The objective is to attenuate the signal through the PSS
at torsional frequencies in order to minimize TI. Analytical investigations led to
the development of a band reject filter capable of providing attenuations greater
than 100: lover the torsional frequency range, causing less than 20 0 of phase
lag at local mode frequencies and less than 5 at inter area mode frequencies
.The band reject is made up of five stagger tuned stages in cascade.Each stage
has the transfer function given by
F ILT{s)
s2
s2
+ 2(l W n S + w;
+ 2(2W n S + w~
The depth of the notch characteristic and the bandwidth of each stage is determined by (1 and (2 .
An alternative to provide a complex torsional filter is to design a PSS which
provides attenuation at the torsional mode frequencies. This is feasible if a
control signal is used which does not require phase lead (may even require
phase lag) at the frequencies for which PSS is expected to provide damping. If
acceleration signal is used, it already has a 90 0 inherent phase lead and PSS
may be designed with a phase lag.
If the mechanical power is constant, the acceleration is proportional to the
negative change in the electric power. Hence it is to be expected that the PSS
with power input is also immune to TI. However, as mentioned previously, the
power input stabilizer provides spurious signals during changes in the generator
loading (and mechanical power) and these can have an adverse effect on the
bus voltage.
The accelerating power signal can be synthesized from the speed and the power
signals as shown in Fig.5.8.
Figure 5.8.
Synthesis of accelerating power signal
There are variations in the synthesis of PSS input signal based on the speed
and power signals, In one instance, equivalent speed signal is synthesized by
combining speed signal with the integral of the power signal [Lee et al (1981)].
It is claimed that with such PSS input signal, the torsional filter design can be
simplified and is independent of the generator torsional characteristics.
132
5.5
A CASE STUDY
5.5.1
Description
To illustrate the Torsional Interaction (TI) with Power System Stabilizer (PSS),
a case study of a single machine connected to infinite bus is presented. The
system studied is adapted from the IEEE First Benchmark Model (FBM) consisting of a turbine generator feeding power to an infinite bus via series capacitor
compensated system. (see Fig.5.9)
The machine data are given in the Appendix A.
Figure 5.9.
One line diagram of a study system
The network data are assumed as

RE
0.02, XE 1.0, Xc 0.5
The machine is represented by model (1.1) and the subtransient quantities are
neglected. The system is operated with
VI: 1.0, Pg 1.0, Eb 1.0
5.5.2 Modeling of the excitation system including PSS

A rotating AC exciter with thyristor controlled rectifier is considered. The
excitation system is represented by a single time constant model described by
dEJd
-;It = TA [-EJd + KA(v"eJ - \It + v.)]
(5.32)
The transfer functions of the PSS is assumed to be
PSS(s) =
sTw K. (1
1 + sTw
(1
+ sTt}(1 + sT3 )
+ sT2)(1 + ST4)
(s2
w~
+ 2(w n s + w~)
(5.33)
The block diagram of the PSS identifying the state variables is shown in
Fig.5.10.
The state equations for the PSS (ignoring the limiter) are given below
dV.
dt =wnX l
d~
dt
= Wn [( -2(Xl
n~
+ X2) + T2T4 (I<.Sm
(5.34)
~
- X 4) + T4 X3 - v.]
(5.35)
133
v.
Figure 5.10.
dX 2
1
- d = ~[-X2
t.4
dX 3
dt =
Block diagram of PSS considered
+ (1-
1
T2 [-X3
dX 4
dt =
T3
-)[X3
T4
+ (1 1
Tl
+ -(K.Sm T2
Tl
X 4 )]]
(5.36)
T2 )(!i.Sm - X 4)]
Tw [-X4
+ !i.Sm ]
(5.37)
(5.38)
The equations (5.32), (5.34) to (5.38) can be linearized and expressed as
Xr = [Ar]xr
+ [Br]u e + [Brm]YM
(5.39)
Yr = 6.Efd = [Cr]x r
(5.40)
where
x; = [6.Efd
u!
6. V. 6.X 1 6.X 2 6.X3 6.X4 ]

= [6. Vd 6. Vq ], yk = [6.15 6.Sm ]
and the nonzero elements of the matrix [Ad are given below.
Ar(l, 1) = -fA' Ar(1,2)
Ar(2, 3) = W n,
Am(3,2) = -Wn, Ar(3,3) = -2(w n
Ar(3,4) = W n, Ar(3,5) = .-wn
Ar(3,6) = -~~~:Wn
Ar (4, 4) = Ar (4, 5) = (1 -
=!k
i.,
i.
.-)
134
Ar(4,6)=-i.(1-.)R, Ar(5,5)=-i 2 ,
Ar(5, 6) = -i (1Ar(6,6) = -fw
The nonzero elements of [Brl and [Brml and [Crl are given by
- -T
KA~
- -T
KA~
B r (1 , 1) vto' Br(1, 2) V to
A
A
Brm (3,2) =wnR.K., Brm (4,2) = r:}J<.(IBrm (5,2) = ~(1Brm (6,2) =~, Cr (l) = 1.0
R)'
.),
R)'
5.5.3
Results
The excitation system parameters are KA = 200, TA = 0.025 s. The PSS

parameters were selected as
Tw = 10 s, Tl = T3 = 0.1 s, T2 = T4 = 0.05 s, K. = 5, (= 0.5, Wn = 20
The eigenvalues of the linearized system are shown in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 System Eigenvalues
I Without
PSS
-3.307j620.611
-1.904 j133.225
-1.850 j298.169
-0.364 j202.805
-0.641 j160.373
-0.009 127.254
-0.206 j99.505
0.429 j9.688
-23.313 j20.642
-3.135
PSS without
torsional filter
-3.303 j620.616
-2.155 j132.774
-1.850 j298.169
-0.322 j202.770
-0.619 j160.279
0.150 j127.449
0.218 j100.253
-1.376 j9.116
-15.731 j22.554
-3.111
-37.172
-15.200
-0.100
I PSS
with torsional filter
-3.307 j620.612
-1.900 j133.236
-1.851 j298.169
-0.364 j202.806
-0.641 j160.374
-0.012 j127.249
-0.217 j99.471
-2.593 jlO.062
-23.316 j24.953
-3.107
-31.666
-14.942
-0.100
-3.675j15.269
I Comments I
Supersyn.
Subsyn.
Mode 5
Mode 4
Mode 3
Mode 2
Mode 1
Mode 0
Exciter
It is seen that without PSS, the zeroth mode (swing mode) of frequency
9.688 rad/sec. is destabilized. The PSS without the torsional filter resulted in
damping the swing mode but destabilizing the first two torsional mode. The
torsional filter is able to damp the torsional modes although marginally. In any
case, the presence of the torsional filter overcomes the destabilizing action of
the PSS.
The parameters of the filter, ( and Wn are to be carefully selected as they affect
the stability of the swing mode and an exciter mode.( < 0.2 resulted in instability of an exciter mode. The increase in ( improved the damping of both exciter
and swing modes. However for ( > 0.5, the damping of the swing mode starts
to decrease. Keeping ( = 0.5, Wn was varied to study its impact on the exciter
and swing modes. For Wn < 15, the exciter mode was found to be unstable.
Application of a composite signal
135
Instead of using a torsional filter, the application of a composite signal consisting of speed and acceleration is tested. To simplify the analysis, in the diagram
of PSS shown in Fig.5.4, the torsional filter is replaced by the block shown
in Fig.5.1l. TF2 was selected as 0.001 s. TFI corresponds to the ratio of the
acceleration to speed signal.
u-l--------~IL-___l_lt_:_~_;_~__~~--------v.-$
Figure 5.11.
Transfer function of block replacing torsional filter
The increase in TFl resulted in damping of the torsional modes 1 and 2. However, there was a reduction in the damping of modes 0, 3 and 4.
Increase in TFI beyond 0.028 s resulted in destabilization ofthe subsynchronous
network mode. For TFl = 0.0175 s, the eigenvalues of the system are given in
Table 5.2 where they are compared to the eigenvalues with the torsional filter(shown in Table 5.1). It is to be noted that the PSS parameters selected in
this study are not the optimal values. The main objectives of this study is the
evaluation of the effects of the torsional filter and the gain of the acceleration
signal on the torsional and other modes.
The following conclusions can be drawn from the study
1. The choice of the parameters of the torsional filter is critical as it can affect
the stability of an exciter mode.
2. The torsional filter can not increase the damping of the torsional modes. It
can at the best counter the destabilizing influence of the dynamic compensator
of PSS.
3. The acceleration signal has a significant impact on the damping of the critical modes. The lower frequency torsional modes are damped.
4. If a series capacitor is used, the limit on the acceleration gain is determined from the stability of a network mode corresponding to subsynchronous
frequency.
136
Table 5.2 System Eigenvalues with PSS

Using speed and
acceleration signal
-3.322 j620.659
-1.008 j132.049
-1.850 j298.169
-0.184 j202.878
-0.369 j160.294
-0.413 127.904
-0.979 jlO1.071
-1.217 j8.906
-18.372 j24.101
-3.113
-30.974
-15.572
-0.100
-1000.377
I PSS with
torsional filter
-3.307 j620.612
-1.900 j133.236
-1.850 j298.169
-0.364 j202.806
-0.641 j160.374
-0.012 j127.249
-0.217 j99.471
-2.593 jlO.062
-23.316 j24.953
-3.107
-31.666
-14.942
-0.100
-3.675jI5.269
I Comments
Supersyn. Mode
Subsyn. Mode
Mode 5
Mode 4
Mode 3
Mode 2
Mode 1
Mode 0
Exciter
6.1
INTERACTIONS WITH HVDC

CONVERTER CONTROL
INTRODUCTION
HVDe transmission has been established as a viable alternative to ac transmission in long distance bulk power transmission. It is also uniquely suited for
underwater cables and asynchronous interconnection, even when the nominal
frequencies for the two areas being interconnected are identical. HVDe interties often dispense with the dc line and are termed as back to back links where
the rectification (conversion from ac power to dc) and inversion (conversion
from dc power to ac) are performed in the same converter station.
With the advent of thyristor valves since early seventies, the application of
HVDe transmission has increased since fast control of power in the HVDe
link has become viable as thyristor valves don't have the problem of arc backs
that plagued mercury arc valves. This implies that a HVDe link can be used
to improve system stability and security by employing dc power modulation
and rapid control of power during emergencies. Using a higher level, auxiliary
controller with control signal derived from bus frequencies or power in a parallel ac line, it is possible to damp swing modes in the same manner as power
system stabilizers (PSS) that are used in conjunction with excitation systems.
While it was anticipated, as in the case of PSS, that high gain power modulation control can destabilize torsional modes, it was also discovered during field
tests conducted at Square Butte HVDe terminal in October 1977, that adverse
torsional interaction occurred with basic converter current controls [Bahrman
138
et al(1980)]. It was found, during the tests that a 11.5 Hz torsional mode became unstable upon switching out a parallel transmission line. The impact of
this discovery is that the planning and design of HVDe converter controls must
incorporate the possibility of adverse TI with HVDe systems. However, it is
important to note that the problem of TI with HVDe systems is much less severe compared to the TI with fixed series capacitors. Also, the problem can be
tackled easily by modification of the current controller or by adding an auxilliary controller to damp subsynchronous frequency oscillations. In this chapter,
the description of HVDe system is given with special reference to converters
and control. The modelling of HVDe system for SSR studies is presented along
with an exposition of the basic characteristics of the HVDe system that results
in TI. A case study is presented highlighting the factors that affect the torsional
interactions. A simplified damping torque analysis is also presented to obtain
insights into the mechanisms of TI with HVDe system.
6.2
6.2.1
HVDC CONVERTERS AND CONTROL
GeneraJ
A simple schematic diagram of a typical HVDe converter station is shown in

Fig.6.1.
The major components of a converter station are converters for the conversion of power from ac to dc (at a rectifier station) or dc to ac ( at an inverter
station) and controls. A converter station can act either as a rectifier or inverter by suitable control. Modern converters are twelve pulse with two Graetz
bridges connected in series with one bridge supplied by the secondary windings of the converter transformer connected in star while the second bridge is
supplied by the set of secondary windings connected in delta. (see Fig.6.2).
The objective of the twelve pulse operation of converters is to reduce the harmonics in ac current and dc voltage. Under ideal conditions, only characteristic
harmonics are present, the order of which are given below
hac
= 12n 1
hdc = 12n
where hac and hdc are the order of harmonics present in ac and dc side quantities, n is any positive integer.
The direct component of the dc side voltage for a 12 pulse converter is twice
the direct component of the dc output voltage of a Graetz bridge. Similarly,
the fundamental component of the ac side current is twice the fundamental
component of the ac current for each bridge. Hence, it is adequate to consider
the analysis of a single bridge if harmonics are not of consequence.
6.2.2
AnaJysis of a Graetz Bridge
INTERACTIONS WITH HVDC CONVERTER CONTROL
~
y
139
CD
Q)
o?i
oD
CD
CD
Pole 2
~Q)
I-
II
-
Figure 6.1.
CD
CD
12 Pulse converter
Q)
Transformer
Q)
Smoothing reactors
@
Q)
@
DC Filters
Tuned AC Filters
HP AC Filters
Schematic diagram of a typical HVDC converter station
Consider a Graetz bridge fed from three phase voltage sources connected in
series with the leakage impedances of the converter transformer. (see Fig.6.3).
It is assumed that the output terminals of the bridge are connected to a
current source (not necessarily of constant magnitude)
The following assumptions are made in the analysis
1. The valves can be modelled as ideal switches with zero impedance when on
(conducting) and with infinite impedance when off(not conducting).
2. AC voltage at the converter bus is sinusoidal, balanced(with positive sequence only).
3. The leakage impedance of converter transformer in all the three phases are
equal.
4. The valves are turned on and off instantaneously(negligible switching time).
The switching in occurs at the instant the gate pulse is present if the thyristor
(valve) is forward biased (anode is positive with respect to cathode)and the
switching out occurs at the instant when the valve current goes zero. (It is
140
-~
~-'=-
D.C ..
Terminals
-=...==-
ACBus
Figure 6.2.
A Twelve pulse converter unit
135
~
~~------~
r----~~------~~
~-------+---r--~
Figure 6.3.
Graetz bridge circuit
to be noted that the current flow in the valve is unidirectional- from anode to
cathode).
5. The gate pulses in steady state are equidistant
The numbering of the valves in Fig.6.3 is according to the sequence in which
individual valves are fired. In steady state, the interval between consecutive
firing pulses is 60 as there are six firing pulses in a cycle of the supply voltage.
At any given time, there are at least two valves conducting, one each from the
top and bottom valve groups in the bridge.
Assume, for example, that valves 1 and 2 are conducting and valve 3 is turned
e ba
141
commutation voltage of valve 3
.
. are valve currents
11 ' 13
:-r
I
: il
<X
i3
=delay angle
13=n-<x= angle of advance

u
r=/3- u=
j
Figure 6.4.
overlap angle (commutation angle)

extinction angle
Definitions of various angles
~------------------------------o
Figure 6.5.
Equivalent circuit of the Graetz bridge
on. It is to be noted that the commutation voltage across valve 3 ( voltage prior
to its being turned on) is (eb - ea). The earliest instant of firing is theoretically
the instant when voltage (eb - ea) crosses zero to become positive. The delay
angle (a) is the angle by which the firing pulse is delayed with respect to the
zero crossing of the commutation voltage (see Fig.6.4).
For a rectifier, the nominal operating valve of a varies between 5 to 20.
For an inverter, the nominal valve of a varies from 140 to 160.
After the valve is turned on, the current in the valve cannot instantaneously
transfer to valve 3 because of the leakage inductance Le. The duration for
which 3 valves conduct (for example, 1,2 and 3) is termed as the overlap angle
or commutation angle 'u'. It is assumed that u < 60.
In general, the bridge can be represented by its equivalent circuit as shown in
Fig. 6.5.
Here, the equivalent voltage source eeq and the inductances Leq depend upon
the conduction pattern. When valves 1, 2 and 3 are conducting (for duration
of u) then
(6.1)
142
L123
eq
= ~L
2 c
(6.2)
With valves 2 and 3 conducting (for a duration of 60-u), the equivalent parameters are given by
23
(6.3)
eeq = eb - ec
= 2Lc
(6.4)
= J2vc sin wt
(6.5)
L;~
Defining
eba
where Vc is the rms line to line voltage at the converter bus, the average of eeq
over the interval of 60 0 is given by
(6.6)
Substituting for (eb - ec) as
= J2Vc sin(wt + 60)
eb - ec
(6.7)
we get,
Vd = -3yr.;V
2 c cos a
7r
3 r.; [cosa-cos(a+u)]
- y 2Vc -=------'--~
7r
(6.8)
During the period of commutation, neglecting variation in Id, the valve current
i3 is determined from
di3
(6.9)
2Lcdt = (eb - ea)
Substituting from Eq.(6.5) in (6.9) and noting the boundary conditions
(6.10)
(6.11)
we derive
J2-c [cos a - cos (a

Id = 2wL c
+ u) ]
(6.12)
Substituting Eq.(6.12) in (6.8), we have

(6.13)
3V;V
where Xc = wL c, Vdo =
c. Applying the concept of state space averaging,
[Middlebrook (1988)] the equivalent circuit for the converter, ignoring harmonics, is derived as shown in Fig. 6.6. Here,
La _ 2Lc(60 - u)
eq 60
3Lcu
120
(6.14)
a
eq
143
R
c
Equivalent circuit in average quantities
Figure 6.6.
Rc
3
= -Xc,
11"
Ed
= Vdo cos
(6.15)
Cl
Rc is termed as the commutation resistance and L~q is the avearge inductance.

It is to be noted that Rc only indicates the voltage drop caused by commutation,
but does not imply converter losses. (Actually we have ignored losses in our
modelling of the converter and transformer).
Remarks
1. The equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 6.6 is valid for the entire cycle of the
supply voltage waveform due to symmetry.
2. The equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 6.5 can be applied for transient
analysis. It is applicable with minor modifications even when the leakage impedences are not equal in the three phases [see Padiyar and Kothari (1987)]
3. The equivalent circuit of Fig 6.6 is applicable also for the analysis of TI.
4. While the dc current flow through the Graetz bridge is unidirectional, the
average dc voltage can be reversed (in the case of inverter operation) by operating at delay angles in excess of 90 0 For an inverter, it is convenient to
express dc voltage as a voltage drop in the direction of the dc current (unlike
in the case of the rectifier where dc voltage is expressed as a voltage rise in the
direction of the dc current). Hence, Vdi (voltage across the inverter) can be
expressed as
(6.16)
Since Id can be expressed as [see Eq.(6.12)]
Id
Vdi
Vdoi [
= -cos Ii 2Rci
cos (Ji ]
(6.17)
can also be expressed as

(6.18)
where Ii = 11" - Cli - Ui, is the extinction angle and

ad vance at the inverter.
(Ji
11" -
Cli,
is the angle of
144
V
cr
Vr
~C
1: n a
r r
Vci
I I~I
I~I
7D-1
n. a. : 1
I
Figure 6.7.
v.I
Schematic of a DC link
Fui
Figure 6.B.
Steady state equivalent circuit of a two terminal HVDC link
6.2.3 Converter and system control

Consider a two terminal HVDC link, a schematic of which is shown in Fig.6.7.
Here, nr and nj are the nominal turns ratio of the converter transformers
at the rectifier and inverter respectively. a r and aj are the off-nominal turns
ratios.
In per unit quantities, the dc voltage equations in steady state are given by
(6.19)
(6.20)
(6.21)
where
kr
3V2nr n br VBr ,
7rVdB
nbr and nbj are the numbers of bridges connected in series at the rectifier
and inverter respectively. VBr and VBi are the base AC voltages at the rectifier
and inverter bus. Rd is the per unit line resistance of the DC line. ZdB is the
base DC impedance given by ZdB =
where PB is the base power.
Eqs.(6.19) to (6.21) represent a steady state equivalent circuit shown in Fig.
6.8.
Here, Edr and Edi are given by
Yj:
(6.22)
Edi
kiai Vi cOSTi
145
(6.23)
The expression for the dc current Id, is given by
(6.24)
The control of power in a HVDC link can be achieved either through the
control of current or voltage or both. For HVDC links other than back to back
(BTB) links, the minimization of loss in the HVDC transmission line requires
that the voltage be held constant at the maximum feasible limit. The voltage
regulation function is usually assigned to the inverter while the current control
function is assigned to the rectifier for the following reasons.
1. The increase of power in the link is achieved by reducing Cl'r which improves
the power factor at the rectifier for increased loading thereby minimizing the
reactive power consumption at the rectifier station.
2. The inverter can now be operated at minimum value of the extinction angle
"Ii thereby minimizing the reactive power consumption at the inverter also.
3. The current during line faults are automatically limited with rectifier station
in current control.
4. The operation at the minimum extinction angle at the inverter and current
control at the rectifier results in better voltage regulation than the operation
with minimum delay angle at the rectifier and current control at the inverter.
The operation of the inverter at Constant Extinction Angle (CEA) and the
rectifier at Constant Current (CC) under normal conditions results in reduced
costs of the converter stations and losses. However, with weak AC system (indicated by low short circuit ratio (SCR) where SCR is defined as the ratio of
short circuit level at the converter bus to the rated dc power), the operation of
CEA control is problematic. Constant DC Voltage (CDCV) or Constant AC
Voltage (CACV) control are the alternatives that could be used at the inverter.
Under normal conditions, on-load tap changer at the inverter is used to maintain a constant dc voltage by controlling ai. The tap changer (control over
a r )at the rectifier is used to maintain delay angle within certain limits (say, 10
to 20) in order to maintain certain voltage margin for the purpose of the current control while ensuring that the power factor is reasonably high. However
the control action of tap changer is relatively very slow and during a transient,
a r and ai may be assumed to be constants. Under conditions of reduced ac
voltage at the rectifier, it is necessary to shift the current control to the inverter
to avoid run down of the HVDC link when the rectifier control (of Cl') hits the
minimum limit. This implies that a current controller must also be provided at
the inverter in addition to the CEA controller. A smooth transition from CEA
to CC takes place whenever the link current starts falling. To avoid the inverter
current controller clashing with current controller at the rectifier, the current
reference at the inverter is kept below that at the rectifier by an amount called
'current margin'. This is typically about 10% of the rated current.
The control characteristics for the rectifier and the inverter stations are shown
in Fig. 6.9.
146
a
b
- B
g
Figure 6.9.
Converter control characteristics
Here the dc voltage is shown at the inverter station. The rectifier control
characteristics is 'abc' while the inverter characteristics is 'efg'. The point
of intersection of the two characteristics (point A) determines the mode of
operation-the rectifier on CC control and the inverter on CEA control. Depending on the ceiling voltage of the rectifier, there are two other modes of the
operation of the DC link.
1. With slight dip in the ac voltage, the point of interaction drifts to C
which implies minimum 0' at the rectifier and minimum "( at the inverter.
2. With lower ac voltage at the rectifier, the mode of operation shifts to point
'B' which implies current control at the inverter and minimum 0' at the rectifier.
System Control Hierarchy

The control functions required for a HYDC link are performed using a hierarchical control structure where
(a) Yalve group control is at the lowest level where firing pulses required for a
group of valves (six or twelve) are generated.
(b) Pole control is at the intermediate level where current or extinction angle
controller generates the required order of firing angle.
(c)Master control is provided power order (Pre!) either manually or from load
dispatch center and generates current order. The power modulation controller
which responds to a control signal taken from frequency or ac line power also
modifies the power order. It is necessary that the net power order is transmi tted over communication channels to the remote converter station.
The pole control also incorporates pole and HYDC line protection whereas
valve group control also oversees valve monitoring, firing logic through the optical interface. It also includes commutation failure protection, tap changer
Figure 6.10.
147
LV
firing
GATE
Pulse
Block diagram of the system control
control, converter start/stop sequences. A block diagram of the system control

is shown in Fig.6.10.
It is to be noted that the current reference is obtained by dividing the power
order by the DC voltage. However the power controller is deliberately made
slow by incorporating a time delay. The current reference is also modified by
Voltage Dependent Current Order Limiter (VDCOL) which has the functions of
protection during low system voltages and ensuring the recovery of the DC link
following system faults. The LV gate is used to select the minimum of the firing
angle orders generated by the current and extinction angle controllers. This
enables a smooth transition between the two controllers as the ac voltage varies.
Firing angle control

Modern HVDC converter firing angle control systems use phase locked loop
techniques to synchronize firing angle pulses to the ac voltage. Early control schemes utilized individual valve firing based on direct comparison with
its commutating ac voltage waveform. This scheme was termed Individual
Phase Control (IPC) and had severe problems involving magnification of noncharacteristic harmonics (low order harmonic resonance) particularly when operating with low SCR. Subsequent developments led to the concept of Equidistant Pulse Control (EPC) where a local oscillator produces the firing pulses
in a sequence such that in steady state, the phase shift between consecutive
pulses is constant irrespective of the zero crossing of the commutation voltages.
However, it is necessary to synchronize the local oscillator to the converter bus
ac voltage by Phase-Locked Loop(PLL}.
6.3
6.3.1
MODELLING OF HVDC SYSTEM FOR STUDY OF TORSIONAL

INTERACTIONS
Factors affecting TI with HVDe system
Based on the studies carried out, following the discovery of the TI phenomenon
at the Square Butte HVDC link, following factors have a major impact on TI.
[Piwko and Larsen (1982)]
148
AC line
GEN
~I---+--~ ~
INF.
BUS
I
Figure 6.11.
System configuration
1. The converter control has a major effect on the turbine-generators in the

close vicinity of the HVDC converters. The current controller at the rectifier,
with inverter on the voltage or excitation angle control has the maximum effect
on the generator connected near the rectifier station.
2. The firing angle controller also has an impact with EPC control causing more
negative damping of the torsional modes than IPC control scheme. The synchronizing circuit used with EPC does not have a significant effect although theoretically, EPC scheme with a synchronizing circuit of sufficiently large bandwidth is closer in its response to the firing pulse generation scheme with IPC.
3. The negative damping of the torsional modes is of concern mainly when
their frequency lies in the range of 10 to 20 Hz.
4. The negative damping increases with the power level on the DC link.
5. For a given power level, the negative damping introduced by the dc system is
sensitive to the level of the dc voltage. This effect can be traced to the changes
in the operating values of the delay angle (Q) caused by the voltage variations.
The negative damping is less for smaller values of the delay angle.
6. The negative damping of the torsional modes, introduced by the HVDC
system is increased as the strength of the ac system adjacent to the converter
reduces. The worst case is when the operation of the HVDC link is in a radial
mode. Based on these considerations, the simplest system that exhibits all the
characteristics of the torsional interactions is shown in Fig.6.11. Here, AC filters at the converter buses are represented as capacitors. The AC line is shown
to be series compensated. This enables comparison of the TI to HVDC system
with that due to the fixed series compensation.
6.3.2
Interface between AC and DC system
The generator and ac network modelling have been discussed in Chapter 2 and
3 respectively. The effect of the converter on the ac network is represented as
current sources injected at the converter bus (see Fig.6.12).
149
leba
I
I
AC
NETWORK
I
I
Figure 6.12.
AC Network in
(a) Rectifier
Figure 6.13.
Sequence
(b) Inverter
Phasor diagram showing converter bus voltage and injected current
Here, iga is the current injected by the generator, while ira and iia are
the currents injected at the rectifier and inverter buses respectively. The D-Q
components of the current at the converter bus can be derived from the phasor
diagram shown in Fig.6.13.
Ir and Ii are currents injected into the AC network at the rectifier and the
inverter bus respectively. - Ir is the load current at the rectifier bus and lags
the voltage v,. by the (power factor) angle cPr. Ii leads the voltage V; by cPi as
the inverter consumes reactive power while supplying active power to the AC
network. The equations for the D-Q components of Ir and Ii are given by
(6.25)
(6.26)
liD = Ii sin(Ji
+ cPi)
(6.27)
IiQ = Ii cos(Ji
+ cP;)
(6.28)
150
where
(6.29)
(6.30)
tan8 r
VrD
= -v.
rQ
(6.31)
ViD
ViQ
(6.32)
tan8 i = -
(6.33)
(6.34)
Vdr
and
and
Idi
6.3.3
Vdi are the dc voltages at the rectifier and inverter respectively.

are the dc currents at the rectifier and inverter.
Idr
Modelling of the DC network
The dc network is obtained by assembling the equivalent circuits of the converters (see Fig.6.6) and the dc transmission line which can be modelled as a 7r
network. The dc network for a two terminal HYDe link is shown in Fig.6.14.
Here Edr and Edi (in per unit) are defined as
Rer
L~qr
Ld
Vdr
Rei
~~
Id
Idr
V di
Cdi
Cdr
L~qi
+
Edi
Edr
Figure 6.14.
DC Network
(6.35)
Edi
= kiai Vi cos f3i
(6.36)
151
is the delay angle at the rectifier and f3i is the angle of the advance at
the rectifier. The state equations for the network shown in Fig.6.14 can be
expressed as
O'r
(6.37)
dId
dt =
L}-RdId
+ Vdr
1
-dVdr
= -[Idr
dt
Cdr
dIdi
dt
(6.38)
- Vd;]
Id]
(6.39)
dVdi = _1 [I _ I .]
dt
C di d
d.
(6.40)
= La . [-Rc;ldi
eq.
+ Vdi
- Ed;]
(6.41)
Equations (6.37) to (6.41) after linearization can be expressed in the compact

form as
dXd
where
u~ = [~Edr
6.3.4
~Edi]'
dt = [Ad]Xd + [Bd]Ud
(6.42)
Yd = [Cd]Xd
(6.43)
Y~
= [~Idr
~ Vdr
~ldi
~ Vdi]
Modelling of converter control
It is assumed that the rectifier controls the current and the inverter regulates
the dc voltage or the extinction angle. The current (voltage) controller at the
rectifier (inverter) is shown in Fig.6.15. Here the gain K is assumed to be
positive. The negative sign associated with the gain K, implies that the delay
angle ordered (0' R) at the rectifier or the angle of ad vance (f3R) ordered at
the inverter is decreased whenever the error positive. It is to be noted that
actual 0' at the rectifier or f3 at the inverter is also influenced by the change
in the phase angle (~Jc) of the ac voltage at the converter bus - with EPC
scheme of firing pulse generation. The switch 51 is assumed to be open when
IPC firing scheme is assumed. The switch 52 is assumed to be open with pure
EPC scheme whereas with 52 closed, the transfer function of the synchronizing
circuit is also considered. Typically, SYNC(s) is given by
5Y NC(s)
e- STD
= 1 + s Ts
(6.44)
(6.45 )
and B Ws is the band wid th of the synchronizing circuit. A typical value of B W.

is about 4 Hz. At this frequency, the synchronizing circuit has little impact on
152
+
(~)
Figure 6.15.
Block diagram of the converter controller
TI. TD represents the average transport delay due to the sampling action of
the frequency transducer used for synchronization.
The inverter control can be used to regulate the extinction angle rather than dc
voltage. The block diagram shown in Fig.6.15 also applies in this case except
that the controller gain is positive(The angle of advance increases if "{rei is
higher than measured value of the extinction angle).
The linearized state equations for the converter controllers can be expressed as
dXdc =
dt
[Adc]Xdc + [
] Udc
Bdc
(6.46 )
Ydc = [Cdc]Xdc + [Ddc]Udc
(6.47)
where
6.3.5
Combining AC network and DC system equations
The linearized ac network equations, expressed in D-Q components can be

written in the compact form as
XN = [AN]XN
+ [BNd]UNd + [BNg]UNg
(6.48)
YNd = [CNd]XN
(6.49)
where
U~d
= [~IrD
Y~d = [~v,.D
~IiD
~IiQ]
~ViD
~ViQ]
U~g = [~IgD
~IgQ]
~IrQ
~v,.Q
153
tl.IgD and tl.IgQ are the D and Q axis components of the generator (armature)
current injected into the AC network at the generator terminals.
The HVDC system is divided into two components - dc network and converter
controller. Combining Eqns. (6.42), (6.43), (6.48) and (6.49), we have
XND
= [AND]XND + [BND]UND + [BNg]UNg

YND
= [CND]XND + [DND]UND
(6.50)
(6.51)
where
t
xND
= [xNt
Y}vD = [Y}vD
U}vD
= [U}vd
[AND] = Block diag [AN
Ad Adc ]
[BND] = Block diag[BNd
Bd Bdc]
[CND] = Block diag[CNd Cd Cdc]

[DND] = Block diag[[O]
[BNg]t
[0] [0] Ddc]
= [BNg
[0] [0]]
Linearizing equations (6.25) to (6.34), it is possible to express UND as

(6.52)
Combining Eqns. (6.50) to (6.52), we get
XND = [AND
+ BNDFND(I - DNDFND)-lCND]XND + [BNg]UNg
(6.53)
where I is a unit matrix of appropriate dimension.

6.4
ANALYSIS OF TORSIONAL INTERACTIONS - A SIMPLIFIED

APPROACH
The phenomenon of TI with HVDC system can be explained with reference to

a turbine generator connected radially to a HVDC converter (rectifier) station.
The analysis is based on the concept of damping torque.
The block diagram outlining the transfer functions from the generator rotor
speed to the electrical torque is shown in Fig. 6 .16.
The following transfer function can be defined from Fig. 6.16.
154
Figure 6.16.
Block diagram showing connection from rotor speed to electrical torque
IREG(s) is the transfer function of the current controller. The transfer function
ST(s) is due to the ac transmission system and the HVDe system with no
control.
The overall transfer function from the rotor speed to the electrical torque is
given by
~Te(s)
~w(s)
= ~Te(s) = ST(s) _
~Sm(s)
SI(s)I REG(s).AT(s)
1 + IREG(s)AI(s)
= STT(s)
(6.54)
The real part of this transfer function evaluated at the torsional mode frequency (Wk) gives the damping torque coefficient (TDk) at that frequency. The
decrement factor ((j ek) is calculated from
(6.55 )
where subscript k refers to the kth torsional mode. TDk is positive if the phase
of STT(jwk) lies in the range of -90 0 to 90 0 . In deriving the transfer functions
based on simplified models, the following assumptions are made
1. The turbine-generator is supplying only the HVDe system (as its only load)
2. The commutating voltage (at the rectifier bus) magnitude and phase angle
closely follow the generator internal voltage and angle.
3. In the generator,
(a) field flux decay is neglected
155
(b) damper windings are neglected.

Based on the assumptions, we can express changes in the magnitude and phase
of the voltage at the converter bus as
(6.56)
~8r
= ~8 = WB
-~Sm
S
(6.57)
The change in Edr is obtained from linearizing Eq.(6.22) as

(6.58)
For convenience, the subscript 'r' has been dropped for the delay angle Q'. The
change in the delay angle can be expressed as
(6.59)
where Q'R is the firing angle command of current regulator and kp(s) is given
by
kp (s) = 0 for IPe scheme of firing
= 1 for EPe scheme of firing
= 1 - SY NC(s) for EPe scheme with a synchronizing circuit whose
transfer function is SY NC(s). Substituting Eqs.(6.56), (6.57) and (6.59) in
(6.58), we get
Assuming that
~Edi
= 0, it is possible to write that

(6.61 )
where Yd(s) is the admittance function of the dc network viewed from the
rectifier internal bus.
The dc power is given by
(6.62)
The generator electrical torque (neglecting losses) is given by
(6.63)
Based on the above equations, the transfer functions defined earlier are given
as
(6.64)
AT(s) = -kra r Vro sin Q'o[Ido + Edro Yd(S)]
AI(s) = -kra r Vro sin Q'OYd(S)
(6.65)
SI(s) = krarVro[coSQ'o - kp(s}WB sinQ'o]Yd(s}
(6.66)
156
Effect of the Current Control on Damping Torque

The influence of the current controller on the damping torque can be analyzed
by considering only the second term on the R.H.S. of Eq.(6.54). This can be
expressed as
SIT(s) = _ SI(s)AT(s) IREG(s)AI(s) = _ SI(s)AT(s) G ( )

AI(s)
1 + IREG(s)AI(s)
AI(s)
c s
(6.67)
where G c (s) is the transfer function of the closed loop current controller. For
a suitably designed current controller, Gc(s) approaches unity with zero phase
shift at low frequencies. Hence the damping contribution of SIT(s) is determined by the transfer function IT(s) defined by
IT( ) = _ SI(s)AT(s)
s
AI(s)
(6.68)
By substituting Eqs.(6.64) to (6.66) in (6.68), it can be seen that AT(s) and

AI(s) terms nearly cancel to a constant, particularly at light loads (Ida::: 0)
leaving the characteristics of SI(s) determine the damping action. For low frequencies below 20 Hz, the transfer function SI(s) is dominated by the integral
characteristics (for kp = 1.0) resulting in a phase lag of 90 0 . It is also interesting to note that the integral term is proportional to sin 0'0 which implies that
the magnitude of the negative damping increases with 0'0.
As mentioned earlier for a well designed current regulator, Gc(s) has a phase
shift between 0 and -90 0 . Thus a current regulator actually contributes negative damping particularly at higher frequencies.
6.5
6.5.1
A CASE STUDY
Description
The configuration of the system considered is shown in Fig.6.11. To simplify

the analysis, the inverter dc voltage is assumed to be constant. The generator
data is taken from IEEE FBM and is assumed to be rated at 600 MVA. The
rating of the HVDe converter is assumed to be 500 MW.
To study the torsional interactions in detail, the following cases are considered
[Kothari (1985)]
(A) Radial operation of the HVDe link
(B) Non radial operation with the ac line parameters of RL = 0.08, XL = 0.54
and variation of percentage compensation.
To examine the influence of various factors that affect TI, the following cases
are also considered
1. Influence of the current controller
(a) with EPe and (b) with IPe
In both cases, the operating value of 0' is assumed to be 18 0 with the HVDe
link operating at full load.
2. The effect of the discrete model of the converter versus the continuous
model.
157
Since the controller action in the HVDC converter is of discrete nature and
not continuous, a discrete model is described by Padiyar and Sachchidanand
(1985). Here, the converter is described by the equation.
(6.69)
where
h = ;:'0 is the sampling interval.
V is the rms ac line voltage. The sampling instant is assumed to coincide with
the firing instant of a valve.
The small perturbation model of the converter is given by
~Vd(k) =
-hI [v'2
Wo
cosao~V(k) - v'2 Vo sinao~a - 2Lc~Id(k + 1) + Lc~Id(k)]

Wo
(6.70)
where the subscript '0' denotes the value of the variable at the operating point.
The discrete model of the converter is combined with models of other subsystems most of which are continuous. To ensure compatibility, it is necessary to
transfer a continuous system model described by
x = [A]x + [B]u
(6.71)
to the following discrete model
x(k + 1)
= [A']x(k) + [B']u(k)
(6.72)
where
(6.73)
The sampling interval for a twelve pulse converter is half the sampling interval
for a six pulse converter, namely 30 0 (h = 0 ).
To examine the factors affecting TI, the following parameters were considered
(a) Current controller gain
(b) HVDC link loading
(c) firing angle
(d) DC line length
(e) Generator rating relative to HVDC link rating
(f) AC line strength
(g) Series compensation level of ac line.
The base case controller parameters were assumed to be J{ = 85, Tl = 0.01 s,
T2 = 0.005 s. The controller is assumed to be EPC unless stated to be otherwise. The mechanical damping in the generator rotor system is neglected.
6:
6.5.2
Results and discussion
The eigenvalues corresponding to the torsional modes for the radial operation
of the HVDC link are shown in Table 6.1.
158
Table 6.1 Eigenvalues corresponding to torsional modes

(Radial HVDC link)
EPC Controller
I Mode I IPC Controller I EPC Controller I with higher
generator rating
1
2
3
4
5
0.128 j 98.5
-0.013 j 126
-0.11 j160.5
-0.077 j 202.8
0.0j298
0.41 j98
0.074 j 126.9
-0.208 j 160
-0.139 j 202
0.0 j298
0.282 j 98
0.05 j 126
-0.126 j 160
-0.086 j202
0.0 j 298
The converter is represented by continuous model.

The results given in Table 6.1 show that the EPC firing control scheme results
in increased negative damping of the critical torsional modes compared to the
IPC scheme. The effect of the higher generator rating (from 600 to 900 MVA)
is to reduce the negative damping of the critical modes, although the damping
of the higher torsional modes is reduced.
The effect of the converter modelling is shown in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2 Effect of converter model
(Radial HVDC link)
Continuous
I Discrete I
I Mode I converter
model converter model
1
2
3
4
5
0.41 j 98.0
0.074 j 126.9
-0.208 j 160.0
-0.139 j 202.0
O.Oj 298
0.39 j98.6
0.087 j 126.9
-0.306 j 160.0
-0.162 j202
0.0 j 298
The com parisi on of the continuous and discrete time representation is done
by converting discrete system eigenvalues to their equivalent continuous system
eigenvalues. If Ad is an eigenvalue of the discrete system, then it is related to
the equivalent (continuous) system eigenvalue Ac, by the following relation.
(6.74)
where h is the sampling period.
159
Effect of DC link loading

Although not shown here, it was observed that the effect of the dc link loading is to unevenly influence the damping of the torsional modes. While the
undamping of mode 1 continued to increase with loading the mode 2 damping
changed from negative to positive. Mode 5 is unaffected due to its high inertia.
This result is surprising as it is generally believed that effect of increase in
loading is to decrease the damping (or increase negative damping).
It was observed that the dc system has a dominant mode of oscillation whose
frequency varies between 108 to 136 rad/sec. for the variation of dc power from
0.1 to 1.0 pu. The frequency of the dc system mode is around 126 rad/sec. when
the damping of mode 2 (whose frequency is 126 rad/sec) undergoes a sudden
change. It was also observed that the differences between the continuous and
discrete time models are significant in predicting the stability of the torsional
mode 2. In other cases, the differences are minor. In general, the continuous
time model gives consistently pessimistic results. The above discussion shows
that TI is also affected by mode coupling between a torsional mode and a critical dc system mode.
Effect of Firing Angle

It was observed that from the results (not shown here) that the frequency of
oscillation corresponding to the critical dc system mode increased from 72 to
168 rad/sec. as the firing angle is increased from 5 to 30. It was also observed
that whenever the frequency of oscillation of the dominant dc system mode is
around a torsional mode frequency, there is a drastic change in the damping of
that mode. The eigenvalues for 0: = r are given in Table 6.3. The mechanical
damping is considered in this case.
Table 6.3 Eigenvalues for 0: = r, dc line length =2 and 3 pu

(Radial HYDe link)
Mode
EPe
with 0: 7
1
2
3
4
5
dc system mode
-0.516 j 98
-0.087j 126
-0.59j160
-0.25 j 202
-1.22j 298
-20.48 87.8
EPe with dc
line length
2 pu
EPe with dc
line length = 3 pu
0.947 j98
-0.111 j 126
-0.612 j 160
-0.259 j 202
-1.22 j298
-5.67 j107
-0.979 j 97.6
-0.084 j 126
-0.579 j 160
-0.226 j202
-1.22 j298
-4.3 j92
Effect of Deline length

It was observed that the damping of dominant mode of the dc system reduces as
line length increases. The frequency of this mode also decreases with increase
in the line length. Again due to mode coupling, there are drastic changes in
the damping of torsional modes. Mode 1 experiences maximum destabilization
for 2 pu line length (the line length is doubled compared to the base case). All
the torsional modes are stable for dc line length of 3.0 pu.
160
The eigenvalues for dc line lengths of 2.0 and 3.0 pu are also shown in Table
6.3. The operating value of Q' for these cases is set at the base value of 18.
Effect of Controller Parameters
It was observed that as the controller gain is increased, damping of the dominant dc system mode is reduced and the mode becomes unstable as the gain
exceeds a certain limit (around 200). The frequency of this mode increases
with the gain. As with other parameters, the damping of the torsional modes
changes significantly when the frequency of the dominant dc system mode is
around the torsional mode frequency.
Keeping the gain and T2 constant and varying Tl also resulted in a similar
behavior of the critical modes as with variation in the gain. Increase in Tl
beyond 0.015 s resulted in instability of the dc system mode.
Effect of AC Line Strength and Series Compensation
It was observed that the negative damping of the critical modes (1 and 2) continued to increase as the reactance of the parallel ac line increased. On the
other hand, the damping of modes 3 and 4 increased with increase in the line
reactance.
The variation in the ac line reactance does not have much effect on the dominant dc system mode. However, the reduction in ac line reactance (increase
in the strength of the ac system) results in increase in the frequency of zeroth
mode(swing mode). This is as expected.
The presence of series compensation affects the torsional modes in the same
manner as explained in chapter 4. The eigenvalues of the torsional modes (including mode zero) for the two cases (a) without series compensation (XL = 0.1)
and
(b) with series compensation(XL 0.54, Xc 0.412)
are shown in Table 6.4.
Table 6.4 Torsional Modes for Non-Radial HVDC link)

Mode
o
2
3
4
5
I Uncompensated
Line XL = 0.1
Compensated
0.54, Xc 0.412
Line XL
-0.976 j 12.45
-0.15 j 99
-0.08 j126
-0.55 j 160
-0.20j 202
-1.22 j298
-0.58 j 11.73
0.56 j 98
-0.001 j 127
-0.55j 160
-0.26 j202
-1.22 j298
It is observed that mode 1 is unstable with series compensation and mode 2

is critically stable.
Padiyar and Geetha(1995) report a case study of the analysis of torsional interactions in a multi terminal dc system; based on linearized system model. The
major conclusions of this study are 1. A rectifier on current control contributes to maximum negative damping
of torsional modes, when the generator is connected to the rectifier terminal.
161
The torsional mode with the lowest frequency (mode 1) is most affected. The
voltage controller at the inverter contributes to the negative damping to some
extent.
2. The torsional modes are better damped when the rectifier is chosen as Voltage Setting Terminal (VST) as opposed to the case when the inverter is chosen
as VST.
An Explanation of the Phenomenon of HVDe Torsional Interaction
The torsional interactions with HVDC system have been previously explained
in a simplistic manner, based on the fact that dc power is maintained constant
and constant power type load introduces negative damping. However, this explanation does not explain why damping of higher frequency torsional modes
increase with dc power. Also the effects of controller and dc line parameters
are not explained satisfactorily.
A better explanation is to consider the amplitude and phase modulation of
the ac voltage at the rectifier bus, resulting from the torsional oscillations.
This induces a voltage in the dc link, of the same frequency as the torsional
mode, due to effective demodulation introduced by the converter. The effective
impedance (also influenced by the converter controller) of the dc link determines the current oscillations in the dc link. These oscillations result in turn,
the injection of sub and supersynchronous frequency currents in the ac system,
that flow in the generator armature. In general, the subsynchronous frequency
currents introduce negative damping torque while the supersynchronous frequency currents result in positive damping torque. Unlike in the case of series
compensation, the magnitude of the two currents are equal. The net damping
is determined from the phase of the two current components relative to the ac
voltage components.
6.6
A SIMPLIFIED DAMPING TORQUE ANALYSIS
Section 6.4 presented an analysis of torsional interactions in HVDC systems by

defining a set of transfer functions based on simplified generator and HVDC
system models. The major assumptions are that (i) the turbine-generator is
supplying only the HVDC ststem (radial operation) and (ii) the commutating
voltage at the rectifier bus closely follows the generator internal voltage.
In chapter 4, a simplified damping torque analysis is presented where the damping torque is made up of two components (i) due to the subsynchronous frequency armature current and (ii) due to the supersynchronous frequency armature current. A similar analysis is attempted here.
Since HVDC is the only load on the generator, the armature currents are determined by (i) the dc link impedance and (ii) converter control. It will be assumed
that the current controller is of pure integral type and the firing scheme is pure
EPC.
The admittance function of the dc network (viewed from the rectifier internal
bus) Yd(S) is assumed to be
(6.75)
162
m
6.S
_ _-+l.'-_A_Ss_1
B_:__+-+f'~ ~
R+sL
fu
s
Figure 6.17.
Block diagram representing HVDC system
For pure EPe scheme, Eq.(6.60) can be expressed as

(6.76)
The transfer function of the current regulator is given by
f{[
IREG(s) = - -
(6.77)
where f{[ is the integral gain.

Eqs. (6.75) to (6.77) can be combined to represent the block diagram shown in
Fig. 6.17. Here, A and B are defined as
A
(6.78)
= wBkaVrosinao
The transfer function SAI(s)

Fig.6.17 as
SAI(s)
= kaVro cos a o
between 6.Sm
(6.79)
and
6.Id
is obtained from
As - B
6. I d(s)
6.Sm (s) - L(s2 + s + w~)
(6.80)
where
Wn
/LC'
C = WB
f{[ B
f{[kaVro sin a o
(6.81)
The transfer function SA(s) relating 6.Sm and 6.aR is given by

(6.82)
163
It is to be noted that the HVDe system has a predominant mode whose

frequency is given by
(6.83)
Calculation of AC current
If it is assumed that b.Sm (or b.w ) varies sinusoidally ( see Eq.(4.38) in
chapter 4) as given by the expression
(6.84)
the dc current in the link, b.1d can be expressed as (utilizing Eq.(6.79) )
(6.85)
where
(6.86)
Neglecting overlap angle and harmonics, the magnitude of the ac current is
directly proportional to the dc current. The phase of the ac current lags the
phase of the converter bus voltage by 0: .Using 0: - f3 sequence networks, given
the converter bus voltage as
(6.87)
the ac current ira is given by
(6.88)
the change in ira is given by the expression
Since for pure EPe scheme ,

(6.90)
we can rewrite Eq.{6.89) as
b.ira(t) = kab.ldsin(wot
+6
0 -
0: 0
) -
ka1do cos{wot
+6
0 -
O:o)b.O:R
(6.91)
From Eq.{6.82) and (6.84), b.O: R can be expressed as

A
uO:R
= -
[(JSAI{wm)A
Wm
(
cos wmt
A. )
+ 'I'd
(6.92)
Utilizing Eq.{6.85) and (6.92),we can express b.i ra in terms of sub and supersynchronous frequency components as
164
-12S~--~1~O-----1~S~---2~O~---2~S~--~30------3~S-----4LO-----4~S~--~
so
f (Hz)
Figure 6.18.
Variation of TD~b with
1m
Following the derivation given in section 4.3.2 , chapter 4,we can derive the
expression for the damping torque coefficient as
TDe -- T,ub
De
p
+ T'u
De
(6.94)
where
,ub
kaE' SAI(wm) [1 Ido/{/j
A.
T De
= +
COS,+"ub
2
Wm
,up _ kaE' SAI(wm) [1 Ido/{/l
A.
TDe
- - - - cos,+"up
2
Wm
<P,ub = 1l' + 0'0 + <Pd(Wm)
<p,up = 0'0 - <Pd(W m )
(6.95)
(6.96)
(6.97)
(6.98)
TD~b and Tl>~P and TDe are computed using the above expressions for the
HVDe system,having the data
L = 2.7 H, R = 151.4 n, Vro = E' = 1.0 pu(500 kV), ka = 1.18
WB = 377,0'0 = 18 0 and Ido = 1.0 pu(1 kA)
The damping torque coefficients are calculated for two values of the integral
gain (/{/ ); (i) 85 rad/pu and (ii) 170 rad/pu. The variations of TD~b and
Tl>~P and the total TDe as functions of 1m (the oscillation frequency in Hz)
are plotted in Figures 6.18,6.19 and 6.20 respectively.
It is interesting to observe that while TD~b becomes positive as the frequency

Tl>~P is negative for frequencies in the lower range. Tl>~P
reaches a minimum value whenever
I is increased,
(6.99)
165
4
KI_ 85
.... KI _ 170
......
-'.
a..
Ul
\-..
"
...
....
-1
-2
10
20
Figure 6.19.
25
f (Hz)
35
30
Variation of Tl>~P with
40
45
50
1m
e,-----.------.-----,------.-----.------.----~------._----,
~ -2
KI_85
.... KI _ 170
10
20
Figure 6.20.
25
f (Hz)
30
35
Variation of TDe with
40
45
50
1m
where Ide is defined by Eq.(6.83).The values of Ide are (i) 11.2 Hz and (ii)
16.4 Hz for values of Kr = 85 and 170 respectively. The crossover of TDe from
negative to positive values also takes place around Ide.
The analysis given in section 6.4 also gives the same results for TDe (the total
damping torque ). In this case,TDe is divided into
TDe
TDe!
+ TDe2
(6.100)
166
-----'--..............................................................
KI_ 85
.... KI _ 170
10
15
20
Figure 6.21.
25
!(Hz)
30
40
35
Variation of TDel with
45
50
1m
where
ST(s) = (ka Vro)2[cOS 0'0
TDel = Re[SIT(jwm)]
TDe2 = Re[ST(jw m )]
(6.101)
(6.102)
sin 0'0 WB] cos O'oYd(S)

s
(6.103)
Yd(S) = R+ sL
(6.104)
The variations of TDel and TDe2 as functions of 1m are plotted in Figures

6.21 and 6.22 respectively.
It is interesting to observe that while TDe2 is positive throughout ,the
variation of TDel is qualitatively similar to the variation of TD~b .It is to be
noted that TDel gives the contribution from the current controller while TDe2
is the contribution of the HVDC link in the absence of the current controller.
To summarize, the results of the simplified damping torque analysis indicate
that
(1) The negative damping introduced by the HVDC system is mainly due to
the converter current controller. Even here, the damping is negative only for
1m < Ide'
(2) Ide is reduced by
(i) reducing the controller gain [{I

(ii) increasing inductance L (increase in dc line length implies increase in L)
(iii) reducing operating value of firing angle 0'
(3) The peak value of negative damping is an order of magnitude less compared
to the case with fixed series compensation.
Remarks
167
12,-----.------.-----.------,-----.------.-----.------,-----,
.:3
I-
5~----~10~--~1~5~--~20~--~2~5~----30~--~3~5~--~4~O-----4~5~--~50
f (Hz)
Figure 6.22.
Variation of TDe2 with
1m
1. It is interesting to observe from Figures 6.18 and 6.19 that

(i) Tb~b is not always negative
(ii)T};~P is not always positive
These results are in contrast to the results with fixed series compensation (see
chapter 4).
2. It can be inferred from the comparison of Figures 6.18 and 6.21, that the
adverse effect of converter current controller on TI is primarily due to Tb~b.
6.7
CONTROL OF TORSIONAL INTERACTION
It has been brought out from the case study and the simplified analysis, that
the adverse torsional interaction is much less compared to that caused by fixed
series compensation. Even here, the potential of adverse interaction exists only
if radial operation of HVDC link connected to a tubine - generator is envisaged.
There are two ways by which the adverse TI can be overcome.
1. Modification of the converter control
2. Providing a Subsynchronous Damping Controller (SSDC).
The first option is feasible only if the modification does not affect the usual
functions of the controller during normal and abnormal (contingency) conditions.A major requirement of the controller is to ensure satisfactory transient
response during (i) dc line faults and (ii) recovery from ac line faults. Whenever
the first torsional mode of the turbine generator has frequency higher than 15
Hz,the TI problem is minimal and can be solved with minor modifications of
the existing converter controls.
The second approach of providing an SSDC to modulate the firing angle of
the converter to damp subsynchronous oscillations is more flexible. The input signal can be taken from the rotor speed or bus frequency [Svensson and
168
Mortensen (1982) ].Alternatively, the signal representing the frequency of the

generator internal voltage can be synthesized from voltage and current measurements [Piwko and Larsen (1982)].
The SSDC can be designed based on (a) narrow bandwidth approach or (b)
wide bandwidth approach.ln the former,sharp band pass filters are used to isolate the torsional mode of concern and has the advantage of minimizing the
interference with existing HVDC converter controls.However,narrow band pass
filters require precise tuning in the field,which may pose a problem.lt can also
introduce negative damping at frequencies on either side of the frequency for
which the filter is tuned.The output of the SSDC goes directly to the firingangle controller to modulate the delay angle Q' .In designing a SSDC,care must
be taken to ensure that it does not amplify characteristic or non-characteristic
harmonics.
7.1
INTERACTIONS WITH SHUNT

COMPENSATORS
INTRODUCTION
Shunt connected reactive power compensators are used for voltage control at
load buses and transmission networks. Apart from maintaining satisfactory
voltage profile under load variations, reactive power compensators are expected
to control dynamic overvoltages, increase power transfer capacity and improve
system stability depending on the speed of control.
Mechanically Switched Capacitors (MSC) and reactors have been used primarily for slow control during load tracking. Apart from the slow speed, they
also have the drawback of providing only discrete and stepped control. Synchronous condensers provide a smoother and continuous control, but suffer from
the problems of maintainance, loss of synchronism under a large disturbance
etc. The application of thyristor switches, originally used with HVDC converters, for control of current in a reactor and insertion or removal of a capacitor
bank has resulted in the development of Static Var Compensator (SVC) since
mid-seventies. SVC's are now viewed as first generation FACTS controllers
which are expected to revolutionize power transmission in future.
Static Var Compensators were initially used for power factor compensation of
dynamic loads such as steel mills and arc furnaces. In recent years, SVC's have
been used for the fast ractive power control at HVDC converter stations, where
short circuit ratios (SCR) are low. They also have the capability of balancing
the load currents by independent control over phase currents and hence are
170
also used with predominant single phase loads such as electric traction. In
transmission networks, their use was initially for improving the power transfer
capacity of long AC lines (e.g.735 kV AC lines in Hydro Quebec). By locating
a SVC at the midpoint of a long line, the power capacity can be practically
doubled. (subject to the availability of sufficient ratings of the equipment).
This concept can be extended for the application of multiple SVCs either in
a single line or the network. A major consideration is the choice of optimal
locations as the effectiveness of a SVC is strongly dependent on its location.
It would be desirable to have a SVC which can be relocated if the location
originally selected does not remain optimal with growth in the system.
The advantages of a SVC over Synchronous Condenser (SC) are (i) the speed
of response and (ii)lack of moving parts. The response time can be as fast as
30 ms although it tends to increase as the strength of the ac system (measured
by the short circuit level at the SVC bus) increases. Fortunately, this is not a
problem as voltage regulation is improved with strong system conditions.
The speed of response of a SVC enables it to be used for improvement of stability by incorporating a Supplementary Modulation Controller (SMC) which
modulates reactive power output of the SVC in response to a control signal.
This can be used to primarily damp interarea, low frequency power oscillations.
By providing higher bandwidth controllers, it is possible to damp higher frequency subsynchronous oscillations.The concept of dynamic stabilizer described
in chapter 4 and used for damping of SSR is an example of such a modulation
controller. However, the dynamic stabilizer is a Thyristor Controlled Reactor
(TCR) connected at the generating station and has no role for voltage control;
whereas a SVC is primarily intended for voltage control at a location away
from a generating station. Rostamkolai et al(1990) studied the influence of
voltage control in a SVC on the stability of torsional modes of nearby turbine
generators. They reported that under certain system conditions, a SVC can
significantly reduce torsional damping of nearby T-G units. As a countermeasure to this problem, they suggested the use of a low pass filter in the SVC
vol tage regulator.
Recently, the availability of high power Gate-Turn-Off (GTO) thyristors has
led to the development of an advanced type of SVC utilizing Voltage Source
Converters (VSC) [Gyugyi (1979), Edwards et.al (1988), Schauder et al (1995)].
This device has been termed as Static Condenser (STATCON) or Static Compensator (STATCOM). It is a precursor to the application of Unified Power
Flow Controller (UPFC) using VSCs for series and shunt compensation for
power flow and voltage control.
The advantage of a STATCON over SVC are
(i) elimination of bulky passive elements such as reactors.
(ii) compact and modular construction requiring less space
(iii) better control characteristics and
(iv) the possibility of controlling active power in addition to the reactive power
by employing an energy source such as batteries or fuel cells.
In this chapter, the analysis of torsional interactions with a shunt reactive
INTERACTIONS WITH SHUNT COMPENSATORS
171
power compensator is presented. Both SVC and STATCON are considered.

The analysis proceeds by modelling these devices for SSR studies. The controllers used in SVC and STATCON are described and modelled in detail. The
study is based on small signal stability analysis and illustrated by examples.A
simplified damping torque analysis is also presented to get an insight into the
torsional interactions caused by the voltage control.
7.2
7.2.1
STATIC VAR COMPENSATOR
Description
There are two types of SVC:

1. Fixed Capacitor-Thyristor Controlled Reactor (FC- TCR)
2. Thyristor Switched Capacitor - Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TSC-TCR)
The second type is more flexible than the first one and requires smaller rating
of the reactor and consequently generates less harmonics.
The schematic diagram of a TSC-TCR type SVC is shown in Fig.7.1.
SVC BUS
STEP DOWN
TRANSFORMER
IN
PT
,--t---t--7-i CO NTRO L
HP
TUNED TCR
FILTER FILTER
Figure 7.1.
TSC
A Typical SVC (TSC- TCR) configuration
This shows that the TCR and TSC are connected on the secondary side of a
step-down transformer. Tuned and high pass filters are also connected in paral-
172
leI which provide capacitive reactive power at the fundamental frequency. The
voltage signal is taken from the high voltage SVC bus using a potential transformer. The TSC is switched in using two thyristor switches(connected back to
back) at the instant in a cycle when the voltage across the switch is minimum
and positive. This results in minimum switching transients. In steady state,
TSC does not generate any harmonics. To switch off a TSC, the gate pulses
are blocked and the thyristors turns off when the currents through them fall
below the holding currents. It is to be noted that the switches are made up
of a series string of thyristor devices(termed as thyristor valve) as the voltage
rating of a thyristor is not adequate for the voltage level required. However
the voltage ratings of valves for a SVC are much less than the voltage ratings
of a HVDC valve as a step down transformer is used in the case of SVC. To
limit ~: in a TSC it is necessary to provide a small reactor in series with the
capacitor.
Thyristor Controlled Reactor [Miller (1982), Gyugyi(1988))
The current in a TCR can be continuously varied from zero( corresponding
to zero conduction angle) to maximum(corresponding to conduction angle of
180 0 )by phase control in which the firing angle a( with respect to the zero
crossing of the voltage) is varied from 180 0 to 90 0 The instantaneous current
iTCR over half a cycle is given by
iTCR
=1;(cosa-coswt), a<wt<a+(7}
= 0,
a + (7 < wt < a + 7r
(7.1 )
where V is the rms voltage applied, XL is the fundamental frequency reactance

ofthe reactor. The current waveform in a single phase TCR is shown in Fig.7.2.
Figure 7.2.
Voltage and Current waveforms in TCR
The current is non-sinusoidal and contains odd harmonics which are functions of the conduction angle (7.
173
The fundamental component of the TCR current h, is given by
(7.2)
where
B
TCR
sm (T
rrX L
(T -
(7.3)
By connecting the TCR in delta, the triplen harmonics are eliminated on the
line side. The harmonics present in the line current are of the order
n
= 6k 1
(7.4)
where k is an integer.
The phase and line current waveforms in a delta connected TCR are shown in
Fig. 7.3 for 3 different values of a. It is assumed that the TCR currents are
(i) alpha.100
(i) alpha.100
k~;J
k?:SJ v:sJ
(ii) alpha.130
(iii)
~
o
200
phase. deg
(a) Phase Current
Figure 7.3.
J pvs;J
(iii)
alph~1~
f\
100
(ii) alpha.130
300
100
alpha.1~
200
phase. deg
300
(b) Line Current
Phase and line current waveforms in delta-connected TCR
identical in waveform and magnitude in the three phases and only phase shifted
from each other by 120 0 This is possible only if a is the same in all three phases.
To limit the harmonics entering the system, some of the fixed capacitors are
connected as series tuned filters. To reduce the harmonics further, it is possible
to have twelve pulse configuration of TCR, in which there are two branches
of TCR supplied by the two sets of secondaries of the step down transformer.
One set of the secondary windings is connected in delta while the other set is
connected in star. In this case, the line currents on the primary side will have
harmonics of the order
(7.5)
n = 12k 1
where k is an integer. This happens because the harmonics of the order other
than those defined in (7.5) , generated in the two TCR branches cancel each
174
other as they flow on the primary side.

The advantages of TSC-TCR type SVC over FC-TCR type are
(i) the reduction in the reactor size and consequently the harmonics generated
(ii) greater flexibility in control and
(iii) better performance under system fault conditions. The power losses in the
quiescent operating condition (with SVC output current close to zero) also
tend to be less with TSC-TCR type of SVC.
7.2.2
Control Characteristics and Power Angle Curve
Consider a long transmission line with SVC connected at the midpoint as shown
in Fig.7.4. It is assumed that the voltage magnitudes at the sending and receiving ends are held constants at the nominal (rated) voltage (V). The line
losses are neglected for convenience.
VLJ
V LO
P
f---
Isvc
SVC
Figure 7.4.
A transmission line with SVC connected at midpoint
It can be shown that the voltage variation in the line( due to variation in J) is
maximum at the midpoint. SVC helps to limit the variation by suitable control.
The steady state control characteristics of SVC is shown in Fig.7.5 where AB
is the control range. OA represents the characteristic where the SVC hits the
capacitor limit. BC represents the SVC at its inductor limit. Note that SVC
current is considered positive when SVC susceptance is inductive. Thus
Isvc
= -BsvcVsvc
(7.6)
A positive slope (in the range of 1-5 %) is given in the control range to
(a) enable parallel operation of more than one SVC connected at the same or
neighbouring buses and
(b) prevent
175
sve hitting the limits frequently.

Vsvc
Ie
Vrej
/B
/
/
o
Figure 7.5.
Isvc
Control characteristics of SVC
The steady state value of the sve bus voltage is determined from the intersection of the system characteristic and the control characteristic (see Fig. 7 .6).
Vsvc
Vsvco
System characteristics
Isvc
Isvco
Figure 7.6.
Determination of operating point of SVC
The system characteristic is a straight line with negative slope and is defined
by
Vsvc
= VTh -
XTdsvc
(7.7)
176
where VTh and XTh are the Thevenin voltage and reactance viewed from the
SVC bus. For the system shown in Fig.7.4, we have
v - v. _ Vcos6/2
Th- mo- cos(j/2
XTh =
Zn
T
tan (j/2,
(j=(31
(7.8)
(7.9)
where Zn is the surge impedance defined by

(7.10)
Land C are positive sequence inductance and capacitance of the line per unit
length, I is the line length. (3 is the phase constant defined as
(7.11 )
where f is the operating frequency.
Expression for Voltage and Power
(a) Control Range
The SVC control range is described by
Vsvc = Vrej
+ X.Isvc
(7.12)
where X. is the slope of the control characteristic.

Combining Eqs.(7.7) and (7.12), we get
(7.13)
The expression for power flow in the line is given by
P = Vm Vsin6/2
Zn sin (j/2
With
Vrej
V,
it can be shown that
P
where
is given by,
= kPo + (1 -
p, _ V 2 sin 6
o-Zn SIn
'(j'
and
(7.14)
k)Pl
(7.15)
2
P1 -_ V sin6/2
Zn sin (j/2
(7.16)
X.
(7.17)
X. +XTh
Remarks
1. Po is the power flow in the line without SVC and P l is the power flow in the
line where SVC maintains a constant voltage V at the midpoint (Xs=O)
2. k -+ 1 as Xs -+ 00
3. For small values of (), it can be assumed that sin () :::: (),
cos!!.2 '"
1
v2 ~
V2
~/
IntIs
h case, P,0
XL SInU,
PI
2XL SInu 2
177
sm 2:::: 2'
where XL = (wL)1 is the total reactance of the line.
(b). At SVC limits

When the SVC hits the limit it can be represented as a fixed susceptance
(Bsve) where
Bsve = Be
at capacitive limit
= -BL
at inductive limit
Substituting Isve from Eq.(7.6) in Eq.(7.7), we get
Vsve =
VTh
(1 - XThBsve)
V cosJ/2
(1 - XThBsve) cos ()/2
(7.18)
The power flow in the line is given by
Pn sinJ
(1 - XThBsve) sin ()
(7.19)
where Pn =
is termed as the Surge Impedence Load (SIL).
Power Angle Curve for SVC
The power angle curve for SVC is made up of 3 segments corresponding to
(i) Bsve = -BL,
(ii) control range
(iii) Bsve = Be
For typical value of parameters, the power (expressed in per unit of Pn ) as a
function of J is shown in Fig.7.7. The power angle curve for the line without
SVC is also shown iIi Fig.7.7 (curve b).
P=
Po
(1 - XThBsve)
V 2 sin J
i:
7.2.3 SVC Controller

The block diagram of the basic SVC controller incorporating voltage regulator is shown in Fig.7.8. [Romegialli and Beeler (1981), IEEE (1994)] This
shows that both voltage (Vsve) and current (Isve) signals are obtained from
potential and current transformers and then rectified. The AC filter is basically
a notch filter to eliminate the signal component of frequency corresponding to
the parallel resonance in the system viewed from the SVC bus. The line capacitance in parallel with SVC capacitance can result in parallel resonance with
the line inductance. The SVC voltage regulator has a tendency to destabilize
this resonant mode of oscillation and the notch filter is aimed at overcoming
this problem. As a matter of fact, any parallel resonance mode (of frequency
below second harmonic) can have adverse interaction with SVC voltage regulator. If series capacitors are used along with SVC, then they can cause parallel
resonance with a neighbouring shunt reactor. If the second (parallel resonance)
178
1.6,-----,------.-----,---,-------,------,------,--,-----,
1.4
1.2
80
Figure 7.7.
100
120
Plot of Power Vs J
mode has a lower frequency (say below 20 Hz), a high pass filter in addition to
the notch filter has been suggested [ Larsen et al (1990)).
The rectified signal is filtered. The dc side filters include both a low pass
filter (to remove the ripple content) and notch filters tuned to the fundamental and second harmonic components. The notch filters are provided to avoid
the adverse interactions of SVC caused by second harmonic positive sequence
and fundamental frequency negative sequence voltages on the SVC bus. For
example, second harmonic positive sequence voltages at the SVC bus cause
a fundamental frequency component in the rectified signal that results in the
modulation of SVC susceptance at the same frequency. This in turn (due to amplitude modulation) results in two components at side band frequencies (0,2f)
in the SVC current. The dc component can result in unsymmetric saturation
of the SVC transformer and consequent increase in the magnetization current
containing even harmonics. It has been observed that this adverse harmonic
interactions between the SVC and the network can result in large distortion of
the SVC bus voltage and impaired operation of SVC (termed as second harmonic instability ).
The auxiliary signals mentioned in Fig.7.8 are outputs from the Susceptance (or reactive power) Regulator (SR) and Supplementary Modulation
Controller (SMC). The Susceptance Regulator is aimed at regulating the output of SVC in steady state such that the full dynamic range is available during
transient disturbances. The output of Susceptance Regulator modifies the voltage reference VreJ in steady state. However its operation is deliberately made
slow such that it does not affect the voltage regulator function during transients.
In contrast to the Susceptance Regulator, the Supplementary Modu-
179
DC FILTER
V re
/+
------''-<.~[
-+--
V.(AUX. SIGNAL)
- - - GAIN REDUCTION
TSC BLOCKING
LINEARIZER
FIRING PULSES TO
TSC/
TCR AND TSC
TCR
LOGIC
GPU
AUX.SIG.
Figure 7.S.
SVC Controller
lation Controller (SMC) is designed to improve the performance of SVC during

transient conditions and not affect the steady state. SMC has control inputs
from appropriate signals obtained from local measurements and provides a limited output at either the summing junction before the voltage regulator or after
it. Thus it modulates directly either the SVC bus voltage or susceptance in
order to damp oscillations and improve stability.
The Gate Pulse Unit (GPU) for SVC produces firing pulses for TCR and TSC.
180
The logic determines whether a TSC is to be switched in or out. B;e!:R is calculated from B~e.jc and if B;e!:R :S 0, then a TSC is switched in. If B~e!:R ?: BL,
then a TSC is switched out. In computing B;e!:R from B~e.jc the effect of
leakage reactance of the step down transformer is to be considered as Bsvc is
given by
Bsvc = _ B,,(Bc - BTCR) = Bc - BTCR
(7.20)
Bc - B TCR - B"
(1- Bc-BTCR)
B"
where Bc is the capacitance of the fixed capacitor or TSC. B"

leakage reactance of the step down transformer.
If B" Bc or BTCR, then
Bsvc ~ (1
Bc
+ -B )Bc - [1 +
(2Bc - BL)
"
B"
= i", X"
JBTCR
is the
(7.21)
BL is the reciprocal of XL(reactance of TCR). Neglecting leakage reactance of

the transformer, the variation of BTCR with variation of Bsvc for a case with
two identical TSC's is shown in Fig.7.9.
BTCR
BCl
Figure 7.9.
BC2 Bsvc
Variation of BTCR with Bsvc for TSC-TCR type SVC
This shows that BL (the rating of TCR) is slightly larger than the rating of
either TSC and there is hysteresis in operation of the TSC. This is desirable
as the switching of a TSC is not well defined if BCl (susceptance of a TSC) is
exactly equal to B L. If BCl is greater than B L, then the operation of the SVC
is degraded.
For stability studies,it is not essential to model G PU. In this case, the modelling
of the controller shown in Fig.7.8 can be simplified greatly by also assuming
that SVC does not generate harmonics. The block diagram of the controller
in this case is shown in Fig.7.IO. Here the voltage regulator is typically a PI
controller as shown in Fig.7 .11. The proportional gain (l{p) may be set zero
unless a faster response is required. The transfer function H m (s) represents a
181
Vsv...:c"------'+~ ~
Isvc
}+----f
l!,.e!
Bs
v.
Figure 7.10.
Block Diagram of SVC Voltage Control

Bmax
Bmin
Kp
1 + sTp
Figure 7.11.
B re
!
svc
Bmin
Voltage Regulator for SVC
low pass filter as given below

First order LP filter:
(7.22)
Second order LP filter:
1
H (s) - ----.,-------,-".
m
- 1 + 2s(Tm + (sTm)2
(7.23)
182
Tm is typically 2 to 3 ms and ( = 0.7

The transport delay, Td is typically
(7.24)
where T is the period of the supply voltage. Td arises due to the discrete nature
of the firing pulse. n represents the average delay in getting Bsvc from the
instant of delivering the order and is given by
n=-T4
(7.25)
represents maximum (average) delay when the B~eJR
changes from maximum (Bd to zero.
In Fig.7.8 or Fig.7.1O, the current signal Isvc is used to provide a positive
slope for the control characteristic of SVC. However the current signal contains
harmonics and there are measurement problems particularly when Isvc is close
to zero (the normal operating point) . A solution to this problem is to take the
signal from B~~c instead of Isvc .
In this case, the block diagram ofFig.7.10 can be simplified as shown in Fig.7.12.
Bmin
Figure 7.12.
Simplified Block Diagram of SVC Voltage Control
Here, assuming Kp = 0,
Fi.R=1
X3
(7.26)
and
TR= KR
(7.27)
KJ
KR (typically) varies from 20 to 100, whereas TR varies between 20 to 150 ms.
Control Instability and Gain Supervisor [Belanger et al (1984)]
The transfer function between the change in the SVC susceptance 6.Bsvc
183
and the change in the sve voltage AVsvc is independent of frequency if only
fundamental component of Vsvc is considered. Assuming the operating voltage
at sve bus as unity, then
AVsvC
XThABsvc
(7.28)
The loop gain of the control system shown in Fig.7.12 depends on XTh. The
speed of the response depends on the loop gain and increases as XTh is increased. However for high values of XTh the system can be unstable. The
voltage regulator of sve is designed to provide the fastest response corresponding to a contingency condition at which XTh is maximum (in the range
of operating conditions considered) or the short circuit level at the sve bus is
minimum. However, during abnormal conditions resulting in tripping of several
transmission lines in the system, XTh will be higher than the design value and
the sve controller can be unstable. In such cases, it is necessary to reduce
the gain of sve (f{I) automatically by detecting instability. This is called as
gain supervisor. The gain is restored to the normal value when the instability
is not present. It is to be noted that although instability can be avoided by
designing the voltage regulator gain corresponding to the lowest value of short
circuit level (highest value of XTh) this is not an optimal choice as the response
of sve will be slower under normal conditions.
The transfer function ( ~BVSYC
) is in general, a function dependent on frequency
svc
if network (electromagnetic) transients are considered. The magnitude of the
transfer function is maximum at frequency, Ir defined by
~
Ir = INp - 10
(7.29)
where INp is the frequency corresponding to the parallel resonance in the network and 10 is the operating frequency.
The controller gain will be severely restricted even under normal conditions
if Ir is within the controller bandwidth. Hence the practical solution to this
problem is to provide a notch filter in the controller (on the input side) as
mentioned earlier.
Susceptance Regulator (SR)
A typical SR is shown in Fig.7.13.
Here the output of the voltage regulator, B~Vc and a set reference B'S'Vc are
compared. If the error exceeds a threshold, it activates an integrator after an
adjustable time delay (of the order of several seconds). The integrator output
is hard limited by a non-wind up limiter and modifies the voltage reference.
The SR has to be coordinated with other reactive power controllers in the
vicinity such as HVDe power control, switched capacitor and reactor banks,
tap changing transformers etc.
Supplementary Modulation Controller(SMC}[Larsen et al(1993),(1996)]
This controller modulates either Vsvc or Bsvc by processing a signal obtained
from local measurements. The objective is to damp critical low frequency interarea or local modes that can affect stability during disturbances. The control
184
Vmax
DEAD BAND
BreI
svc
TIME
DELAY
Vrel
J{SR
Vmin
Figure 7.13.
Susceptance Regulator
signals are selected on the basis of following criteria

1. The signal should predominantly contain the mode that needs to be damped.
2. The controller design based on a particular control signal should be simple
and reject noise.
3. The controller should not destabilize modes that are otherwise stable
4. The controller should be effective and robust under widely varying operating
conditions.
The control signals that have been used or suggested include (1) line current
(2) active and reactive power (3) bus frequency (4) Computed Rotor Frequency
(CRF) and (5) Computed Thevenin voltage. The last two signals are synthesized from current and voltage measurements at the SVC location. A typical
controller configuration of SMC is shown in Fig.7.14.
FILTER
GAIN
WASHOUT
PHASE LEAD
V$
U ---+I
Figure 7.14.
Block Diagram of SMC
The washout circuit is designed to drive the SMC output to zero during
steady state. The gain and phase compensation of SMC are chosen such that
it improves the system response under a wide variety of operating conditions
and different types of disturbances.
7.2.4
Modelling of SVC
In modelling SVC for the study of torsional interactions, the step down transformer can be considered as part of the AC network. The capacitor (fixed or
thyristor switched) and the TCR are connected at the secondary bus whose
185
voltage is denoted as VTR (see Fig.7.15). The capacitor C, also includes the
representation for harmonic filters.
The current drawn by TCR is denoted as ITR and can be derived as output
AC
NETWORK
Figure 7.15.
Representation of SVC in AC Network
from SVC.
The D and Q-axis components of the current in the TCR are obtained from
the following equations.
(7.30)
(7.31)
The variable BTCR is the output of the SVC controller. In modelling the
controller, the susceptance regulator (SR) can be neglected as it is slow acting.
The voltage control is modelled as shown in Fig.7.1 O. H m (s) is assumed to
be the transfer function of a first order low pass filter, given in Eq.(7.22).
Neglecting the proportional control in the voltage regulator shown in Fig.7.11,
the following equations apply for the voltage controller,
(7.32)
.
1
X C2 = Tm [-XC2
+ Vsvc
XC3 = Tb [-XC3
+ XCI]
.
1
BTCR = -[-BTCR
Td
- Xslsvc]
+ XC3]
(7.33)
(7.34)
(7.35)
In deriving the above equations, it is assumed that e- STd ~ (1+~Td). Also, the
limiters are neglected.
186
Linearizing equations (7.30) to (7.35), the SVC mathematical model can be

expressed in the compact form as
Xsv = [Asv]xsv
+ [BSVI]~ V. + [BSV2]USV
Ysv = [Csv]xsv
(7.36)
(7.37)
where
xh = [~ITRD ~ITRQ ~XlC ~X2C ~X3C ~BTCR]

Y~v = [~IrRD ~IrRQ], u~v = [~VTRD ~VTRQ]
The nonzero elements of [Asv], [Bsv] and [Csv] are given below
Asv(l, 1) = -wBRTCRBTCR, Asv{l, 2) = -Wo

Asv(l, 6) = WB(VTRD - RTCRIrRD)
Asv(2, 1) = Wo, Asv(2,2) = -wBRTCRBTCR
Asv (2,6) = WB(VTRQ - RTcRITRQ)
Asv(3,4) = -J{[
Asv(4,3) =
-:~,
1
Asv(5,3)=n'
1
Asv(6,5) = Td
Asv(4,4) =
-;m
1
Asv(5,5)=-Tb
1
'
Asv(6,6) = -Td
'
Bsvd3) = J{[, Csv(l, 1) = Csv(2, 2) = 1

Bsv2(1, 1) = wBBTCR, BSV2(2, 2) = wBBTCR
VTRD
VTRQ
BSV2 (4, 1) = To V ' BSV2(4,2) = To V
m TR
m TR
In deriving the above equations following assumptions have been made.
VTR, This is also equivalent to neglecting the leakage impedance of
(i) Vsvc
the step down transformer
(ii) ~Isvc = ~B~~c = ~XCI
7.3
7.3.1
TORSIONAL INTERACTIONS WITH SVC
Factors affecting TI
Rostamkolai et al (1990), have carried out a detailed study of TI with SVC

in connection with the planning for the installation of a SVC at Chester. The
studies are based on damping torque analysis. They considered a simple two
area system connected by a tie line. Each area has a generator operating in
parallel with an external source (infinite bus). The SVC is located at the midpoint of the tie line. The major conclusions based on the study are gIven below.
1. The torsional interactions are primarily due to the voltage regulation function of SVC. The phase locking scheme for the generation of firing pulses had
187
no influence.
2. The adverse TI occurred with the generating unit in the sending area.
3. The level of adverse interaction increased with
(a) increased generator output
(b) increased tie line power flow
(c) increased capacitive reactive power output from sve
(d) decreased system strength in the sending area system
Even when the sve output was zero, the presence of the voltage regulator
affected the torsional damping. As with a PSS, the presence of SMe with the
sve results in increased adverse influence on the torsional damping than the
voltage regulation alone. This can be overcome by using a low pass filter in
the measurement circuit. A bandwidth of 5 Hz for the filter is suggested. The
inclusion of a similar low pass filter in the voltage regulator loop also reduced
the TI caused by the voltage regulation function. A notch filter tuned to the
frequency of the critical torsional mode is suggested as an alternative to the
low pass filter. An important point to be noted is that the negative torsional
damping introduced by the sve is less than the negative damping introduced
by the HVDe converter (current) controller.
7.3.2 A Case Study

To evaluate the torsional interactions with the voltage regulator of a sve, a
single machine infinite bus (SMIB) system shown in Fig. 7.16 is studied [Geetha
(1996)]. In this system, a sve is connected at the midpoint of a 400 kV, 600
km long line for voltage regulation and improvement of power transfer. To
examine, the effectiveness of sve, the contingency condition of outage of a line
is considered. The generator is supplying 800 MW power and sve output is
220 MVAR. The system frequency 50 Hz.
Tl
Zs
Q+-~~>--I--I-+--~--t---iCJ~~
.
PoLO
I
\j.JJJ
T2
svc
Figure 1.16.
The Study System
188
Damping Torque Analysis

Combining the equations for the electrical system including the generator, excitation system (including PSS), the AC network and the SVC, the overall state
equations can be expressed as
XF;
= [AElxE + [BEMl
:L ]
(7.38)
= [CMElxE
(7.39)
= [AElxE + [B~Mltl6 + [BEMltlSm
(7.40)
tlTe
Expressing (7.37) as
XF;
where [B~Ml and [BEMl are the first and second columns of [BEMl respectively,
and noting that
WB
(7.41)
tl6(s) = -tlSm
s
we can derive the transfer function between tlTe and tlSm as

(7.42)
where
mt(s) =
[WB
Il
The damping torque coefficient TDe is obtained as a function of frequency as
TDe
tlTeUW)
= Re[ tlSmUw) 1
(7.43)
The net damping torque coefficient (TD) is defined as (see chapter 4)

(7.44)
TD = TDm +TDe
where
TDm = Re[YmUw)l
The net damping torque coefficient evaluated at the six torsional modes including mode zero, are shown in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1 Damping torque coefficient ( TD ) for torsional modes with SVC
I Without voltage I With voltage I

I Mode I inFrequency
rad/s
controller
controller
0
1
2
3
4
5
5
99
127
160
203
298
59.53
-9.04
0.70
12.25
2.78
125.77
83.89
-9.51
1.04
13.03
3.97
150.30
189
This shows that even without the voltage regulator, mode 1 is unstable. This
is due to the interaction of PSS while has no torsional filter. The effect of
the SVC voltage controller is to increase damping of all the torsional modes
(particularly mode zero) except mode 1. The mode 1 damping becomes more
negative due to SVC voltage regulator action. An eigenvalue analysis is also
performed by constructing the system matrix [AT] defined by
(7.45)
where [AM], [EM] and [eM] matrices are defined in chapter 2. The eigenvalues corresponding to the torsional modes evaluated at the operating point are
shown in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2 Eigenvalues corresponding to the torsional modes with SVC
Mode
Without PSS
Without voltage
controller
With PSS
Without voltage
controller
With PSS and

voltage controller
0
1
2
3
4
5
0.585 j4. 711

-0.021 j98.732
-0.007 j126.99
-0.058 j160.51
-0.032 j202.83
-0.167 j298.18
-0.475 j4.886
0.076 j98.817
-0.0006 j127.00
-0.043 j160.53
-0.016 j202.85
-0.167 j298.18
-0.698 j5.411
0.080 j98.798
-0.0008 j127.00
-0.045 j160.52
-0.023 j202.84
-0.167 j298.18
These results are in agreement with those shown in Table 7.1. It is observed
that PSS while improving the damping of mode zero, destablizes other torsional
modes (particularly modes 1 and 2). The mode five is unaffected due to its high
inertia.
7.4
7.4.1
STATIC CONDENSER(STATCON)
Description
The static condenser is an advanced form of SVC using Voltage Source Converters (VSC). It is similar to the Synchronous Condenser (SC) in the sense
that the control of the reactive current drawn by the device is achieved by controlling the magnitude of the voltage behind a series react ace (primarily the
leakage reactance of the step down transformer). However, it is much faster in
operation than SC and has no moving parts. The control characteristic of a
STATCON is shown in Fig.7.17.
It is to be noted that the reactive current output is not dependent on the bus
voltage even at the limits. Also, a transient overload capacity in the capacitive
range can be built in by proper choice of device ratings. Thus, in comparison
with the control characteristics of a SVC (see Fig.7.5), the control characteristics of a STATCON are definitely superior. This implies that for identical
190
VSTAT
Transient
Overload
Capability
Cap.
Figure 7.17.
Ind.
~TAT
Control Characteristics of STATCON
ratings, a STATCON provides better dynamic voltage support than a SVC. In

addition, a STATCON has the following advantages over a SVC.
1. A STATCON has smaller size due to reduced number and size of passive
components.
2. It can also supply active power during contigencies if an energy source such
as battery or fuel cell is connected on the dc side of the VSC.
The drawbacks of STATCON are
1. Generation of voltage harmonics. A six pulse VSC generates a fifth harmonic
of 20 % of the fundamental. The harmonics can be reduced by deploying several converters in multipulse operation. 48 pulse STATCON have been built
and operated in Japan [Mori et al (1993)] and U.S.A.[Schauder et al (1995)]
2. The operation of multipulse converters require complex magnetics. If the
converters are connected in series on the AC side (as it is usually done), the
addition of voltage outputs of the various converters requires a summing transformer which needs to be carefully designed.
The Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) of converters is still not feasible for high
power converters that employ GTO thyristors as switches. Also, requirements
of voltage ratings may necessitate series connection of GTO's which is quite
complex. The development of efficient higher power, high frequency power
semiconductor switches (such as IGBT, MCT) are still under way. A compromise appears to be the operation of multilevel converters that use more than
two levels for voltage control, harmonic reduction. Three level converters have
been used in a recent UPFC project which is made up of shunt and series converters.
3. Voltage source converters require power semiconductor switches that have
inherent turn-off capability such as GTO's. Conventional thyristors used in
SVC's tend to be economical and available in higher power ratings than GTO's.
191
However, with the developments in power semiconductor technology, the costs

are expected to come down even at higher power levels.
7.4.2 Analysis of STATCON

A six pulse STATCON is shown in Fig.7.18.
ib
Xs
fVVY\
ic
Xs
n vb "v -
VC"v~
Figure 7.18.
Six pulse STATCON
Since STATCON is basically a reactive power controller, the direct voltage

on the de side of the converter can be sustained by a capacitor. In the analysis
of the circuit shown in Fig.7.18, the following assumptions are made.
1. The system voltages are balanced and sinusoidal.
2. The switches are assumed to be ideal.
3. The 'bottom' switch of the converter leg turns on immediately after the
'top'switch is turned off and vice-versa. (In practice a small delay is provided
to prevent both switches of a leg being on at the same time)
4. The transformer impedances are equal in all phases.
The converter output (phase) voltages can be expressed as
(7.46)
where Sa, Sb and Sc are termed as switching functions and shown in Fig.7.19.
In steady state, they are symmetrical, and satisfy the following relation
(7.4 7)
192
11"
3"
4,5,3
Figure 7.19.
1,5,3
,5,6
1,2,6
11"
11"
3"
3"
4,2,6
Switching Functions
4,2,3
4,5,3
1,5,3
(Sa, Sb ,Sc ) for
1,5,6
1,2,6
ON SWITCHES
6-pulse STATCON
Since the switches 1 to 6 are assumed to be ideal, they are lossless and from
conservation of energy principle, we have,
(7.48)
Substituting Eq.{7.46) in (7.48), we get
(7.49)
For analysis involving subsynchronous frequencies, it is in order to ignore harmonics generated by the converter. The fundamental components of the switch-
193
ing functions can be written as

Sal
Sbl
ScI
= ksin(wot + a + 0)
= ksin(wot + a + 0 _ 271")
= ksin(wot + a + 0 +
~)
(7.50)
The system voltages are assumed to be (from assumption 1)
Ii
Vb
=
V sin(wot + 0)
}
= /IVsin(wot + 0 - 2;))
Vc
= ~V sin(wot + 0 + 2;))
Va
(7.51)
It is to be noted that a is the angle by which the fundamental component of the
converter output voltages lead the STATCON bus voltages. Since harmonics
are ignored, Eq.(7.50) applies even when multiphase converters are considered.
In general, the constant 'k' is given by
k=v'6e
'Tr
(7.52)
where p is the pulse number. It is assumed that the basic converters (bridges)
are connected in parallel on the dc side and in series on the ac side (which is
the normal case). The equivalent circuit representation (on the ac side) of the
STATCON is shown in Fig.7.20.
Rs
'--~~~----~I
V~
iQ + j in
Figure 7.20.
Equivalent circuit of STATCON
Equations in D-Q Reference Frame

Applying Kron's transformation (defined in chapter 3) with respect to a synchronously rotating reference frame, the following equations can be written
down for iD, iQ and Vd
X, din
dt
-- = -
WB
R .
ltD -
Wo X .
WB
stQ
+ Vn - en
(7.53)
194
X$ diQ
.
- - d = -R$zQ
t
WB
be dVde
WB
dt
Wo
+ -X$ZD + vQ WB
eQ
= -gpVde - Zde
(7.54)
(7.55)
In terms of D-Q components, Eq.(7.48) can be expressed as

(7.56)
Substituting the fundamental components of the switching functions (in place
of Sa, Sb and Se) in Eqns. (7.46) and (7.49), we get
eD = ksin(a + 8)Vde
(7.57)
+ 8)Vde
(7.58)
+ kcos(a + 8)iQ]
(7.59)
eQ = kcos(a
ide = -[ksin(a + 8)iD
tan8= VD,
VQ
V=./Vb+V~
(7.60)
From control viewpoint, it is convenient to define active(ip) and rective (iR)

currents drawn by the STATCON as
ip =
vDiD
+ vQiQ
..
.
= ZD sm 8 + zQ cos 8
iR = vDiQ V
- VQiD = -ZD
. cos 8 + i Q sin8
(7.61 )
(7.62)
The reactive current iR is positive when STATCON is operating in the inductive

region and negative when STATCON is operating in the capacitive region.
7.4.3 STATCON Control
The primary control loop for a STATCON is the reactive current loop. Closed
loop control is necessary as the reactive current depends not only on the control
parameters (k and a ) but also on the system voltage magnitude and angle (V
and 8). Schauder and Mehta (1993) define two types of control structures for
STATCON. These are-:
1. Type I: Here both k and a are used as control variables to control ip and
iR. The reactive current reference is usually set by a voltage regulator which
maintains the bus voltage within limits. This type of controller is required,when
active power exchange is desired. The control of k is usually achieved using
PWM techniques.
2. Type II: When PWM techniques are to be avoided in the interests of reducing
switching losses (thereby improving efficiency), the reactive current control can
be achieved by varying a alone. The block diagram of this controller is shown
195
- - IsrATCON
Regulator
Reactive
Current
Controller
order
(a) Overall controller

sTw
r - - - -I ~-wr;-
o
90
~-I--
I10rder
RlCL_'-o{
_90 0
(b )Reactive current controller

Figure 7.21.
Type II controller for STATCON
The steady state values of the variables, iR ,ip and Vdc are shown in Fig.
7.22 for typical values of the STATCON parameters.
It can be shown that these variables are independent of the operating values
of (). It is assumed that variation of O! ( even in a narrow range) results in
complete control of iR. It is interesting to observe that Vdc has minor variation
over the entire range of operation. Vdc is higher in the capacitive region (for
negative O! and iR) compared to the inductive region (for positive O! and iR).
Schauder and Mehta (1993) have demonstrated that a pure P-I controller for
reactive current regulation is destabilizing when operating in the inductive region. This result is also confirmed by Padiyar and Kulkarni (1997) who have
suggested fuzzy control of reactive current which is more robust than the nonlinear controller suggested by Schauder and Mehta (1993).
196
0.8
1
8
I'--
04
0.2
0~--------------~~--------------------4
.~
"~-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
_0.8"-----'----'-----'------'-----'----~---'--------'-----'-----:c'
-0.15
-a.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
Figure 7.22.
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.15
(degrees)
Steady state characteristics
However, in what follows, the reactive current control is assumed to be a P-I

control for simplicity. It has been observed that with an outer loop of voltage
regulation, the reactive current control structure is not crucial.
7.5
TORSIONAL INTERACTIONS WITH STATCON
The analysis of TI with STATCO N is presented here with small signal model of
the system including STATCON.Both damping torque and eigenvalue analysis
can be carried out using the system model,in a similar manner to the analysis
with SVC.The analysis is illustrated with an example of a SMIB system shown
in Fig 7.16.
7.5.1
Modelling for SSR analysis
Substituting Eqs.(7.57) to (7.59) in Eqs.(7.53) to (7.55) ,we can express the

STATCON equations in the state space form.
(7.63)
where
VdS
XSE = [iD iQ
USE = [VSD vSQ]t
The subscript's' has been added to indicate the voltage at the STATCON bus.
The matrices [ASE] and [ESE] are defined below.
[ASE] =
-~
x,
Wo
~k sin(a + fJ)
-Wo
~
- X,
~kcos(a
+ fJ)
-x;-ksin(a+fJ)
-x;-kcos(a + fJ)
_WB9p
be
[!
[BSE]
197
fl
Linearizing Eq.(7.63), we get,
XSE = [A sE ] XSE
[BSE]~a
where
XSE = ~XSE and USE = ~USE
[B SE ] and [B SE ] are defined below
-
[BSe] =
~[iD cos(a
~[1
[ x,
[BSe] =
X,
+ B)
v,'
_!!!...a.eDv'51
x, v,'
Cl
= -iDcos(a+B)
(7.65)
- iQ sin(a + B)]
kVdc cos(a+9)v'51]
kC,WBV.Q
b c V,2
where
WBkVdC;~s(a+9)
WBkvdc sin(a+9)
(7.64)
[BSe]USE
!!!...a. [1
x,
!!!...a. e 51 v ,D
V/
_ kVdCSIn(a+9)v'D]
x,
v,'
kC1WRV,Q
bcV,'
(7.66)
+ iQsin(a+B)
In deriving the above expressions, the following equations are utilized

(7.67)
(7.68)
Modelling of STATCON Control
The linearized equations of STATCON controllers including reactive and voltage control loops can be expressed as
Xse = [Ase] Xse
+ [B~cl [ ~~~
~a
+
=
[BscluSE
(7.69)
[Cse]xse
(7.70)
Equations (7.64) and (7.69) can be combined by eliminating

and noting that
~a
from Eq.(7.70)
(7.71)
where the nonzero elements of [CSE ] are
CSE(l,l)
CSE(2,2)
1
198
The combined equations ( including the controller) for STATCON can be

expressed as
[Aslxs + [Bslus
Ys = [Cslxs
Xs
(7.72)
(7.73)
where
BSls~se]
,[Bsl = [
= [!~~]
Ys
,Us
[Csl
~~~
= USE
[CSE [0]]
For the STATCON controller shown in Fig.7.23,
Figure 7.23.
Block diagram of STATCON controller considered
we have
xse =
[~Xl ~X2 ~X3 ~x4lt
0
0
0
1
-Tm
-
J{2
-J{2
-Tm
[Asel
-J{/
I
-J{~J{2
-
~1
0
[~
~l
V.Tm
[B~e]
0
0
vsQ
-V,T m
V6 Tm
.J!..LJ:L
V,Tm
(...!!..UL
V,T m
[Bscl
~)
Tm
199
(v.r.:-~)
V, m
Tm
.:L
Tm
Tm
where
---vr= - V; - ---vr-
C2
C3
i.Q
iRV.D
i.D
iRV.Q
V; -
It is to be noted that in Fig.7 .23, the slope of the voltage controller characteristic is denoted by K. (instead of X.).
7.5.2 A Case Study

The system considered is identical to that in Fig.7.16, except that STATCON
replaces the SVC.The operating conditions are assumed to be same as those
given in section 7.3.2, with STATCON supplying 220 MVAR. Two cases are
considered in the study
(i) with reactive current control ( without voltage control) and
(ii) with reactive current and voltage control.
The reactive current controller gains are chosen as Kl = 0.05 and K2 = 2.0 .
The voltage controller gains are assumed to be the same as in the case of SVC
voltage regulator (Kp = 0.0 KJ = -300 )
Table 7.3 gives the values of the net damping torque coefficient (TD) for the
two cases considered.
Table 7.3 Values of damping torque coefficient ( TD ) with STATCON
I current
With reactive
I With voltage I
I Mode I inFrequency
rad/s
control only control
0
1
2
3
4
5
5
99
127
160
203
298
64.676
-0.354
12.003
17.658
1.464
115.71
86.19
-2.424
15.177
19.917
1.100
115.72
It is observed that with STATCON also, the torsional mode 1 is destabilized

; (particularly with voltage control), the comparison with SVC (see Table 7.1 )
shows that STATCON controller results in better damping of modes 1, 2 and
3.
The eigenvalues for the torsional modes, with STATCON are shown in Table
7.4.
Table 7.4 Eigenvalues corresponding to the torsional modes with STATCON
200
With reactive current I With voltage control I

I Mode I control
only
0
1
2
3
4
5
-0.522 j4.946
0.0038 j98.830
-0.0097 j127.008
-0.0606 j160.57
-0.0084 j202.91
-0.167 j298.18
-0.716 j5.426
0.0206 j98.789
-0.0124 j127.00
-0.0680 j160.59
-0.0062 j202.92
-0.167 j298.18
These results are in agreement with the results shown in Table 7.3, which
indicates that the damping torque analysis is generally accurate in predicting
the stability of the torsional modes.
To summarize the results , it can be said that the voltage regulator used with
SVC and STATCON marginally increases the negative damping of mode 1.
7.6
A SIMPLIFIED ANALYSIS OF TORSIONAL INTERACTION WITH

VOLTAGE CONTROLLER
It is observed from the studies presented in sections 7.3 and 7.5,that both SVC
and STATCON voltage regulators result in Tl.It has been mentioned previously that fixed shunt capacitors do not contribute to TI,unlike series capacitors.Hence,it is worth investigating what really causes TI with shunt FACTS
controllers employing voltage regulators. An attempt is made here to provide
an insight into the problem by a simplifed analysis of a SMIB system.lt was
already mentioned in chapters 4 and 6 that such a simplified analysis is successful in highlighting the factors that are responsible for TI.
Consider a simplifed SMIB system shown in Fig.7.24. The generator is repre-
CD
v., LB
Figure 7.24.
A simplified system
sented by a voltage source of constant magnitude Eg behind a constant inductance.Bus 1 in Fig.7.24 is the internal bus of the generator. The inductance
L includes the generator and transformer inductances in addition to the line
201
inductance.A SVC or STATCOM is assumed to be connected at the electrical

centre. The capacitance C includes the compensator capacitance in addition to
the line and any fixed capacitor.
The following assumptions are made in the analysis.
(i) The output of the SVC or STATCOM is assumed to be a controllable reactive current.
(ii) The time delays associated with the measurement of input variables for the
voltage controller,and gate pulse generator are ignored for simplicity.
(iii) The initial value of the reactive current IRo drawn by the compensator in
Fig.7.24 is assumed to be zero. It is to be noted that even if IRo i- 0 ,it can
be modelled as a part of C.
It can be shown that the admittance function of the network viewed from the
generator internal bus,can be expressed as
y s _
(s2 LC + sRC + 1)
() - (R+sL)(s2LC +sRC +2)
(7.74)
The reactive current IR is assumed to be the output of the integral type voltage
regulator as shown in Fig.7.25.
Vrej
Figure 7.25.
--""-+I
A simplified representation of the compensator controller
To simplify the analysis,the slope of the control characteristic is neglected. It

has been observed from results of a case study that the influence of the positive
slope of the control characteristic is to marginally reduce TI.
From Fig.7.25,we have,
(7.75)
where ~V. is the variation in the compensator bus voltage (see Fig.7.24).
Since IR is assumed to be in quadrature with the bus voltage Vs, and lagging
the voltage by 90 0 , we can derive
= IRQ =
I RD
Linearizing Eqs.(7.76) and (7.77) and assuming

~IRD
~IRQ
(7.76)
(7.77)
cos ()
IR sin ()
IR
IRo
= O,we get
-cos()o~IR
(7.78)
= sin ()o~IR
(7.79)
202
Substituting for L:!.IR from Eq.(7.75) in the above equations and noting that
(7.80)
we finally obtain,
] =
[ L:!.IRD
L:!.IRQ
1([ [
-cose o ]
sin eo
[ . e
sm 0
(7.81 )
There is no loss of generality in assuming eo = 0 .With this assumption,Eq.(7.81)

reduces to
(7.82)
The equivalent impedance of the compensator per phase can be derived by
applying the expression (3.85) given in chapter 3 . This is given by
1([
. )
Z eq (JW
= ----
(7.83)
W -Wo
The above expression shows that the compensator offers positive resistance to
subsynchronous frequency currents while offering negative resistance to supersynchronous frequency currents.The magnitude of the resistance is proportional
to the integral gain of the regulator. The magnitude of the resistance is higher
for lower torsional modes.
Eg = Eb =
For values of XL = 0.5 ,R = .05, Wn = l.5wB, (w n =
l.0 and IB = 50H z ,the damping torque TDe is calculated from the following
expressIOn
,k)
TDe
2w [(w - wo)G(w - wo)
(w
+ wo)G(w + wo)]
(7.84)
where G is the conductance of the network viewed from the generator internal
bus,eveluated at the appropriate frequencies.
The variation of TDe with the frequency (f ) is shown in Fig.7.26 for two
different values of 1([ ( 100 and 300 ).
It is observed that the magnitude of TDe decreases sharply (for 1([ = 100)
as the frequency ( of the torsional mode)is increased.For 1([ = 300,the decrease
in the negative damping of TDe with the frequency is less abrupt.
The variation in TDe for the case when Wn = 2WB (lower value of C)is shown
in Fig.7.27.
This figure clearly shows the higher negative damping introduced by the
voltage regulator at higher values of the gain for frequencies above 10 Hz.
However,the negative damping increases slightly as C is increased (compare
with Fig.7.26).
Remarks
l. Although the analysis is extremely simplified, the negative damping caused
203
0,-----,-----,------.-----,-----.------,-----,
-0.5
-1
....................................................................................
-1.5
-2
..
......
............
KI.100
. .. KI. 300
'
-2.5
-3
-3.5
~5~----1~0----~15~--~2~0----~2~5----~~~--~375-----740
f (Hz)
Variation of TDe with frequency (w n
Figure 7.26.
= 1.5w B)
0.-----,-----,------.-----.-----.------,-----,
-0.5
../ ......., ..........-"............, ......, .........................................
-1
-1.5
G)
KI.100
....
-2
KI.~O
-3.5
~5L-----1~0----~15~----roL-----2~5----~30~--~3L5----~40
f (Hz)
Figure 7.27.
Variation of TDe with frequency (w n = 2WB)
by the voltage regulator of the compensator is clearly brought out.The effects

of the operating value of the shunt capacitive compensation and the torsional
mode frequency on the negative damping are illustrated.
2.It is interesting to note that,unlike with fixed series compensation, the shunt
compensator results in negative damping caused by supersynchronous frequency
currents ( due to the effective negative resistance at supersynchronous frequencies) .
204
3. The system impedance seen by the compensator is given by
R+sL
Zth(S) = s2 LC + sRC + 2
(7.85)
For small values of R, the impedance is maximum for w ~ ,,;2w n . It is shown

by Padiyar and Kulkarni (1997) that the transfer function relating AVs and
AIR is given by
AVs(s)
AIR(S)
j[Zth(S+jwo) - Zth(S-jw o)]

2
(7.86)
It can also be shown that for R ~ 0 ,the above transfer function in nonminimum phase type ( with a real zero in the RHP).It is not dificult to see
that a P-I type voltage regulator can destabilize the electromagnetic (network)
mode at high values of the controller gain. For example, with Wn = 1.5wB
and J{/ = 300 , a network mode having a frequency about 2/0 is unstable.However,this instability is not evident in the computation of TDe.
For avoiding interactions of the voltage controller with electromagnetic (network) modes,it is essential to provide a notch filter at the input to the controller.
8.1
INTERACTIONS WITH SERIES

COMPENSATORS
INTRODUCTION
In chapter 4, we discussed the SSR phenomenon and torsional interaction with

fixed series compensation. The problem of torsional interactions is most severe
with fixed series compensation. Although countermeasures have been proposed
and applied, the SSR problem has deterred extensive application of series compensation in transmission networks to increase power transfer capacity.
The application of thyristor controllers in Static Var Compensators for voltage
control was followed by controlled series compensation for power flow control.
There are already three prototype projects in U.S.A. which have demonstrated
successful implementation of Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator (TCSC)
concept. TCSC is an important member of the family of FACTS controllers. It
is important to study the SSR characteristics of TCSC, a variable impedance
controller. The analysis based on damping torque concept [Hedin et al (1995))
and the experimental data based on SSR performance tests [Piwko at al (1996))
have indicated that TCSC does not normally contribute to SSR. It is even
claimed by Piwko et ai, that TCSC is SSR neutral and can reduce SSR effects
due to nearby fixed series capacitors.
Just as voltage source converters can be used to provide advanced voltage control ( in STATCON) they can also be used to provide advanced power flow
control by injecting reactive voltage of variable magnitude in series with transmission lines. Such a device is termed as Static Synchronous Series CompenK. R. Padiyar, Analysis of Subsynchronous Resonance in Power Systems
206
sator (SSSC). This FACTS device can be considered as a special case of Unified
Power Flow Controller (UPFC) with only series element which injects a voltage
in quadrature with the current. The voltage can be either lagging the current
(inductive) or leading the current (capacitive). It is to be noted that the injected voltage is assumed to be a rise in the direction of the line current. The
injection of reactive voltage ensures that no active power exchange takes place
with SSSC except for the power drawn from the system to compensate for the
losses.
SSSC has some advantages over TCSC, one of them being control over power
flow even when the phase angle across the transmission line is zero. It implies that power reversal is also possible by varying the voltage. On the other
hand, SSSC requires voltage modulation to provide synchronizing and damping
torque.
In this chapter SSR characteristics of both TCSC and SSSC are examined from
small signal analysis. The SSR performance of both FACTS controllers is also
studied from digital simulation.
8.2
B.2.1
THYRISTOR CONTROllED SERIES COMPENSATOR

General
Series Capacitors have been used in long distance EHV transmission lines for
increasing power transfer. The use of series capacitors is generally the most
economic solution for enhancing power flow. However, the problem of SSR
has deterred system planners from going in a big way for series compensation.
While the use of shunt capacitors don't have the problem of SSR, they have
drawbacks oftheir effectiveness being dependent largely on their location. Even
when a shunt capacitor is located at the midpoint of a long line, it requires much
larger rating to achieve the same level of increase in power transfer as a series
capacitor. It can be shown that the ratio of the two ratings is given by
(8.1 )
where Q.e and Q.h are the ratings of the series and the shunt capacitor respectively, 6max is the maximum angular difference between the two ends of the
line. For 6max in the range of 30 - 40, Q.e varies from 7 % to 13 % of Q.h.
Although the series capacitors tend to be twice as costly as shunt capacitors
(per unit var), they are still cheaper to use. In addition, the location of a series
capacitor is not critical.
The use of thyristor control to provide variable series compensation makes it
attractive to employ series capacitors in long lines. A major advantage is that
the SSR problem (Torsional Interaction) is significantly reduced. The feasibility of fast control of thyristor valves enables the improvement of stability and
damping of oscillations using appropriate control strategies.
The first demonstration project ofTCSC was commissioned in 1991 at a 345 kV
INTERACTIONS WITH SERIES COMPENSATORS
207
BREAKER
Figure 8.1.
Single line diagram of a TCSC
Kanawha River Substation in West Virginia, U.S.A. under American Electric

Power Company. This was a test installation of thyristor switches in one phase
for rapid switching of series capacitor segments and was supplied by ABB, Sweden.
In October 1992, the first three phase TCSC was installed at 230 kV Kayenta
Substation in Arizona under Western Area Power Administration (WAPA).
Here a 15 n capacitor bank is connected in parallel with a TCR and permits
a smooth and rapid control of (capacitive) reactance between 15 and 60 n
through phase control of TCR. ( a varying between 145 0 to 180 0 )
A large prototype three phase TCSC was installed in 1993 at 500 kV Slatt Substation in Oregon under Bonneville Power Administration (BPA). The project
was sponsored by Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) and the equipment
was developed by General Electric in U.S.A. Here, six modules of TCSC are
connected in series and controlled to provide a variation in impedance from
+1.4 n to -16 n.
8.2.2 Operation of TCSC

A single line diagram of a TCSC is shown in Fig.8.1 which shows two modules
connected in series. There can be one or more modules depending on the requirement. To reduce the costs, TCSC may be used in conjunction with fixed
series capacitors.
Each module has three operating modes (see Fig.8.2)
208
(a) Bypassed:
Here the thyristor valves are gated for 180 0 conduction (in each direction) and
the current flow in the reactor is continuous and sinusoidal. The net reactance
of the module is slightly inductive as the susceptance of the reactor is larger
than that of the capacitor. During this mode, most of the line current is flowing
through the reactor and thyristor valves with some current flowing through the
capacitor. This mode is used mainly for protecting the capacitor against overvoltages (during transient overcurrents in the line). This mode is also termed
as TSR (Thyristor Switched Reactor) mode.
(b) Inserted with Thyristor Valve Blocked
In this operating mode no current flows through the valves with the blocking
of gate pulses. Here, the TCSC reactance is same as that of the fixed capacitor
and there is no difference in the performance of TCSC in this mode with that of
a fixed capacitor. Hence this operating mode is generally avoided. This mode
is also termed as waiting mode.
(c) Inserted with Vernier Control
In this operating mode, the thyristor valves are gated in the region of (Q'min <
Q' < 180 0 ) such that they conduct for the part of a cycle. The effective value
of TCSC reactance ( in the capacitive region) increases as Q' is reduced below
180 0 and maximum for Q' = Q'min (which may be 3 times Xc ). Q'min is above
the value of Q' corresponding to the parallel resonance ofTCR and the capacitor
( at fundamental frequency ).
Generally, vernier control is used only in the capacitive region and not in the
inductive region.
8.2.3 Analysis of TCSC

To understand the vernier control operation of TCSC, it is necessary to analyze
the TCSC circuit. (see Fig.8.3).
For simplicity, it is assumed that the line current is specified and can be
viewed as a current source. The equations are
dvc
.
C dt
= l$. ()
t - lTU
(8.2)
U
1 when the switch S is closed and U
0 when it is open. The current in
the thyristor switch and the inductor, iT, is zero at the instant when the switch
is opened. Hence, iT is described by
(8.3)
Note that when U 0, and the initial current iT

0, it remains at the zero
value until S is turned on and U = 1. If the line current i$ is defined by,
i$(t)
= 1m coswt
(8.4)
(a) Bypassed
(b) Thyristor blocked
(c}Vernier operation
Figure 8.2.
Operating modes in a TCSC
209
210
--+
Vc
'-----------t- 1----------'
Figure 8.3.
The TCSC Circuit
the equations (8.2) and (8.3) can be solved if the switching instants are known.
The switch, 'S' is turned on twice in a cycle ( of the line current) at the instants
(assuming equidistant gating pulses)
= =!-
tl
t 3 -!!..::..I!..
w
where 0
< /3 < /3max
(8.5)
and /3 is the angle of advance defined by
/3=1f'-a
(8.6)
The thyristor switch turns off at the instants t2 and t4 given by
(8.7)
where 0'1 and 0'2 are the conduction angles in the two halves of the cycle. In
steady state, 0'1 = 0'2 = 0' with half wave symmetry and
0'
= 2/3
(8.8)
211
The typical waveforms of iT and Vc in steady state are shown in Fig.8.4. In

steady state, iT is given by
.
K2
cos (3
K - 1
cos K
ZT{t) = -2--1m[coswt - --(3 coswrt],

wr
where K = ~ =
Vrx;
X";'
Wr
-(3 ::; wt ::; (3
(8.9)
VLC
In steady state, the capacitor voltage at the instant wt = -(3 is given by

Im X c [Sill
. (3 - Kcos (3 tan K(3]
VCl = -2-K
(8.10)
It can be shown that when wt = (3, iT = 0 and
(8.11)
VC{wt = (3) = VC2 = -VCl

The expression for vc{t) is given by
:s :s
VC{t) = I,,'~f [- sinwt + KC~~S,.(3{3 sinwrt],

-(3 wt
(3 }
vc{t) = VC2 + ImXc[sinwt - sin (3], (3 < wt < 7r - (3
(8.12)
The voltage across the capacitor is not sinusoidal in steady-state. The fundamental component of Vc is given by
VCF = -41~ vc{t) sinwtd{wt)

7r
(8.13)
The above equation follows from the fact that Vc has odd symmetry about the
axis wt = O. The ratio of VCF to 1m is the equivalent reactance of TCSC and
is given by
- VCF _ X _
TCSC -
1m -
4xl;
xl;
(Xc - XL)
(2(3 + sin 2(3)

7r
cos 2 (3 [K tan K(3 - tan (3]
-:-::-::-~--:--:-::----:- .:....-----~
(Xc - XL) (K2 - 1)
7r
(8.14)
The capacitor voltage contains odd harmonics of the order
n=2k-1,
k = 1,2 .......
(8.15)
The magnitude of the harmonic voltage, VCn is given by
100 VCn
VCF
= 0.77 [sin (3(1 n
(l-n)
_ 0.77 cos(3 [sin(3(K n COSK(3

(K - n)
n)
+ sin(3(l + n)]
(l+n)
n) + sin(3(K + n)]
(K
+ n)
(8.16)
212
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
!!
...
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-50
350
(a) iT vs wt(degrees)
>
.,1
(b) Vc vs wt( degrees)

Figure 8.4.
The variation of
The Waveforms of iT(t) and vc(t)
Xr;;c as
a function of f3 is shown in Fig.8.5. Eq.(8.14)
shows that there is parallel resonance of the capacitor and TCR at fundamental
frequency, corresponding to the values of f3 defined by
7rW
f3re. = (2m - 1)-2-'

Wr
m = 1,2 .....
(8.17)
By appropriately choosing the value of K. =
Wr
W
213
it is possible to ensure that there
is only one resonance point for the range 0 < (i < 90 0 Near the resonance,
TCSC has very high impedance and this will result in a very large voltage drop.
Hence, it is necessary to operate the TCSC such that XTCSC is not more than
Xc
a limit (between 2 and 3). The typical value of (ire. = 35 0
Figure B.S.
The variation of XTcsc as a function of (i
8.2.4 Control of TCSC

The control of TCSC also includes protective functions (protective bypass).
The control functions are partitioned into two levels - common ( to all modules) and the module(Ievel). Commands for the control flow from the common
level to the module levels while the status information is sent back from each
module level.
Module Control Functions
There are three basic functions at each module level. These are
(a) reactance control
(b) SSR damping control (involving modulation of the reactance) and
(c) Bypass (for protection)
The controller also ensures that the transients associated with mode transitions are minimized. The module controller executes the ordered change to
reactance within one half cycle. This includes bypassing, reinsertion and setting the vernier without overshoot.
The protective bypass (TSR mode) is initiated in response to
(i) line overcurrent
214
(ii) arrester overcurrent

(iii) arrester energy exceeding a limit.
The line overcurrent protection detects fault currents in the line and rapidly
implements thyristor bypass to reduce duty on metal oxide varistor (MOV)
and capacitor. The bypass is performed on all the three phases simultaneously.
When the line current returns and stays within limits for a preset time, the
bypass is removed. The arrester overcurrent protection detects overcurrents in
the arrester and implements thyristor bypass in the affected phase(s) to reduce
varistor duty. The bypass is removed when the arrester currents reduce and
stay below limits for a preset time.
The arrester energy protection initiates a bypass when f i 2 dt in the arrester exceeds its rating. In this case, the bypass is not removed automatically because
of the long thermal time constants associated with excessive arrester energy.
Common Control Functions
The common level receives signals of line current and TCSC voltage to generate
feedback signals for closed-loop control functions. It also receives commands
from energy management center for setting power order. The major control
functions in a TCSC are described below.
Power Scheduling Control
The simplest type of power scheduling control adjusts the reactance order (or
setpoint) slowly to meet the required steady-state power flow requirements of
the transmission network. The adjustment may be done manually or by a slow
acting feedback loop.
An alternative approach is to use a closed-loop current control in which the
measured line current is compared to a reference current (which may be derived from the knowledge of the required power level).
An interesting approach to power scheduling is one where during a transient,
the line in which TCSC is situated carries the required power so that the power
flow in parallel paths is kept consant. This is equivalent to maintaining the angular difference across the line a constant and has been termed as Constant
Angle (CA) control [Padiyar and Uma Rao (1995)]. Assuming the voltage
magnitudes at the two ends of the line are regulated, maintaining constant angle is equivalent to maintaining constant voltage difference between two ends
of the line.
Both CC (Constant Current) and CA controllers can be of PI type with dynamic compensation for improving the response. The steady state control
characteristics of both CC and CA control are shown in Fig.8.6 (a) and (b)
respectively. Assuming VTCSC to be positive in the capacitive region, the characteristics have three segments OA, AB and BC. The control range is AB. OA
215
h
C
C
B
Iref
""'/'---~A
/
VTCSC
(a) CC CONTROL
Figure 8.6.
VTCSC
(b) CA CONTROL
Control Characteristics
and BC correspond to the limits on XTcsc. In Fig.5.23 (b), the control range
AB is described by the equation
(8.18)
where h is the magnitude of the line current, XLR is the net line reactance (
taking into account the fixed series compensation if any), VLO is the constant
(regulated) voltage drop across the line (including TCSC). Thus, the slope of
the line AB is XLR. Line OA in Fig.5.23 (b), corresponds to the lower limit on
TCSC reactance while BC corresponds to the higher limit on TCSC reactance.
Power Swing Damping Control (PSDC)
This is designed to modulate the TCSC reactance in response to an appropriately chosen control signal derived from local measurements. The objective is
to damp low frequency swing modes (corresponding to oscillation of generator
rotors) of frequencies in the range of 0.2 to 2.0 Hz. One of the signal that is
easily accessible is the line current magnitude. Alternatively, the signal corresponding to the frequency of Thevenin (equivalent) voltage of the system across
the TCSC can be used. This signal can be synthesized from the knowledge of
voltage and current measurements.
Transient Stability Control (TSC)
This is generally a discrete control in response to the detection of a major system disturbance.
The discrete or bang-bang control of TCSC in response to signals from locally
measured variables is described by Padiyar and Uma Rao (1997). The controller is activated immediately after a major disturbance such as clearing of a
fault and is deactivated when the magnitude of frequency deviation is below a
threshold. This type of control is beneficial not only in reducing the first swing
but also for damping subsequent swings.
Subsynchronous Damping Control (SSDC)
The use of vernier control mode at the module level by setting the reactance
216
setpoint at the requisite (minimum) level is often adequate to damp subsynchronous oscillations caused by series resonance in the line and sustained due
to torsional interaction. However in some cases, the constant reactance control
may not be adequate. In such cases, a damping control is added. The control signal is based on the synthesis of speed of remote turbo-generators. The
control signal can be derived from the locally measured current and voltage
signals.
The coordination of control actions of all modules in a TCSC is carried out by
devising a suitable logic. For example, at Slatt substation, the highest priority
is given to the need to tackle SSR, which determines the minimum number of
modules to be inserted and their minimum reactance. The power scheduling
control has the next priority. Even here, there are two options - one based
on minimizing the losses and other based on maximizing smooth operation
(avoiding stepped variation in reactance order). It is to be noted that vernier
operation results in increased losses in a module.
Power swing damping control has the next priority in modulating the set point
for reactance. This can be replaced by transient stability control wherever required.
Under normal operational conditions, all the modules may not be required. To
ensure long term duty for each module in a TCSC, the control logic also incorporates a rotation feature,according to which, the module in series are rotated
if no insert/bypass operations occur for some preset time (sayan hour). The
rotation is performed without changing the net reactance.
8.3
MODELLING OF TCSC FOR SSR STUDIES
TCSC is modelled asa variable inductive reactance (of TCR) in parallel with
a fixed capacitor. The TCR susceptance (corresponding to fundamental frequency of the line current) is a function of the firing angle Q', or angle of advance,
j3 and can be computed from Eq.(8.14) as
BTCR(Q')
= -X - X
C
1
TCSC
()
(8.19)
Q'
It is to be noted that the above expression is different than the one derived
in chapter 7 for TCR connected across a sinusoidal voltage source. The difference arises from the fact that the TCR in a TCSC is connected across a
non-sinusoidal voltage (across the capacitor Xc). For SSR studies it is not
necessary to model the gate pulse unit and the generation of gate pulses. It is
adequate to assume that the desired value of TCSC reactance is implemented
within a well defined time frame. This delay can be modelled by first order
lag as shown in Fig.8.7. The value of TTCSC varies from 15 to 20 ms. Xrej
is determined by the power scheduling controller or in its absence, by manual
control based on order from load dispatch centre.
The block diagram of constant current (CC) or constant angle (CA) controller
is shown in Fig. 8.8. Tm is the time constant of first order low pass filter as-
217
aux
Xmax
XreJ
;-----+--~ l+.1'TCSC
XTCSC
Xmin
Xmod
MOD.
CaNT
Figure 8.7.
Block diagram of TCSC
re !
;---+-
Figure 8.8.
Block diagram of CC or CA controller
sociated with the measurement of line current h and the TCSC voltage. S=O
for CC control and S = -Xl
for CA control. X LR is the net reactance of line
LR
given by
(8.20)
where XLine is the line reactance and XFC is the reactance of the fixed series
capacitor if any. Generally, TCSC will be used in conjunction with fixed series
capacitor to minimize the overall cost of compensation while providing effective
control for stability improvement.
The regulator block diagram is shown in Fig.8.9. This consists of mainly PI
controller and phase lead circuit if required. f{p, the proportional gain can be
set to zero if only integral control is used. The gain f{ [ is positive in the case
of current control and negative in case of CA control. In the latter case Ire! is
actually the voltage reference divided by X. Hence positive error signal implies
the net voltage drop in the line is less than the reference and XTCSC (assumed
218
Ie
1 + sTl
1 + sT2
f{/
-
f{p
'--
Figure 8.9.
1 + sTc
Block diagram of the Regulator
to be positive in capacitive region) is to be reduced. On the other hand for

current control, if the error is positive, the controller has to increase XTC sc to
raise the line current to reduce the error.
The modulation controller is designed to damp power swings in the line by
using a control signal derived from local measurement. A convenient signal to
use is the magnitude of the line current. The control configuration is similar
to the SMC used in SVC. Xaux could represent the increase in the reactance
order required for mitigating SSR or improving transient stability.
The limits on the total reactance order Xdes are based on the TCSC capability.
For a single module,the operational region of TCSC in the VTCSC - h plane
is shown in Fig.8.10(a). The operation region in (x).Fc~C) - h plane shown is
in Fig.8.IO(b). The voltage and reactances are considered to be positive when
TCSC is in the capacitive region.
The line OA in Fig.8.10( a) corresponds to the constant reactance of TCSC at
its limit X maxO . This is selected based on the TCSC design and should be such
that the TCSC does not operate close to the resonance point which would be
inherently unstable. A typical value of XmaxO (in pu of Xc) is 3.0. Line AB
corresponds to maximum voltage rating of TCSC. Line OB corresponds to the
operation of TCSC with thyristors blocked. Here X TCSC = 1 pu.
The line OC has negative slope corresponding to Xbypass (which is negative)
in the bypass mode of TCSC. Line OD corresponds to the upper limit on
the inductive reactance (X minO ). Line DE corresponds to the voltage limit of
TCSC in the inductive region. Line EC corresponds to the limit imposed on
the thyristor current in the inductive vernier mode. Under normal conditions,
the TCSC operates only in the first quadrant of both VTcsc - h plane and
XTCSC - h plane.
The operation at constant maximum voltage (across TCSC) implies that
X TCSC is reduced in inverse ratio of the line current.
The equations for TCSC can be written down from the block diagrams shown
in Fig.8.7 to Fig.8.9.
For transient simulation,it is necessary to model the operation of firing pulse
generator also.ln this case, the block diagram gi ven in Fig. 8.7 is modified as
shown in Fig.8.Il. Here Xdes is the input signal to a linearization block which
computes O:order based on Eq.(8.14).The operating mode selector block is used
VTCSC
c
D
(a) V-I plane
Xmaxo
XTCSC
Xc
1.0
X mino
(b) X-I plane

Figure 8.10.
TCSC capability curves for a module
219
220
Linearization
Blocking Bypass
Mode
Mode
Synchronization
Signal
block
aorder
Operating
I----+---{ ode Selector
Figure B.11.
Firing
Pulse
Generator
Firing
Pulses
for TCR
Extended TCSC control structure model for transient simulation
for the protection of the capacitor or metal oxide varistor (MOV) during short
circuit conditions.Bypass mode is activated whenever the line current or MOV
current exceeds limits specified.The bypass mode fires all valves at a = 90
resulting in full conduction of TCR. The blocking mode operates when the capacitor is to be inserted and avoid vernier mode operation.
The firing pulse generator has to be synchronized with either the capacitor
voltage or the line current.It is observed from transient simulation [Pilot to
et al (1996) , Angquist et al (1996)] that synchronization with the line current is definitely superior as the current has negligible harmonics.Angquist et
al (1996) suggest using directly the capacitor voltage boost control (during
vernier operation) instead of impedance control based on firing angle, as the
steady state characteristic of TCSC (impedance) is highly nonlinear, particularly when the natural frequency (w r ) is high ( say, around 5 pu) .It is to be
noted that if only one resonance value of f3 is to be permitted in the range
o < f3 < 90,then Wr < 3 (see Eq.(8.17)).Typical values of Wr (used in
the Slatt project) is around 2.75 pu. There is danger of high capacitor voltage
and harmonic instability [Jalali and Lasseter (1992)] if the operating value of f3
strays near f3res. This underlines the need for direct voltage control of the capacitor. Additional advantage of the voltage control is claimed to be linearity.
Angquist,Ingestrom and Othman (1994) describe a control method for TCSC
,termed as Synchronous Voltage Reversal (SVR) scheme. This is explained below.
Synchronous Voltage Reversal
The control of TCSC can be viewed as the injection of controlled voltage source
in series with the transmission line in which TCSC is connected. The constant
impedance control can be viewed as injecting a voltage source whose magnitude
is proportional to the line current magnitude.
When the thyristor valves do not conduct, the voltage across the capacitor is
sinusoidal and lags the line current ( assumed to be sinusoidal) by 90. The
triggering of a thyristor valve results in the flow of current in the inductance.
The thyristor valve turns off when the current goes to zero. For small values
of f3,the current pulse is narrow. At the end of the current pulse, the capacitor
221
voltage is reversed. Neglecting losses and assuming the inductance to be small

(or the initial capacitor voltage is high), the capacitor voltage at the end of conduction of the thyristor is exactly equal to the negative of the inital capacitor
voltage (vGo) and a total charge of Qr = 2CvGo passes through the inductance.This is an approximation whose validity assumes that Qr dominates over
the charge provided by the line current. With this assumption, the conduction
angle of the thyristor is assumed to be
(J'
rrwB
(8.21)
The influence of the line current is to reduce the conduction angle. However,
the transient in the TCSC circuit caused by the thyristor turn-on can still be
characterized as capacitor voltage reversal.
Fig.8.12 shows the current pulse in the thyristor and the line current ( which
is assumed to be constant during the conduction of the thyristor).
:
_IL
----.;-l7l~'--'
:
-----;---
:
:
IT
__
.~-
(a) line and thyristor

curren'ts
--,
(b) ac1:Uai voltage reversal
boost:
(c) equivalent instantaneous

voltage reversal
Figure 8.12.
Voltage reversal across the capacitor
It is to be noted that the line current is at its peak when the capacitor voltage
passes through zero. Fig .8.12 (b) and (c) shows the capacitor voltage reversal.
While the actual voltage reversal takes finite time, it can be approximated as
instantaneous as shown in Fig.8.12 (c) for simplifying the analysis.
Fig. 8.13 shows the approximate steady state voltage waveform which is
sinusoidal neglecting the voltage boost that occurs periodically at the interval
of where T is the period of the fundamental component of the line current.
The presence of subsynchronous frequency component in the line current
would result in extra offsets in the capacitor voltage.If only conventional capacitor is used, the period (or interval) between voltage crossings is not equal
(see chapter 4 where NGH damping is described). However in a TCSC,
to
using the concept of Synchronous Voltage Reversal ( SVR) implies that zero
222
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-2
-1
(a) iL vs wt (radians)
1.5,---,------,-----.----.-------.-------,-----,
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-1
(b) Vc vs wt (radians)
Figure 8.13.
Idealized (approximate) waveforms
crossings of the capacitor voltage are equidistant ( and synchronized to the line
current). In addition, the voltage boost can also be controlled either in relation
to the line current magnitude (constant reactance control) or as part of higher
level control scheme to provide damping of interarea low frequency oscillations
and improve transient stability.
223
Remarks
1. The SVR scheme is similar to the vernier control scheme described earlier.
It must be noted that SVR scheme is primarily designed for TCSC schemes
where the vernier control is not provided. The thyristor control is intended to either switch in (insert) or out (bypass) the series capacitore.In such schemes,the
in thyristors. On
inductance value is kept low and just enough to limit the
the other hand with schemes where vernier operation is provided, the inductance value is higher to prevent the multiple resonance points in the entire
range of f3 varying from 0 to 90 0
2. It will be shown ( in the next section) how the concept of SVR can result
in preventing or mitigating torsional interactions in a range of subsynchronous
frequencies.
8.4
MITIGATION OF SSR WITH TCSC
The operation of TCSC using constant reactance control (XTcsc > Xc) using
vernier mode or SVR is sufficient in most of the cases to avoid torsional interaction which is a serious problem with fixed series compensation. This feature
of TCSC is due to the following characteristics (of TCSC ).
1. For the same compensation level that results in fer = fo - fm (where fer
and fm are the electrical resonance, and the critical torsional mode frequency
) with a fixed series compensation, a TCSC avoids the resonance condition by
detuning ( which results from different frequency response characteristics than
a fixed series capacitor) .In other words, although the reactance of a TCSC and
fixed capacitor may be identical at the fundamental frequency, their impedances
are vastly different at subsynchronous frequencies).
2. For sufficiently large values of XTSCSC (~ 2Xc),which also imply conduction angle exceeding a minimum limit, TCSC appears inductive at subsynchronous frequencies of interest. This also means that the resonance frequency
in the elctrical network is reduced for the same level of compensation ( compared
to fixed series compensation) .Hedin et al(1995) mention that in a particular
case,fer reduced from 40 Hz to 23 Hz.
3. Although the resistance of the TCR is small, the effective resistance that
comes in series with the transmission line is high at subsynchronous frequencies. Also, the resistance increases with the frequency which implies that high
compensation levels with TCSC are permissible without worrying about torsional interaction.
Although the objective of NGH damping is also to increase the effective series
resistance of the transmission line, it does not have the advantage of inductive
characteristics at the subsynchronous frequency. While increased resistance is
beneficial under worst case conditions (fer ~ fo - fm)it can increase negative
damping in the off tune conditions.
The frequency characteristics of a TCSC will be derived, for small perturbations.For simplicity ,it is assumed that the voltage reversals are instantaneous.
Consider that time is discretized. Consider an interval of (tk ,tk+l ) where
the sampling instants tk and tk+l are selected as midpoints between voltage
224
reversals.
For, tk 2: t
< tk+t, we have
For tk+t < t <

we can express
dvc
.
C(8.22)
=ZL
dt
tk+l also, the above equation applies. Linearizing, Eq.(8.22),
~vc (k
~vc(k
+ -) =
2
~vc(k)
1 1t(k+~)
+-
(8.23)
~idt)dt
tk
+ 1) = ~v~(k + 2) + C
t (k+1)
(8.24)
~idt)dt
t(k+~)
where ~vc (k+~) and ~v~ (k+~) are the perturbations in the capacitor voltage
just prior to and immediately after the (instantaneous) voltage reversal.
Assuming losses in the circuit, we can write
(8.25)
where D is the loss factor (D < 1)
Substituting Eq. (8.25) in (8.24) and using Eq.(8.23}, we get
~vc(k+1)
-D~vc(k)-D[~q(k+2)-~q(k)1+~q(k+1)-~q(k+2) (8.26)
where ~q is the change due to the line current

Taking z-transform of Eq.(8.26) we can derive
~iL.
(zt - D)(zt - 1)
~Vc(z)
(z
~Q(z)
(8.27)
+ D)
In continuous time, the transfer function relating ~ Vc and ~Q using Laplace

variable is obtained from Eq.(8.27) by substituting z esT, where T
Wo
is the operating radian frequency. Thus
= :0'
~Vc(s)
(e~ - D)(e~ - 1)
~Q(s)
(e::+D)
The frequency response is obtained by substituting s
(8.28)
= jw in the above expres-
SlOn.
Since,
~Q(s)
= ~h(s)
(8.29)
sC
We can express the apparent impedance of TCSC as
.
Zapp(Jw)
~Vc(jw)
i.!:!..!!.
Wo (e 2 ",0
= AI (. ) = -JXc LJ.
L JW
D)(e 2 ",0 -1)
.i!::!.2!.
(e"'o
+ D)
(8.30)
225
o.45,---.,---,---,-----r---r----,-----,--,----.,-------,
0.4
D.095
0.35
.... D.0.98
0.3
10 .25
Z
a: 0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
.' .
........................... . .... .
~~-~5-~10~~,5~~~L--2~5--~~-~35--4~0--4L5-~~
, (Hz)
(a)
3.5 r - - , - - , - - - - . - - - , - - - - , - - - - - , - - , - - - - , - - - . , - - - ,
D .095
.... D. 0.98
2.5
0.5
~~~~-~10~~,~5-~2=0-~25~~~7-~3=5--4~0~~4~5-~~
'(Hz)
(b)
Figure 8.14.
Real and imaginary parts of apparent impedance of TCSC
The real and imaginary parts of the apparent impedance are shown in Fig. 8.14
for Wo = 377 and two values of D=0.95 and 0.98. It is seen that the apparent
resistance increases with frequency and higher for lower value of D (increased
losses). The apparent reactance is inductive and is unaffected by the difference
in the losses (for realistic values).
Example 1
The system considered in this example is adapted from IEEE FBM. The gen-
226
XTC
BTCR
Figure 8.15.
Series compensation with fixed and thyristor controlled series capacitor
erator data is same as given in Appendix A. The generator is connected to

an infinite bus through a series compensated line (see Fig.5.9). The resistance
(RE) and inductive reactance (X E ) external to the generator are assumed to
be
RE
0.02, XE
1
Three cases are considered namely,
(a) The series compensation consists of a fixed capacitor (Xpc) of value equal
to 0.63 .
(b) The series compensation is made up of a fixed capacitor (Xpc = 0.3) and a
TCSC connected in series. The TCSC has a capacitor (XTC = 0.15) in parallel
with a TCR (see Fig.8.15).The TCSC operates with XTCSC = 2.2XTC
(c) The series compensation is made up of a fixed capacitor (Xpc = 0.48) and
TCSC in series. The parameters of TCSC are given in (b). The operating
values of XTCSC = 1.1XTc.
It is to be noted that in both cases (a) and (b), the level of series compensation
is same, namely 63% of the total external inductive reactance. For case (c) ,
the level of series compensation when the TCSC is blocked is also 63%.
With constant reactance control of TCSC,it is reasonably accurate to ignore the
model of the controller and represent TCSC as a fixed series capacitor (XTC)
in parallel with a fixed reactor whose value is determined from the operating
value of XTCSC ( see Eq.(8.19)).
The linearized system model is obtained at the operating point : Eb
1.0 ,Pg
1.0 ,Vg
1.0 .The synchronous machine is represented by
model(1.1). The mechanical damping is considered. The static exciter is considered with J{A
200 ,TA
0.025 s .PSS is also modelled as described in
chapter 5 with the parameters.
J{s = 4.5, Tl = T3 = 0.10, T2 = T4 = 0.045, (= 0.6, Wn = 22, Tw = 10
The eigenvalues correponding to the torsional modes are given in table 8.1
for the three cases considered. It is observed that with fixed compensation,
mode 1 is destabilized as fer ~ fo - f m .However ,for cases (b) and (c), all the
torsional modes (including mode 1) are well damped .. What is interesting is
Line current magnitude
1.1
227
Torque (GEN-LPB shaft)
1.4
j 1.2
Ii 1
::J
Ii
0.9
2
3
Time in sec.
Figure B.16.
0.8
0.6
2
3
Time in sec.
Simulation results with TCSC and series capacitor
that in case (c), even with a large share of fixed compensation,the presence of
TCSC operating in the vernier mode is adequate to mitigate SSR.
The transient simulation of the system is also carried out using MATLAB/
SIMULINK package.The disturbance considered is a 0.02 pu step reduction in
the infinite bus voltage, initiated at t = 0.3 s .The results for the case (c) are
shown in Fig. 8.16.
Here, the TCSC is initially blocked.ln this condition, there is no difference
between fixed and thyristor controlled series capacitor. As the first torsional
mode is unstable (see Table 8.1 ,column 1),both line current magnitude and the
shaft ( GEN-LPB) torque grow until at t=l.Os, the TCSC is switched in to
vernier mode with XTCSC = 1.lpu(of XTC ).Since the system is stable for this
condition,the oscillations decay.
Table B.l.
Mode
5
4
3
2
1
0
Eigenvalues correponding to torsional modes ( Example 1)
(a)
Fixed Series Capacitor
(XFC= 0.63)
-1.8504 j298.1694
-0.3659 j202.8451
-0.6476 j160.4749
-0.0689 j126.9443
2.9112 jlO1.3693
-4.1142 j9.1245
(b)
FSC
+ TCSC
(c)
FSC
+ TCSC
(XFC= 0.30)
(XFC= 0.48)
-1.8504 j298.1695
-0.3829 j202.4152
-0.6461 j160.5797
-0.0678 j126.9239
-0.2469 j98.7561
-3.7992 j9.4279
-1.8504 j298.1694
-0.3663 j202.9363
-0.6466 j160.4856
-0.1238 j127.4551
-0.3285 j99.3661
-4.2688 j9.2858
Example 2 [Geetha (1996)]

Here, IEEE SBM system is studied. Three control strategies are considered
228
(a) constant impedance ( reactance) control (b) constant current control and
(c) constant angle control. For cases (b) and (c),the controller is modelled as
shown in Fig. 8.8. The net series compensation level of 50% is assumed. This
is made of
(A) Fixed series capacitor only (XFC = 0.5XLl)
(B) TCSC and fixed series capacitor
(XFC = 0.25XLl,XTCSC = 1.667XTc,XTC = 0.I5XLr)
Th exciter data is same as in Example 1. The PSS considered is assumed to
have the transfer function
PSS(S) =
sTw
+ sTw
/{s 1 + sTl
1 + sT2
PSS Data: Tw = 10 s, Tl = 0.048 s, T2 = 0.032 s, /{& = 12

The generator is represented by model (1.I).The regulator in Fig. 8.8 is
assumed to be a pure integral type.TTCSc is assumed to be 0.005 sand Tm is
neglected.
For the operating condition,Pg = 1.0 ,Vg = 1.0 and a power factor =0.9
lagging at the generator terminals,the system is linearized and the eigenvalues
corresponding to the torsional modes are given in Tables 8.2 and 8.3.Table 8.2
shows the results for the case of (A) fixed series compensation alone and (B)
fixed series capacitor with TCSC opearating at constant reactance control.The
effect of PSS (without torsional filter) on the damping of the first torsional
mode is also demonstrated.
Table 8.2.
Eigenvalues correponding to torsional modes ( Example 2)with fixed capacitor

and constant reactance control of TCSC
Capacitor I
I Mode I Fixed(XFCSeries
= 0.5XLl)
3
2
1
0
-0.0479 j321.051
0.0068 j203.365
0.3467 j155.412
-2.8531 jlO.129
FSC + TCSC
Without PSS
-0.0491 j321.051
-0.0477 j203.406
-0.0486 j155.064
0.413 j9.447
FSC + TCSC
With PSS
-0.0479 j321.051
-0.0217 j203.413
0.1998 jI55.126
-2.9777 jl0.323
Table 8.3 shows the results for the cases with (b) constant current and (c)
constant angle control.It is observed that while the constant current controller
increases the damping of the swing mode,it increases the negative damping of
mode 1. The constant angle control improves the damping of both modes'I'
and '0' (swing mode).The PSS signal is taken from generator rotor speed which
results in torsional interaction unless countered by providing a torsional filter
( not considered here).
229
Table B.3.
Eigenvalues correponding to torsional modes,TCSC with CC and CA controller

( Example 2)
I Mode I
3
2
1
0
Figure B.17.
With CA
(I(I
-0.0478
-0.0462
-0.0048
-3.076
With CC
= -52)
j321.051
j203.429
j155.163
j12.643
(/(1=5.0)
-0.0478 j321.051
-0.0209 j203.412
0.2068 j155.125
-4.199 j9.526
Reactive voltage injection in the middle of a transmission line
An alternative to torsional filter is to use a composite control signal ( derived

from rotor speed and electrical power) as discussed in chapter 5.
8.5
B.5.1
STATIC SYNCHRONOUS SERIES COMPENSATOR (SSSC)
Description
The SSSC is similar to STATCON (or STATCOM) in the sense that both devices use voltage source converter (VSC).While a STATCON is shunt connected
device where the voltage output of VSC is controlled to regulate the reactive
current drawn (or injected) by the STATCON, SSSC is used for the injection
of a controllable reactive voltage source in series with the transmission line in
which it is connected. The major objective of SSSC is to control or regulate
the power flow in the line in which it is connected while a STATCON is used
to regulate the voltage at the bus where it is connected.
The influence of injecting a reactive voltage on the power flow can be analyzed
by considering a symmetric loss less line shown in Fig.8.17. Here,the voltage
at the two ends of the line are assumed to have the same magnitude V for
simplicity and the reactive voltage Vq is injected at a location midway between
the two ends of the line.
It can be shown that the line current magnitude is given by
I _ 2V sino/2
L -
XL
~
XL
(8.31 )
230
I\!f\/\
Transmission
Line
VSC
Figure 8.18.
SSSC
The power flow in the line P is given by
=Vh
cos (J/2)
= V XLsinJ + -VV
q cos(J/2)
XL
2
(8.32)
The above expression can be compared with that in the case of series compensation , given by
(8.33)
where k. e is the degree of series compensation.
It is observed that for small values of J,the increase in the power flow introduced
by SSSC is constant and nearly independent of J.On the other hand,the power
flow increased by series compensation is a percentage of the power flow in the
uncompensated line.Thus,at J = 0, the series compensation has no effect on
the power flow.
The schematic diagram of a SSSC is shown in Fig.8.18.
The dc voltage in the VSC can be maintained by a capacitor just as in the
case of a STATCON.However,the control of reactive volage output of SSSC
is complicated unlike in the case of a STATCON.This is due to the fact that
the magnitude of the output voltage is directly proportional to the capacitor
voltage ( with Type II controller) which has to vary over a wide range in the
case of a SSSC. In a STATCON,the capacitor voltage variation is marginal over
the entire range of reactive current output. Type I control, with control over
both magnitude and phase of the output voltage has greater control flexibility
but results in increased losses,harmonics and complex circuitry over Type II
control.
Just as in the case of a STATCON,it is possible to exchange active power by
connecting the SSSC to an energy source or a sink.Thus , it is possible to compensate for the line resistance by injecting a voltage source in the line in phase
with the line current. This enables increase in the
ratio of the transmission
line which tends to decrease as series compensation is increased. Increasing
ratio has the advantage of (a) increasing power transfer capability and (b) reducing the reactive power requirements at the receiving end of the line [Gyugyi
231
Transmission line
!VIV\
VSC 2
series
Transformer
shunt Transformer
VSC 1
control
Figure 8.19.
UPFC
et al(1997)].
It is possible to combine a STATCON and SSSC connected at the same location
to form Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC). See Fig.8.19.
This arrangement eliminates the need for a separate energy source as VSC1
and VSC2 can exchange active power through the dc link.Thus ,a UPFC can
be used to regulate three quantities in the transmission line - active power and
reactive power (or voltages) at the two ends of a line.
To summarize, the SSSC has the following unique features which result in certain
advantages over TCSC.
1. SSSC can generate a controllable reactive voltage over an identical capacitive
and inductive range independent of the magnitude of the line current.
2. With an external dc power supply,SSSC can supply power to compensate
the resistance in a transmission line. The objective is to keep effective
ratio
high,independent of the degree of compensation.
3. It has better control over the line flow compared to TCSC.The power flow
can even be reversed if required.
4. Unlike series compensation, an ideal synchronous (fundamental frequency)
voltage source does not cause electrical resonance in the line and hence the
SSSC is expected to be SSR neutral.
8.5.2 Control of SSSC

The voltage injected by SSSC is predominantly reactive (in quadrature with
the line current).As the losses in SSSC have to be supplied by the system, there
is also a small (negative) component of the voltage source in phase with the
line current (v,,). The reactive voltage order is set by the power controller as
shown in Fig.8.20. The regulator shown in Fig.8.20 can be a P-I controller.
232
REG
k~
1+STw
Figure 8.20.
Power controller
An auxiliary feedback signal derived from the phase of the line current ()
is used to stabilize the control loop.lt is to be noted that a power controller
cannot be used when there is no parallel path.ln this case, Vqo may be set at a
value that varies slowly depending on the loading conditions.To improve system
stability,a damping controller is also provided.
There are two controller structures,as with a STATCON,that can be used for
SSSC.
Type I controller
Here,both magnitude and phase of the converter output voltage are controlled.
The capacitor is maintained at a constant voltage by controlling the voltage
component in phase with the line current. The reactive voltage reference is
obtained by summing Vqo with ~Vq , (output from the damping controller).
(see Fig.8.21).
The capacitor voltage reference can be varied (depending on reactive voltage
reference) to give reduced harmonics. [Hatziadoniu and Funk (1996)].
The outputs of the controller are real and reactive voltage orders. The magnitude and phase angle orders are obtained as follows
(8.34)
,=
Vqref
t an -1 v"ref
(8.35)
Modulation
Damping
Signal
233
+
Vqref
Controller
Vdcref
V pref
REG
Figure 8.21.
Type I controller
where"Y is the angle of the reference voltage vector in relation to the line current
vector. The absolute phase of the reference voltage vector (with reference to a
synchronous reference frame) is given by
(8.36)
where
J = tan- 1 ~ is the phase of the line current vector.
The magnitude control is normally achieved by Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
using three level converters. However, it is also possible to vary the magnitude
by employing two square wave converters with a phase displacement as shown
in Fig. 8.22.
Assuming each converter is 12 pulse, the magnitude (V) of the resultant
voltage injected is given by
V =
4J6
--Vdc
7r
cos B
(8.37)
This magnitude can be varied by changing B.

Type II Controller
If no energy source is connected to the dc side of the converter, then only the
reactive voltage control is required. This can be done by controlling the phase
angle of the injected voltage whose magnitude is dependent on the capacitor
voltage. This is termed as type II controller and is shown in Fig. 8.23. The
operation of Type II controller, with no external dc power supply, is dependent
234
- - - -, V
,
,,
,
,,
Q
Figure 8.22.
VqreJ
Magnitude control
+
REG
Figure 8.23.
Type II controller
on the charging of the capacitor by the line current. Hence, this controller may
not be satisfactory at low power level.
8.6
TORSIONAL INTERACTIONS WITH SSSC
If it is assumed that a SSSC injects an ideal synchronous voltage source (at

fundamental frequency) whose magnitude and phase are independent of the
line current, then, it does not contribute to series resonance in the ac line.
Hence, it can be said that such an ideal SSSC is SSR neutral. However an
ideal SSSC is not realistic, as flow of subsynchronous frequency currents in
the line can affect the capacitor voltage which in turn can modify the injected
voltage. Instead of injecting a constant synchronous voltage, the voltage vector can be kept continuously and instantaneously in quadrature with the line
current vector by suitable control (discussed in the previous section). This ensures that the instantaneous total power at the terminals of the SSSC will be
maintained at zero and would imply constant voltage across the dc capacitor.
Such a SSSC is termed as an " energy neutral" device by Gyugyi et al (1997).
235
They also postulate that an energy neutral device cannot contribute to SSR
which essentially involves oscillation of energy (and power) between a generator and energy storage components in the network connected to the generator.
Example 3 [Kulkarni (1997)]
The torsional interactions with a SSSC are illustrated by taking up a modified
IEEE FBM system considered in Example 1. Here, the compensation level is
assumed to be 50 % in all the cases studied. Three cases are considered.
(i) The series compensator is a fixed capacitor
(ii) The compensator is made up of a fixed capacitor (35 %) and a SSSC (15
%).
(iii) The compensator is only a SSSC (50 %)
The controller was assumed to be type I with Vqref = constant = Vqo.
For small signal analysis, the dynamics of the controller and VSC are neglected
(as it would be very fast) and the injected voltage is assumed to be of constant
magnitude. However the phase of the voltage is variable as it depends on the
phase of the line current. Neglecting losses in the SSSC, the D and Q axis
components of the injected voltage are given by
VqD
VqQ
Vq
=-
cos
(8.38)
sin
(8.39)
Vq
where tan = ~. The generator is represented by model (1.1). The excitation

system data are same as in Example 2. PSS is considered without a torsional
filter. The self (mechanical) damping ofrotors is considered, but mutual (shaft)
damping terms are neglected. The operating data is same as in Example 1.
The eigenvalues corresponding to the torsional modes and network modes are
shown in Table 8.4 for all the three cases considered.
Table 8.4.
Network and torsional modes
Case (i)
Case (ii)
Case (iii)
-3.3038 j620.62
-2.1695 j132.85
-0.3635 j298.18
-0.0332 j202.78
-0.2894 j160.29
0.1990 j127.41
0.3162 j100.14
-3.2981 jl0.620
-2.8071 j569.20
-3.9558 j160.83
-0.3635 j298.18
-0.0401 j202.72
1.4692 j160.41
0.0053 j127.08
0.1881 j99.540
-2.6031 j9.3567
-4.4018 j289.17
-0.3635 j298.18
0.0083 j202.96
-0.2576 j160.59
-0.0062 j127.03
0.1114 j99.115
-1.7396 j7.5314
I Comments
Supersyn. Mode
Subsyn.Mode
Mode 5
Mode 4
Mode 3
Mode 2
Mode 1
Mode 0
It is observed that the first two torsional modes are destablized in case (i)
with fixed series capacitor. Actually, while mode 2 is destabilized on account of
236
I,-------,w..1 '1,-------,
+~ ~
D
Figure 8.24.
Table 8.5.
Damping controller
Network and torsional modes (case (ii) with damping controller)
Without AVR
With AVR
With PSS
I Comments
-2.0607 j573.18
-1.5177 j168.32
-0.3637 j298.17
-0.5517 j204.88
-1.2192 j155.24
-0.0815 j126. 73
-0.7096 j97.492
-0.8603 j7.8698
-2.0548 j573.20
-1.3784 j168.51
-0.3637 j298.17
-0.5551 j204.90
-1.0572 jI55.32
-0.0766 j126. 73
-0.6917 j97.474
-0.1081 j8.5879
-2.0513 j573.21
-1.4031 j168.34
-0.3637 j298.17
-0.5132 j204.85
-1.0241 j155.43
-0.0588 j126. 75
-0.3943 j97.821
-3.1524 j9.0127
Supersyn
Subsyn
Mode 5
Mode 4
Mode 3
Mode 2
Mode 1
Mode 0
TI with series capacitor, mode 1 is destabilized due to PSS (without torsional

filter). It is observed that with the introduction of SSSC (cases (ii) and (iii))
the negative damping of both modes 1 and 2 are reduced compared to case (i).
It is interesting to observe that the subsynchronous network mode frequency
(fo - fer) is increased with increase in the compensation level of SSSC. The
resonance frequency (fer) reduces as the fixed series compensation is reduced.
But it is interesting to note that fer > 0 even for case (iii) without fixed capacitor. This is because, a SSSC appears as variable capacitor with reduced
impedance at subsynchronous frequencies. Mode 4 is destabilized in case (iii)
due to the action of PSS.
Because of resonance, mode 3 is also destabilized in case (ii). This shows that
proper care has to be taken in the choice of compensation level. However, if
a wide band damping controller is utilized (shown in Fig. 8.24) all the modes
can be damped. The data on the controller parameters are
l.0
D 5.0,]{ 5.0, Ta 0.02, n 0.001, Tw
The eigenvalues corresponding to the torsional and network modes, with damping controller included, are given in Table 8.5. This table also shows the eigenvalues for the condition (i) neglecting AVR and (ii) neglecting PSS, but including AVR.
The response of the system with a combination of fixed capacitor and SSSC
(case (ii)) is obtained by digital simulation to the disturbance of a step increase
of 0.05 pu in the (mechanical) torque produced by the HP turbine. The varia-
237
85r-----~----~----~----~------~----~----,
84.5
84
83.5
83
a:
~82.5
82
'" 81.6
81
80.5
800~----~----~2~----3~----~4----~5~----~6----~7
time (seconds)
'"
.-'
O.90'------~------,2"------~3----~~----~----~8~----.J7
time (seconds)
0.9
~08
~
a:
f2 0.7
U O.8
<>
0.5
0.4 '--~:----------=2--------:3':-------:4-------5;:---------:6':----'
time (seconds)
Figure 8.25.
Response for step change in mechanical input of HP turbine
tions in the generator rotor angle and the shaft torque (GEN-LPB) are shown
in Fig.8.25. The damping controller is considered.
There are no oscillations in the rotor angle (6) and the steady state is reached
quickly. The shaft torque takes some time to reach steady state, but the torsional oscillations are eefectively damped. It is also observed that the SSSC
238
controller regulates the dc capacitor voltage at 0.75 pu indicating that the SSSC
is operating as an energy neutral device.
Appendix A
Data on IEEE Benchmark Models
A.1
IEEE FIRST BENCHMARK MODEL ( FBM )
IEEE FBM was created by the IEEE Working Group on Subsynchronous Resonance in 1977 for the purpose of establishing a benchmark model which can be
used as a test bench for the comparison of different methods of computer based
analysis and simulation. The system consists of a single generator connected
to an infinite bus through a single series compensated line as shown in Fig A .1.
XT
X A C S Y S INF
BUS
Figure A.I.
IEEE FBM system diagram
Table A.l gives the network impedances in per unit on the generator MVA
base of 892.4 MVA.
Table A.l Network Impedances
Parameter
Positive Sequence
Zero Sequence
0.02
0.14
0.50
0.06
0.35
0.50
0.14
1.56
0.06
0.35
XT
XL
X SYS
Xc
Table A.2 gives the synchronous machine parameters.
240
Table A.2 Synchronous machine parameters for IEEE FBM
I Reactance I Value I Time Constant I Value I

Xaa
Xd
x'd
x"d
Xq
x'q
x"q
0.130
1.790
0.169
0.135
1.710
0.228
0.200
T~o
Til
dO
T~o
Til
qO
4.300
0.032
0.850
0.050
The reactances are in per unit on the generator base and the time constants
are in seconds. From the specified open circuit time constants, the short circuit
time constants can be derived from Eqs.(2.74) to (2.77) in chapter 2. These
values are given below.
T~ = 0.4000, T~' = 0.0259
T~ = 0.1073, T~' = 0.0463
The rotor model of the FBM is shown in Fig . A.2. This is typical of large
668BBB
Figure A.2.
Rotor model for FBM
turbine-generator which has several turbine sections modelled separately. The

data are given in Table A.3.
Table A.3 Shaft inertias and spring constants
for the FBM in per unit on the machine base
Inertia
HP turbine
IP turbine
LPA turbine
LPB turbine
Generator
Exciter
Inertia
I Shaft Section I Spring Constant
I Constant
(H)
K in p.u T /rad
0.092897
0.155589
0.858670
0.884215
0.868495
0.0342165
HP - IP
IP - LPA
LPA - LPB
LPB - GEN
GEN - EXE
19.303
34.929
52.038
70.858
2.82
APPENDIX A: DATA ON IEEE BENCHMARK MODELS
241
The damping data is not provided as part of FBM data.The damping is

neglected in the case studies given in chapter 4. Whenever the damping is
considered, the following data are assumed.
Self damping: DHP
DIP
DLA
DLB
0.2
Mutual damping: DHI
DIA
DAB
DBG
0.3, DGE
0.005
A.2
IEEE SECOND BENCHMARK MODEL ( SBM )
The system diagram for SBM is shown in Fig. A.3.

RI
XLI
Xc
INF
BUS
Figure A.3.
Second Benchmark Model system
The value of the capacitive reactance, Xc is not specified explicitly. It is

specified as a variable taking on values from 10% to 90% of the series inductive
reactance of the same line.The network impedance data are given in Table A.4.
Table A.4 Network Impedances in per unit
based on 100 MVA for SBM
Parameter
RT
XT
RI
XLI
R2
XL2
Rsys
XSYS
I Positive Sequence I Zero Sequence

0.0002
0.0200
0.0074
0.0800
0.0067
0.0739
0.0014
0.0300
0.0002
0.0200
0.0220
0.2400
0.0186
0.2100
0.0014
0.0300
All data are given on a 100 MVA base and the line impedances are on a 500
kV base.
The generator is rated at 600 MVA.The reactances and time constants are given
in Table A.5.
242
Table A.5 Synchronous machine parameters for IEEE SBM
I Reactance I Value I Time Constant I Value I

0.0045
0.140
1.650
0.250
0.200
1.590
0.460
0.200
Ra
Xaa
Xd
x'd
x"d
Xq
x'q
x"q
4.500
0.040
0.550
0.090
T~o
Til
dO
T~o
Til
qO
The rotor model is shown in Fig. A.4.
Figure A.4.
Rotor model for SSM
It has four masses including the exciter. The data are given in Table A.6.
Table A.6 SBM rotor model data

Inertia I Damping I
I Mass I Ibm
- ft
Ibf-ft-sec/rad
2
EXC
GEN
LP
HP
1383
176204
310729
49912
4.3
547.9
966.2
155.2
Shaft
Section
Spring Constant
Ibf-ft/ rad
EXC-GEN
LP-GEN
HP-LP
4.39 x 10 6
97.97x 10 6
50.12x 10 6
The rotor mode shapes are given in Table A.7 and the computed modal
quantities are given in Table A.8.
Table A.7 Rotor mode shapes for SBM
I Rotor I Mode 1 I Mode 2 I Mode 3 I

EXC
GEN
LP
HP
1.307
1.000
-0.354
-1.365
1.683
1.000
-1.345
4.813
-102.600
1.000
-0.1180
0.0544
APPENDIX A: DATA ON IEEE BENCHMARK MODELS
Table A,8 Computed modal quantities for SBM
I Mode
1
2
3
fk
Uk
Hk
Hz
rad/s
seconds
24,65
32,39
51.10
0,05
0,05
0,05
1.55
9,39
74,80
243
Appendix B
Calculation of Initial Conditions
In general,the inital conditions (equilibrium values) ofthe system state variables

are obtained by solving the algebraic equations
(B.I)
where Ue is the input vector when the system is in equilibrium.lt includes
parameters such as input mechanical torque (Tm ) ,infinite bus voltage (Eb),
voltage reference to the AVR ( Vre ! ).
In power sysem studies,the operating point is established by conducting a power
flow analysis;the output from which gives the active power (P), reactive power
(Q),voltage magnitude (V) and angle (0) at each bus including the generator
bus. This is the starting point for the calculation of the initial conditions of
the state variables.
Synchronous Generator
1. The armature current (fa ) is calculated from
ra = f a LA. = PVg -L-O

jQg
'f'
(B.2)
(the subscript 'g' refers to the generator terminal bus)

2. Compute Eq and J from
(B.3)
where Eq is the voltage behind Xq
3. Compute id ,iq , Vd , and Vq from
Vd
sin(J - c/J)
iq = fa cos(J - c/J)
= -Vg sin(J - Og)
id
Vq
-fa
= Vgcos(J -
Og)
(BA)
(B.5)
(B.6)
(B.7)
246
4. Compute Efd ,E~ ,E~ from

EJd = Eq - (Xd - Xq)id
E~
= E Jd + (Xd - X~)id
E~
= -(xq -
x~)iq
(B.8)
(B.9)
(B.lO)
5. Compute t/Jd and t/Jq from

t/Jd = Xdid
+ E Jd
t/Jq = xqiq
(B.ll)
(B.12)
6. Compute t/JJ ,t/Jh ,t/Jg and t/Jk from

t/Jf = t/Jd
X'
+ (Xd - d xdI)EJd
t/Jh = t/Jd
t/Jg = t/Jq
t/Jk = t/Jq
(B.13)
(B.14)
(B.15)
(B.16)
7. Calculate VreJ and Tm from

(B.17)
(B.18)
For the rotor system,the slips of the various masses (Sm, SHP, SIP etc) cannot
be calculated from the equations describing them.They are assumed to be zero
if the rotor speed (w o ) is same as the base speed (w B)'
The equilibrium values of the shaft torques can be calculated from the state
equations for the rotor system.For example,for the four mass system shown in
Fig.2.l6 (chapter 2),the initial condtions of the shaft torques are given by
TLG
THI
= Te, TIL = TLG - FLpTm

= TIL - F[pTm = FHpTm
(B.19)
(B.20)
If, instead of shaft torques,the modal angles are used as state variables, their
initial conditions can be calculated from the state equations. For example,for
the system shown in Fig.2.l6, we have,
<11 = (q~ FTm - Te)/ J{1
(B.2l)
<12 = (q~FTm - Te)/ J{2
(B.22)
<13 = (q~FTm - Te)/ J{3
(B.23)
(B.24)
<10 = <I - <11 - <12 - <13
where ql, q2 and q3 are the columns of the [QJ matrix corresponding to torsional
modes 1,2 and 3. [FJ is a row vector defined by
F= [FHP ,FIP ,FLP ,OJ
(B.25)
APPENDIX 8: CALCULATION OF INITIAL CONDITIONS
247
f{l ,f{2 and f{3 are the modal spring constants.

Electrical Network
The network equations are given by
(B.26)
If the matrix [AN] is nonsingular,the inital conditions of the network state
variables are given by
(B.27)
The input vector UN includes variables such as D-Q components of the generator (armature) currents and infinite bus voltages.
For a particular case of a simple network made up of a series R- L-C network connected between a genearator and an infinite bus (with no shunt branch),there
are only two state variables VCD and vCQ .The initial values of those are computed from the complex equation
(VCQ
where Xc = Wo
--L-c
+ JVCD) =
-jXc(iQ
+ jiD)
(B.28)
and
(B.29)
Appendix C
Abbreviations
ac : alternating current
AGC : automatic generation control
AVR : automatic voltage regulator
CA : constant angle
CACV : constant ac voltage (control)
CC : constant current (control)
CDCV : constant dc voltage (control)
CEA : constant extinction angle (control)
dc : direct current
EPC : equidistant pulse control
ESS : excitation system stabilizer
FACTS: flexible ac transmission system
FCL : fault current limiter
GPU : gate pulse unit
GTO : gate turn-off thyristor
H P : high pass (filter)
HP : high pressure (turbine)
HVDC : high voltage direct current
Hz : hertz
IGBT : insulated gate bipolar transistor
IGE : induction generator effect
IP : intermediate pressure (turbine)
IPC : individual phase control
KVL : Kirchoff's voltage law
LP : low pass (filter)
LP : low pressure (turbine)
MCT : metal oxide semiconductor controlled thyristor
MOV : metal - oxide varistor
PLL : phase-locked loop
PSDC : power swing damping controller
250
PSS : power system stabilizer

PWM : pulse width modulation
rad : radian
rms : root mean square
s: second
SC : synchronous condenser
SCR : short circuit ratio
SEDC : supplementary excitation damping controller
SMC : supplementary modulation controller
SR : susceptance regulator
SSO : subsynchronous oscillation
SSR : subsynchronous resonance
SSSC : static synchronous series compensator
STATCOM : static synchronous compensator
STATCON : static condenser
SVC : static var compensator
SVR ; synchronous voltage reversal
TCBR : thyristor controlled braking resistor
TCPAR : thyristor controlled phase angle regulator
TCR : thyristor controlled reactor
TCSC : thyristor controlled series compensator
T-G : turbine generator
TI : torsional interaction
TSC : thyristor switched capacitor
UPFC : unified power flow controller
VDCOL : voltage dependent current order limiter
VSC : voltage source converter
VST : voltage setting terminal
References and Bibliography
Abi-Samra, N. C., Smith, R. F., McDermott, T. E., and Chidester, M. B.

(1985). Analysis of thyristor-controlled shunt SSR countermeasures. IEEE
Transactions, lO4(3) :584-597.
Agrawal, B. L. and Farmer, R. G. (1979). Use offrequency scanning techniques
for subsynchronous resonance. IEEE Transactions, PAS-98(2):341-349.
Akagi, H. (1996). New trends in active filters for power conditioning. IEEE
Transactions on Industrial Applications, 32(6):1312-1322.
Alden, R. T. H., Nolan, P. J., and Bayne, J. P. (1977). Shaft dynamics in closely
coupled identical generators. IEEE Transactions, PAS-96(3):721-728.
Anderson, P. M., Agrawal, B. L., and Van Ness, J. E. (1990). Subsynchronous
Resonance in Power Systems. IEEE Press, New York.
Anderson, P. M. and Fouad, F. F. (1977). Power System Control and Stability.
Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Andersson, G., Atmuri, R., Rosenquist, R., and Torseng, S. (1984). Influence
of hydro unit's generator -to -turbine inertia ratio on damping of subsynchronous oscillations. IEEE Transactions, PAS-1 03(8) :2352-2361.
Angquist, L., Ingestrom, G., and Jonsson, H. A. (1996). Dynamical performance
of TCSC schemes. CIGRE Paper 14-302.
Angquist, L., Ingestrom, G., and Othman, H. (1994). Synchronous voltage reversal (SVR) scheme - a new control method for thyristor controlled series
capacitors. EPRI FACTS Conference, Baltimore, MD.
Bahrman, M., Larsen, E. V., Piwko, R. J., and Patel, H. S. (1980). Experience
with HVDe - turbine generator torsional interaction at Square Butte. IEEE
Transactions, PAS-99(3):966-975.
Bayne, J. P., Lee, D. C., and Watson, W. (1977). A power system stabilizer for
thermal units based on derivation of accelerating power. IEEE Transactions,
PAS-96(6):1777-1783.
Belanger, J., Scott, G., Andersson, T., and Torseng, S. (1984). Gain supervisor
for thyristor controlled shunt compensators. CIGRE Paper 38-01.
252
Bjorklund, H., Johanson, K. E., and Liss, G. (1980). Damping of subsynchronous oscillations in systems containing turbine-generator and HVDC
links. CIGRE, Paper 14-01.
Bowler, C. E. J. and Baker, D. H. (1981). Concepts of supplementary torsional damping by excitation modulation. IEEE Publication - Symposium
on Countermeasures for Subsynchronous Resonance, (81 TH 0086 -9-PWR).
Brandwajn, V. and Dommel, H. W. (1977). A new method for interfacing generator models with an electromagnetic transients program. 10th PICA Conference, Toronto:260-265.
Canay, I. M. (1982). A novel approach to the torsional interaction and electrical
damping of the synchronous machine, Part I : Theory ,Part II : Application
to an arbitrary network. IEEE Transactions, PAS-101(10):3630-3640.
Canay, I. M. (1983). Determination of model parameters of synchronous machines. Proceedings of lEE (London), 130 Pt-B(2):86-94.
Carlsen, K, Lenfest, E. H., and La Forest, J. J. (1975). MANTRAP - Machine
and Network Transients Program. PICA, Conference:144-151.
Christl, N., Hedin, R., Sadek, K, Lutzelburger, P., Krause, P. E., McKenna,
S. M., Montoya, A. H., and Torgerson, D. (1992). Advanced series compensation (ASC) with thyristor controlled impedance. CIGRE Paper 14/97/98-05.
Concordia, C. and Carter, G. K (1941). Negative damping of electrical machinery. AlEE Transactions, 60:116-119.
DeMello, F. P. and Concordia, C. (1969). Concepts ofsynchronous machine stability as affected by excitation control. IEEE Transactions, PAS-88(4):316329.
DeMello, F. P., Hannett, L. W., and Undrill, J. M. (1978). Practical approaches
to supplementary stabilizing from accelerating power. IEEE Transactions,
PAS-97(5):1515-1522.
Dickmander, D., Thorvaldsson, B., Stromberg, G., Osborn, D., Pointras, A.,
and Fisher, D. (1992). Control system design and performance verification
for the Chester, Maine static var compensator. IEEE Transactions on Power
Delivery, 7(3):1492-1503.
Dommel, H. W. (1969). Digital computer solution of electromagnetic transients
in single and multiphase networks. IEEE Transactions, PAS-89(4):388-399.
Edris, A. A. (1990). Series compensation schemes reducing the potential of
subsynchronous resonance. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 5(1):219226.
Edwards, C. W., Nannery, P. R., Mattern, K. E., Stacey, E. J., and Gubernick,
J. (1988). Advanced static var generator employing GTO thyristors. IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery, 3(4):1622-1627.
Ekanayake, J. B. and Jenkins, N. (1996). A three level advanced static var
compensator. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, 11(1):540-545.
Farmer, R. G., Schwalb, A. L., and Katz Eli (1977). Navajo project report on
subsynchronous resonance:analysis and solution. IEEE Transactions, PAS96{ 1): 1226-1232.
REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
253
Fouad, A. A. and Khu, K. T. (1978). Subsynchronous resonance zones in the

IEEE benchmark power systems. IEEE Transactions, PAS-97(3):754-762.
Geetha, M. K. (1996). Analysis of torsional interactions in power systems with
FACTS controllers. PhD thesis, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore,India.
Gole, A. M., Menzies, R. W., Turanli, H. M., and Woodford, D. A. (1984). Improved interfacing of electrical machine models to electromagnetic transients
program. IEEE Transactions, PAS-103(9):2446-2451.
Gross, G. and Hall, M. C. (1978). Synchronous machine and torsional dynamic
simulation in the computation of electromagnetic transients. IEEE Transactions, PAS-97(4):1074-1086.
Gyugyi, L. (1979). Reactive power generation and control by thyristor circuits.
IEEE Transactions on Industrial Applications, IA-15(5):521-531.
Gyugyi, L. (1988). Power electronics in electric utilities: Static var compensators. Proceedings of IEEE, 76(4):483-494.
Gyugyi, L. (1992). A unified power flow concept for flexible ac transmission
systems. lEE Proceedings, 139 - Pt. C(4):323-331.
Gyugyi, L. (1994). Dynamic compensation of AC transmission lines by solid
state synchronous voltage sources. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery,
9(2) :904-911.
Gyugyi, L., Schauder, C. D., and Sen, K. K. (1997). Static synchronous series
compensator: a solid state approach to the series compensation of transmission lines. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, 12(1):406-417.
Hall, M. C. and Hodges, D. A. (1976). Experience with 500 kV subsynchronous
resonance and resulting turbine generator shaft damage at Mohave generating station. IEEE PES Winter Meeting, Publication CH1066 -O-PWR,
(76) :22-30.
Hammad, A. and El-Sadek, M. (1984). Application of a thyristor controlled
VAR compensator for damping subsynchronous oscillations in power systems. IEEE Transactions, 103:198-212.
Hannett, L. N. and DeMello, F. P. (1990). Mechanical countermeasures to
subsynchronous torsional instability. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems,
5(4):1146-1150.
Hatziadoniu, C. J. and Funk, A. T. (1996). Development ofa control scheme for
a series connected solid state synchronous voltage source. IEEE Transactions
on Power Delivery, 11(2):1138-1144.
Hedin, R. A., Stump, K. B., and Hingorani, N. G. (1981). A new scheme for
subsynchronous resonance damping of torsional oscillations and transient
torque - Part II. IEEE Transactions, PAS-100(4):1856-1863.
Hedin, R. A., Weiss, S., Torgerson, D., and Eilts (1995). SSR characteristics
of alternative types of series compensation schemes. IEEE Transactions on
Power Systems, 10(2):845-852.
Helbing, S. G. and Karady, G. G. (1994). Investigations of an advance form of
series compensation. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, 9(2):939-946.
254
Hingorani, N. G. (1981). A new scheme for subsynchronous resonance damping

of torsional oscillations and transient torque - Part I. IEEE Transactions,
PAS-100(4):1852-1855.
Hingorani, N. G. (1991). FACTS-Flexible AC Transmission System. lEE Con!,
Fifth Int. Conf. on AC and DC transmission, London, (345):1-7.
Hingorani, N. G. (1993). Flexible ac transmission. IEEE Spectrum, 30(4):44-45.
Hingorani, N. G. (1995). Custom power. IEEE Spectrum, 30(6):41-48.
Hingorani, N. G., Bhargava, B., Garrigue, G. F., and Rodriguez, G. D. (1987).
Prototype NGH subsynchronous resonance damping scheme Part-I -Field
installation and operating experience. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems,
PWRS-2( 4) :1034-1039.
IEEE Committee Report (1968). Computer representation of excitation systems. IEEE Transactions, PAS-87:1460-1464.
IEEE Committee Report (1969). Recommended phasor diagram for synchronous
machines. IEEE Transactions, PAS-88(1l):1593-161O.
IEEE Committee Report (1973). Dynamic models for steam and hydro turbines
in power system studies. IEEE Transactions, PAS-92(6):1904-1915.
IEEE Committee Report (1976). A bibliography for the study of subsynchronous
resonance between rotating machines and power systems. IEEE Transactions, PAS-95(1):216-218.
IEEE Committee Report (1977). First benchmark model for computer simulation of subsynchronous resonance. IEEE Transactions, PAS-96(5): 15651570.
IEEE Committee Report (1979). First supplement to a bibliography for the
study of subsynchronous resonance between rotating machines and power
systems. IEEE Transactions, PAS-98(6):1872-1875.
IEEE Committee Report (1980). Countermeasures to subsynchronous resonance. IEEE Transactions, PAS-99(5):1810-1817.
IEEE Committee Report (1981). Excitation system models for power system
stability studies. IEEE Transactions, PAS-I00(2) :494-509.
IEEE Committee Report (1982). 'Series capacitor controls and settings as a
countermeasure to subsynchronous resonance'. IEEE Transactions, PAS101 (6): 1281-1287.
IEEE Committee Report (1985a). Second benchmark model for computer simulation of subsynchronous resonance. IEEE Transactions, PAS-104(5): 10571066.
IEEE Committee Report (1985b). Second supplement to a bibliography for the
study of subsynchronous resonance between rotating machines and power
systems. IEEE Transactions, PAS-I04(2) :321-327.
IEEE Committee Report (1989). Comparison of SSR calculations and test results. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 4(1):336-344.
IEEE Committee Report (1992). Readers guide to subsynchronous resonance.
IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 7(1):150-157.
255
IEEE Task Force (1986). Current usage and suggested practices in power system stability simulations for synchronous machines. IEEE Transactions on
Energy Conversion, EC-1(1):77-93.
IEEE Working Group (1982). Effects of switching network disturbances on
turbine-generator shaft systems. IEEE Transactions, PAS-101(9):3151-3157.
IEEE Working Group (1985). Terms,definitions and symbols for subsynchronous
oscillations. IEEE Transactions, PAS-104(6):1326-1334.
IEEE Working Group (1994). Static var compensator models for power flow
and dynamic performance simulation. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems,
9(1):229-240.
Iravani, M. R. (1989). Torsional oscillations of unequally loaded parallel identical generators. IEEE Transactions, 4(4):1514-1524.
Iravani, M. R. and Maratukulam, D. (1994). Review of semiconductor controlled phase shifters for power system applications. IEEE Transactions on
Power Systems, 9(4):1833-1839.
Iravani, M. R. and Semlyen, A. (1992). Hopfbifurcations in torsional dynamics.
IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 7 (1) :28-36.
Jackson, W. B. and Winchester, R. 1. (1969). Direct and quadrature axis equivalent circuits for solid-rotor turbine generators. IEEE Transactions, PAS88(7): 1121-1136.
Jalali, S. G., Lasseter, R. H., and Dobson, I. (1994). Dynamic response of a
thyristor controlled switched capacitor. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery,9(3):1609-1615.
Jiang, H., Dorsey, J., Habetlar, T., and Eckroth, K. V. (1994). A cost effective
generator brake for improved generator transient response. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 9(4):1840-1846.
Johnson, R., Krause, P., Montoya, A., Christl, N., and Hedin, R. (1991). Power
system studies and modelling for the Kayenta 230 kV substation advanced
series compensation. lEE Fifth Int. Conf. on AC and DC Power Transmission, Sept:17-20.
Keri, A. J. F., Ware, B. J., Byron, R. A., Mehraban, A. S., Chamia, M., Halverson, P., and Angquist, L. (1992). Improving transmission system performance
using controlled series capacitors. CIGRE, Paper 14/37/38-07.
Kilgore, L. A., Elliott, L. C., and Taylor Jr., E. R. (1971). The prediction and
control of self - excited oscillations due to series capacitors in power systems.
IEEE Transactions, PAS-90(3): 1305-1311.
Kilgore, L. A., Ramey, D. G., and Hall, M. C. (1980). Simplified transmission and generation system analysis procedure for subsynchronous resonance.
IEEE Transactions, PAS-96(6): 1840-1846.
Kothari, A. G. (1985). Analysis and simulation of HVDC-turbine generator torsional interactions. PhD thesis, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur,India.
Kulkarni, A. M., , and Padiyar, K. R. Control design and simulation of Unified
Power Flow Controller-Paper PE - 172 -PWRD -0-12-1997. To appear in
IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery.
256
Kulkarni, A. M., , and Padiyar, K. R. (1997). Modelling and transient simulation of unified power flow controller for subsynchronous resonance studies.
Inti. Conf on Computer Applications in Engineering,Recent Advances, Roorkee, India:760-765.
Kulkarni, A. M. (1997). Modelling and analysis of voltage source converter based
FACTS controllers for real and reactive power control. PhD thesis, Indian
Institute of Science, Bangalore,India.
Kundur, P. (1994). Power System Stability and Control. McGraw-Hill, New
York.
Larsen, E., Rostamkolai, N., Fisher, D., and Poitors, A. (1993). Design of a supplementary modulation control function for the Chester SVC. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, 8(2):719-724.
Larsen, E. V., Baker, D. H., Imece, A. F., and Gerin-Lajoie, L. (1990). Basic aspects of applying SVC's to series-compensated AC transmission lines.
IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, 5(3): 1466-1473.
Larsen, E. V., Clark, K., Hill, A. T., Piwko, R. J., Beshir, M. J., Bhuiyan, M.,
Hormozi, F. J., and Braun, K. (1996). Control design for SVC's on the MeadAdelanto and Mead- Phoenix transmission project. IEEE Transactions on
Power Delivery, 11(3):1498-1506.
Larsen, E. V. and Swann, D. A. (1981). Applying power system stabilizers, Parts
I, II and III. IEEE Transactions, PAS-100(6):3017-3046.
Lauw, H. K. and Meyer, W. S. (1982). Universal machine modelling for the
representation of rotating electric machinery in Electromagnetics Transients
Program. IEEE Transactions, PAS-lOl(6):1342-1351.
Lawson, R. A., Swann, D. A., and Wright, G. F. (1978). Minimisation of power
system stabiliser torsional interaction on large steam turbine generators.
IEEE Transactions, PAS-97(1):183-190.
Lee, D. C., Beaulieu, R. E., and Rogers, G. J. (1985). Effects of governor
characteristics on turbo-generator shaft torsionals. IEEE Transactions, PAS104(6): 1255-1261.
Lee, D. C., Beaulieu, R. E., and Service, J. R. R. (1981). A power system stabilizer using speed and electrical power inputs - design and field experience.
IEEE Transactions, PAS-I00(9):4151-4167.
Lerch, E., Povh, D., and Xu, 1. (1991). Advanced SVC control for damping
power systems oscillations. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 6(2):524535.
Lorden, D. J., Clark, K., and Larsen, E. V. (1992). A digitally based HVDC
firing-pulse synchronisation control - description and model development.
IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, 7(3):1405-1414.
Middlebrook, R. D. (1988). Small- signal modeling of pulse width modulated
switched-mode power converters. Proceedings of IEEE, 76(4):343-354.
Miller, T. J. E. (1982). Reactive Power Control in Electric Systems. John Wiley,
New York.
Minnich, S. H. (1986). Small signals,large signals and saturation in generator
modelling. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, 1(1):94-102.
257
Mori, S., Matsuno, K., Hasegawa, T., Ohnishe, S., Takeda, M., Seto, S., Murakami, S., and F., I. (1993). Development of Large Static Var Generator
using self-commutated inverter for improving system stability. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 8( 1) :371-377.
Mortensen, K., Larsen, E. V., and Piwko, R. J. (1981). Field tests and analysis
of torsional interaction between the Coal -Creek turbine - generators and
the CU HVDC system. IEEE Transactions, PAS-I00(1):336-345.
Mugwanya, D. K. and Van Ness, J. E. (1987). Mode coupling in power systems.
IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 2(2):264-270.
Nolan, P. J., Sinha, N. K., and Alden, R. T. H. (1976). Eigenvalue sensitivities
of power systems including network and shaft dynamics. IEEE Transactions,
PAS-95( 4):1318-1324.
Okamoto, H., Kurita, A., Clark, K., Larsen, E. V., and Miller, N. W. (1996).
Modeling and performance of multi-module TCSCs in ATP. CIGRE Paper
14-307.
Othman, H. A. and Angquist, L. (1996). Analytical modeling of thyristorcontrolled series capacitors for SSR studies. IEEE Transactions on Power
Systems, 11(1):119-127.
Padiyar, K. R. (1996). Power System Dynamics - Stability and Control. John
Wiley, Singapore.
Padiyar, K. R. and Chaurasia, R. K. (1997). Analysis of torsional interactions
with thyristor controlled series compensation. Preprint,IASTED Conference
on 'High Technology in the Power Industry', Orlando, Florida.
Padiyar, K. R. and Geetha, M. K. (1993). Analysis of torsional interactions with
power system stabilizer. Electric Machines and Power Systems, 21(6):767782.
Padiyar, K. R. and Geetha, M. K. (1995). Analysis of torsional interactions in
MTDC systems. Electrical Power and Energy Systems, 17(4):257-266.
Padiyar, K. R., Geetha, M. K., and Rao, K. U. (1996). A novel power flow
controller for controlled series compensation. lEE Can! Publication, Sixth
Int Can! On AC and DC transmission, London, (423):329-334.
Padiyar, K. R. and Kothari, A. G. (1987). Modelling and simulation of HVDC
bridge converters. Electric Machines and Power Systems, 13:285-298.
Padiyar, K. R. and Kothari, A. G. (1988). Study of the HVDC - torsional interactions through digital dynamic simulation. Electric Machines and Power
Systems, 14:363-375.
Padiyar, K. R. and Kothari, A. G. (1989). Analysis of the HVDC turbine generator torsional interactions. Electric Machines and Power Systems, 16:303317.
Padiyar, K. R. and Kulkarni, A. M. (1997). Design of reactive current and
voltage controller of static condenser. Electrical Power and Energy Systems,
19(6):397-410.
Padiyar, K. R., Raj ashekaram , P., Radhakrishna, C., and Pai, M. A. (1986a).
Dynamic stability of power systems through reactive power Modulation.
Electric Machines and Power Systems, 11 :281-293.
258
Padiyar, K. R. and Rao, K. U. (1995). Investigations of power flow control

schemes with controlled series compensation. Proceedings of Conference on
EHV Technology, Bangalore,India: 149-152.
Padiyar, K. R. and Rao, K. U. (1997). Discrete control of series compensation
for stability improvement in power systems. Electrical Power and Energy
Systems, 19(5):311-319.
Padiyar, K. R. and Sachchidanand (1985). Stability of converter control for
multiterminal HVDC systems. IEEE Transactions, PAS-I04(3):690-695.
Padiyar, K. R. and Sachchidanand (1986). Stability of converter control using
new discrete converter model. Journal of Institution of Engineers (India),
67(EL-3).
Padiyar, K. R., Sachchidanand, and Senthil, J. (1986b). A new technique for
interfacing synchronous machine models with electro-magnetic transients
program. Platinum Jubilee Conf on Systems and Signal Processing, IISc,
Bangalore.
Padiyar, K. R., Sachchidanand, and Senthil, J. (1994). Digital computer study
ofthe control oftorsional interactions in HVDC - turbine generators. Electric
Machines and Power Systems, 22(1):87-104.
Padiyar, K. R. and Varma, R. K. (1990a). Concepts of static var system control
for enhancing power transfer in long transmission lines. Electric Machines
and Power Systems, 18:337-358.
Padiyar, K. R. and Varma, R. K. (1990b). Static var system auxiliary controllers
for damping torsional oscillations. Electrical Power and Energy Systems,
12(4):271-286.
Padiyar, K. R. and Varma, R. K. (1991). Damping torque analysis of static var
system controllers. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 6(2):458-465.
Park, R. H. (1929). Two-reaction theory of synchronous machines -Part I :
Generalized method of analysis. AlEE Transactions, 48(7):716-730.
Paserba, J. J., Miller, N. W., Larsen, E. V., and Piwko, R. W. (1995). A
thyristor controlled series compensation model for power system stability
analysis. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, 10(3):1471-1478.
Pilotto, L. A. S., Carvalho, A. R., Bianco, A., Long, W. F., Alvarado, F. L.,
DeMarco, C. L., and Edris, A. (1996). The impact of different TCSC control methodologies on the subsynchronous resonance problem. Proceedings
of EPRI FACTS Conference, Washington D.C.
Piwko, R. J. and Larsen, E. V. (1982a). HVDC system control for damping of
subsynchronous oscillations. IEEE Transactions, PAS-lO 1(7) :2203-2211.
Piwko, R. J. and Larsen, E. V. (1982b). HVDC system control for damping
subsynchronous oscillations, EPRI report EL 2708.
Piwko, R. J., Wagner, C. A., Kinney, S. J., and Eden, J. D. (1996). Subsynchronous resonance performance tests of the Slatt thyristor-controlled series
capacitor. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, 11 (2): 1112-1119.
Piwko, R. J., Wegner, C. A., Furumasu, B. C., Damsky, B. L., and Eden,
J. D. (1994). The Slatt thyristor-controlled series capacitor project- design,
installation, commissioning and system testing. GIGRE, Paper 14-104.
259
Putman, T. H. and Ramey, D. G. (1982). Theory of modulated reactance solution for subsynchronous resonance. IEEE Trans., PAS-101(6):1527-1535.
Rajaraman, R., Dobson, I., Lasseter, R. H., and Shern, Y. (1996). Computing
the damping of subsynchronous oscillations due to a thyristor controlled
series capacitor. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, 11(2):1120-1127.
Ramey, D. G., Kimmel, D. S., Dorney, J. W., and Kroening, F. H. (1981). Dynamic Stabilizer verification tests at San-Juan station. IEEE Transactions,
PAS-I00( 12) :5011-5019.
Ramey, R. G., Sismour, A. C., and Kung, G. C. (1977). Important parameters
in considering transient torques on turbune-generator shaft systems. IEEE
Transactions, PAS-99( 1) :311-317.
Ramshaw, R. S. and Padiyar, K. R. (1973). Generalized system model for
slipring machines. Proceedings of lEE (London), 120(6):647-658.
Rao, C. and Nagsarkar, T. (1984). Half wave thyristor controlled dynamic brake
to improve transient stability. IEEE Transactions, 103(5):1077-1083.
Romegialli, G. and Beeler, H. (1981). Problems and concepts of static compensator control. lEE Proceedings, 128, Pt. C(6):382-388.
Rostamkolai, N., Piwko, R. J., Larsen, E. V., Fischer, D. A., Mobarak, M. A.,
and Poitras, A. E. (1990). Subsynchronous torsional interactions with static
var compensators - concepts and practical implications. IEEE Transactions
on Power Systems, 5(4):1324-1332.
Rustebakke, H. M. and Concordia, C. (1970). Self - excited oscillations in transmission system using series capacitors. IEEE Transactions, 89(7):1504-1512.
Salama, M. M. A., Temraz, H., Chikhani, A. Y., and Bayoumi, M. A. (1993).
Fault current limiter with thyristor controlled impedance. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, 8(3):1518-1528.
Sarkozi, M., Gyugyi, L., Bronfeld, J. D., Nilsson, S., and Damsky, B. (1994).
Thyristor switched ZNO voltage limiter. CIGRE Paper 14-302, Paris.
Sauer, P. W. and Pai, M. A. (1998). Power System Dynamics and Stability.
Prentice Hall,Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
Schauder, C., , and Mehta, H. (1993). Vector analysis and control of advanced
Static Var Compensator. lEE Proceedings-C, 140(4):299-306.
Schauder, C., Gernhardt, M., Stacey, E., Cease, T. W., Edris, A., Lemak, T.,
and Gyugyi, L. (1995). Development of 100 Mvar Static Condenser for voltage control of transmission systems. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery,
10(3): 1486-1496.
Schauder, C. D., Gyugyi, L., Lund, M. R., Stacey, E. J., Kovalsky, L. J., Keri,
A. J. F., Mehraban, A. S., and Edris, A. A. (1997). Meeting the challenges of
implementing the world's first UPFC on the AEP system. EPRI Conference
on Future of Power Delivery, La Jolla ,California,U.S.A.
Schlief, F. R., Feeley, R. K., Phillips, W. H., and Torluemke, R. W. (1979).
A power system stabilizer application with local mode cancellation. IEEE
Transactions, PAS-98(3):1054-1060.
260
Senthil, J. (1990). Simulation o/transients in synchronous generators and HVDC

links and study o/torsional interactions. PhD thesis, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur,India.
Sugimoto, S., Kida, J., Arita, H., Fukui, C., and Yamagiwa, T. (1996). Principle
and characteristics of a fault current limiter with series compensation. IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery, 11(2):842-847.
Svensson, S. and Mortensen, K. (1981). Damping of subsynchronous oscillations
by an HCDC link - an HVDC simulator study. IEEE Transactions, PAS100(3): 1431-1437.
Ternes, G. C. and LaPatra, J. W. (1977). Introduction to Circuit Synthesis and
Design. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Undrill, J. M. and DeMello, F. P. (1976). Subsynchronous oscillations ,Part-II
-Shaft -system dynamic interactions. IEEE Transactions, PAS-95( 4): 14561464.
Undrill, J. M. and Kostyniak, T. E. (1976). Subsynchronous oscillations ,Part-IComprehensi ve system stabili ty analysis. IEEE Transactions, PAS-95 (4): 14461455.
Urbanek, J., Piwko, R. J., Larsen, E. V., Damsky, B. L., Furumasu, B. C.,
Mittelstadt, W., and Eden, J. D. (1993). Thyristor controlled series compensation prototype installation at the Slatt 500 kV substation. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, 8(3):1460-1469.
Vithayathil, J., Taylor, C., Klinger, M., and Mittelstadt, W. (1988). Case studies of conventional and novel methods of reactive power control on ac transmission systems. CIGRE, SC 38-02.
Walker, L. (1990). A 10 MW GTO converter for battery peaking service. IEEE
Transactions on Industrial Applications, 26( 1) :63-72.
Wasynczuk, O. (1981). Damping subsynchronous resonance using reactive power
control. IEEE Trans., PAS-100(3):1096-1104.
Watson, W. and Couites, M. E. (1973). Static exciter stabilizing signals on large
generators - mechanical problems. IEEE Transactions, PAS-92( 1) :204-21l.
Wu, C. T., Peterson, K. J., Piwko, R. J., Kankam, M. D., and Baker, D. J.
(1988). The Intermountain power project commissioning - subsynchronous
torsional interaction tests. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, 3(4):20302036.
Zhu, W., Spee, R., Mohler, R. R., Alexander, G. C., Mittelstadt, W. A., and
Maratukulam, D. (1996). An EMTP study of SSR mitigation using the
thyristor controlled series capacitor. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery,
10(3): 1479-1485.
Index
Acceleration signal, 131

Analysis of Graetz Bridge, 138
Analysis of Induction Generator
Effect(IGE),83
Analysis of TCSC, 208
Analysis of Torsional Interaction(TI), 87
Antiphase mode, 120
Apparent impedance of TCSC, 225
Automatic Generation Control (AGC), 7
Automatic Voltage Regulators (AVR), 7
Back To Back (BTB) links, 145
Band reject filter, 131
Bypass Damping Filter, 113
Bypass, 213
Calculation of initial conditions, 245
Clarke's transformation, 68
Combined system equations, 103
Common mode, 120
Commutation voltage, 141
Composite signal, 134
Constant AC Voltage (CACV), 145
Constant Angle (CA) control, 214
Constant Current (CC), 145
Constant DC Voltage (CDCV), 145
Constant Extinction Angle (CEA), 145
Control of SSSC, 231
Converter control, 144
Countermeasures for SSR, 111
D-axis equivalent circuit, 37
D-Q Axes impedances, 77
D-Q components, 65
D-Q reference frame, 193
Damping torque analysis, 14
Delay angle, 141
Design of PSS, 126
Dynamic stabilizer, 118
Eigenvalue analysis, 96
Electrical analogue for the torsional system,
46
Electrical system equations, 101
Electro-hydraulic governor, 56
Electromagnetic Transients Program, 59
Electromagnetic transients, 78
Energy neutral, 234
Equivalent circuits, 35
Excitation control system, 41
Exciter mode, 129
Extinction angle, 143
FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission System),
8
Fault Current Limiter, 11

Firing angle control, 147
Gain supervisor, 182
Gate Pulse Unit (GPU), 179
Graetz bridge, 138
GTO thyristors, 190
HVDC converter station, 138
HVDC transmission, 137
IEEE First Benchmark Model (FBM), 239
IEEE Second Benchmark Model (SBM), 241
IGBT,190
Immittance functions, 94
Impedance functions, 75
Implicit algorithm, 79
Induction Generator Effect(IGE), 5
Interarea mode, 121
Interface between AC and DC system, 148
Intraplant mode, 121
Kron's transformation, 65
Local swing mode, 121
Lumped multi mass model, 44
Master control, 146
MCT,190
Mechanical system equations, 101
Mechanically switched capacitors (MSC),
169
Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV), 214
Mitigation of SSR, 223
Modal damping, 49
Modal inertia, 48
262
Modal spring constant, 48

Mode coupling, 13
Mode shapes, 51
Modelling of TCSC, 216
Modelling of transmission network, 64
Module control functions, 213
NGH Damping Scheme, 116
NGH damping, 8
Numerical integration, 78
Operational impedances, 35
Overlap angle, 141
Park's transformation, 22
Per unit quantities, 30
Phase-Locked Loop(PLL)., 147
Pole control, 146
Power angle curve, 174
Power invariant transformation, 28
Power scheduling control, 214
Power Swing Damping Control (PSDC), 215
Power System Stabilizers(PSS), 4, 122
Protective bypass, 213
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM), 190
Q-axis equivalent circuit, 37
Self excitation, 4
Sequence networks
or and (3,69
Series capacitor protection, 112
Short Circuit Ratio (SCR), 145
Speed governor, 55
SSR neutral, 234
Static Blocking Filter (SBF), 113
Static Compensator (STATCOM), 170
Static Condenser (STATCON), 170, 10
Static Synchronous Compensator
(STATCOM), 10
Static Synchronous Series Compensator
(SSSC), 10, 229
Static Var Compensator (SVC), 10, 169,4
Steam turbine, 55
Subsynchronous Damping Control (SSDC),
215
Subsynchronous Damping Controller
(SSDC),167
Subsynchronous oscillations, 3
SubSynchronous Resonance(SSR), 2
Supplementary Excitation Damping
Control(SEDC), 114
Supplementary Modulation Controller
(SMC),170
Susceptance Regulator (SR), 183
SVC Controller, 177
Synchronizing and damping torque, 88
Synchronizing circuit, 151
Synchronous Condenser (SC), 189
Synchronous machine model, 18
Synchronous Voltage Reversal (SVR), 220
System control hierarchy, 146
Thyristor Controlled Phase Angle Regulator
(TCPAR),10
Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR), 8, 170
Thyristor controlled series capacitor, 206
Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator
(TCSC), I, 205
Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC), 171
Torque angle loop, 15
Torsional filter, 130
Torsional interaction with PSS, 130
Torsional interaction with voltage controller,
200
Torsional interaction, 5
Torsional interactions with SSSC, 234
Transient Stability Control (TSC), 215
Transient torques, 5
Transmission lines, 64
Trapezoidal rule, 79
TSR mode, 213
Turbine generator mechanical system, 43
Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC), 10,
231
Valve group control, 146
Vernier control, 208
Voltage Dependent Current Order Limiter
(VDCOL), 147
Voltage Source Converters (VSC), 189
Waiting mode, 208

Analysis of Subsynchronous Resonance in Power Systems

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Analysis of Subsynchronous Resonance in Power Systems

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

ANALYSIS OF

THE KLUWER INTERNATIONAL SERIES

Power Electronics and Power Systems

Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

Copyright 1999 by Springer Science+Business Media New York

Printed on acid-free paper.

2. MODELLING OF TURBINE GENERATOR

3. MODELLING OF THE ELECTRIC NETWORK

4. ANALYSIS OF SSR WITH FIXED SERIES COMPENSATION

ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS

5. INTERACTIONS WITH POWER SYSTEM STABILIZER

6. INTERACTIONS WITH HVDC CONVERTER CONTROL

7. INTERACTIONS WITH SHUNT COMPENSATORS

8. INTERACTIONS WITH SERIES COMPENSATORS

References and Bibliography

ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS

ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS

A series compensated system

ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS

The following definition of SSR is given in an IEEE Committee Report (1985).

Induction Generator Effect

When the subsynchronous component fem is close to fer (electrical resonant

ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS

A typical S-N diagram for a particular shaft section is shown in Fig.1.2.

A typical SIN curve

cillations at a torsional mode frequency) is the most important factor that

(O"e) generally tends to be negative with series compensated systems. The

INTERACTIONS WITH POWER SYSTEM CONTROLLERS

ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS

lize lower torsional modes.

determined by Kirchhoff's laws. This is in contrast to HYDC links where the

Power flow in parallel paths

As a first approximation, the power flow in ac networks can be compared

ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS

1.4.2 A General Description of FACTS Controllers

Circuit representation of a FACTS Controller

It is assumed that both e s and ip are sinusoidal and can be expressed as

ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS

ipr (reactive current)

e.r,e.a (active voltage)

METHODS OF ANALYSIS OF SSR

System Modelling for SSR analysis

,[B] = [U].It is to be noted that the partial derivatives are

corresponding to (negative) real eigenvalues of matrix [F] are also termed as

ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS

Torque angle loop

ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS

Chapter two is devoted to the derivation of the turbine-generator model. The

In this chapter, the detailed mathematical models of a turbine generator (T-G)

ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODEL

where P is the number of poles.

Flux linkage equations

The stator and rotor flux linkages are given by

MODELLING OF TURBINE GENERATOR

1/1; = [1/Ia 1/Ib 1/Ic]

Laao Labo Labo

ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS

[U3 ) is a unit matrix of dimension 3

MODELLING OF TURBINE GENERATOR

Illustration of convention used

2.2.3 Torque equation

combined moment of inertia of the rotor

= _ 8W' = _!:.- 8W' = P T'