Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Biomolecules
Important Points
1. All the carbon compounds that we get from living tissues can
be called biomolecules.
2. Living tissues also contain inorganic elements and compounds.
How can we conclude this?
(i) One weighs a small amount of a living tissue and dry it.
(ii) All the water evaporates. The remaining material gives dry
weight.
(iii) If tissue is fully burnt. All the carbon compounds are
oxidised to gaseous form CO2 , water vapour and are
removed.
(iv) The remaining ash contains inorganic elements
(like calcium, magnesium, etc).
3. Therefore, elemental analysis gives elemental composition of
living tissues in the form of hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine,
carbon, etc.
4. Amino Acids
(i) Organic compounds containing an amino group and an
acidic group as substituents on the same carbon, i. e. , the
-carbon. Hence, they are called -amino acids.
(ii) They are substituted methanes.
(iii) There are four substituents groups occupying the four
valency positions hydrogen, carboxyl group amino group
and a variable group designated as R group. Based on the
nature of R group, there are many amino acids. However,
20 amino acids occur in protein.
194
www.arihantbooks.com
H C N H2
H C NH 2
CH3
H
Glycine
Alanine
COOH
H C NH 2
CH3 OH
Serine
H3 N CH COOH s
H3 N CH COO
(A)
(B)
R
s
H 2N CH COO
(C)
B is called Zwitter ionic form.
5. Lipids Generally, water insoluble; simple fatty acid.
A fatty acid has a carboxyl group attached to an R group.
(i) The R group could be methyl ( CH3 ) or ethyl (C2H5 ) or
higher number of CH 2 group (1 carbon to 19 carbons).
(ii) Fatty acids Saturated (without double bond) and
Unsaturated (with one or more C==C double bonds),
e.g., Trihydroxy propane (glycerol).
(iii) Many lipids have both glycerol and fatty acids.
Here, fatty acids are found esterified with glycerol.
(iv) They can be monoglycerides, diglycerides and triglyceride.
It also called fats high melting point.
195
winters.
(v) It also called phospholipids Phosphorus and a
phosphorylated organic compound in them.
They are found in cell membranes, e.g., lecithin.
6. Nucleosides Nitrogen base + sugar, e.g., adenosine,
guanosine, thymidine, uridine, cytidine.
7. Nucleotides Nitrogen base + sugar + phosphate group,
e.g., adenylic acid, thymidylic acid, guanylic acid, uridylic acid,
cytidylic acid.
CH2OH
O
OH
HO
HOCH2
OH
OH
OH
C6H12O6 (glucose)
OH
OH
C5H10O5 (ribose)
O
O
CH2OH
CH3(CH2)14COOH
Fatty acid
(palmitic acid)
HOCH2
R2COCH
CHOH
CH2OCR1
Triglycerides (R1, R2
and R3 are fatty acids)
CH2OH
Glycerol
CH2OCR1
Adenine
NH
N
Adenine (purine)
OH
OH
Adenosine
O
HOPOCH2
HOCH2
Uracil
HN
O
Adenine
OH
OH
OH
Adenylic acid
Uracil (pyrimidine)
Nitrogen bases
OH
OH
Uridine
Nucleosides
Nucleotides
196
www.arihantbooks.com
Functions
Intercellular ground substance
Enzyme
Hormone
Fights infections against
Sensory reception (smell, taste, hormone, etc.)
Enables glucose transport into cells
12. Polysaccharides
(i) They are long chains of sugars.
(ii) They are threads containing different monosaccharides as
building blocks.
e.g., cellulose = Polymeric polysaccharide consisting of only
one type of monosaccharides, i.e., glucose.
Starch = Presents as a store house of energy in plant
tissues.
Glycogen = Present in animals
Insulin = Polymer of fructose.
(iii) In a polysaccharide chain, right end, reducing end, left end
and non-reducing end.
197
CH2OH
O
CH2OH
O
O
O
OH
OH
OH
O
O
OH
OH
CH2
Pyrimidines
Adenine
Guanine
Uracil
Cytosine
Thymine
198
www.arihantbooks.com
(a)
(b)
199
200
www.arihantbooks.com
Carbonic anhydrase
CO2 + H 2O H 2CO3
Carbon
dioxide
Water
Carbonic
acid
201
(iii) The substrate has to diffuse towards the active site. There
is thus, an obligatory formation of an ES complex. This
complex formation is a transient phenomenon.
(iv) During this state, a new structure of the substrate called
transition state structure is formed.
(v) After bond making/breaking is completed, the product is
released from the active site.
(vi) There could be many more altered structural states
between the stable substrate and the product.
28. Concept of Activation Energy
Transition state
Potential energy
Substrate (s)
Product (P)
Progress of reaction
Enzymesubstrate
complex
Enzymeproduct
complex
Enzyme Product
202
www.arihantbooks.com
Energy activity
(a)
pH
Temperature
Vmax
2
Vmax
(c)
Km
[S]
Effect of change in
(a) pH
(b) temperature
(c) concentration of substrate on enzyme.
203
204
www.arihantbooks.com
Exercises
Question 1. What are macromolecules? Give examples.
Answer Chemical compounds, which are found in the acid insoluble
fraction are called macromolecules or biomacromolecules. For example,
proteins, lipids and carbohydrate, etc.
OH
O
H
HO
H
H
OH
OH
H
+ OH
OH
Glycosidic
bond
OH
CH3
HO
H
OH
OH
+ H 2O
O CH3
R
OH
H
NR
H
RCNR' + H2O
H
205
5'
OCH 2
Thymine
.......
Adenine
O
O
O
HO P O
P OH
O
CH 2
5'
Guanine
.......
.......
O
Cytosine
CH 2
3'
CH 2
206
www.arihantbooks.com
Answer
CH2OH
O
HO
HOCH2
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
C5H12O5 (Glucose)
Sugars (carbohydrates)
OH
C5H10O5 (Ribose)
COOH
COOH
HCNH2
COOH
HCNH2
HCNH2
CH2
Glycine
CH2OH
Alanine
Amino acids
Serine
O
CH3(CH2)14COOH
CH2OH
Fatty acid
(Palmitic acid)
CHOH
CH2OCR1
R2COCH
CH2OCR3
CH2OH
Glycerol
Triglyceride (R1, R2
and R3 are fatty acids)
O
O
CH2OCR1
R2COCH
CH2OPOCH2CH2
OH
Phospholipid (lecithin)
N
CH3
Cholesterol
CH3 HO
CH3
207
HOCH2
Adenine
NH
Adenine (purine)
OH
OH
Adenosine
O
HOCH3
Uracil
Adenine
OH
HN
O
HOPOCH2
N
OH
Uracil (pyrimidine)
Nitrogen bases
OH
Uridine
Nucleosides
OH
OH
Adenylic acid
Nucleotide
208
www.arihantbooks.com
Protein
Functions
Collagen
Trypsin
Insulin
Antibody
Receptor
GLUT-4
H3CCHCH2
O O
O
O
O C
Fatty acids are chains of hydrocarbons 4-22 (or more) carbons a long with a
carboxyl group at one end. If each carbon has two hydrogen atoms, the
fatty acid is saturated. If two carbon atoms are double-bonded, so that
there is less hydrogen in the fatty acid, it is unsaturated (monounsaturated).
If more than two carbon atoms are unsaturated, the fatty acid is
polyunsaturated.
209
all the essential amino acids required by mans body. The curd forms
because of the chemical reaction between lactic acid bacteria and casein.
When curd is added to milk, the lactic acid bacteria present in it cause
coagulation of casein and thus, convert it into curd.
Question 11. Draw the structure of the amino acid and alanine.
Answer
R-group
or side chain
-carbon
-hydrogen
H3NCHCO
-amino
group
Carboxyl
group
Question 13. Find out a qualitative test for proteins, fats and oils
and starch amino acids and test any fruit juice, saliva, sweat and
urine for them.
Answer
210
www.arihantbooks.com
Observation
Inference
Yellow precipitate Formation of yellow precipitate
indicates the presence of protein in
No precipitate
the food material.
Observation
Oil droplets
No oil droplet
Inference
Formation of oil droplets,
i.e., emulsification indicates the
presence of fats in the given food
material.
Inference
Opaque paper becomes
translucent which indicates the
presence of fats in the food
material.
Observation
Blue black
colour
Inference
Formation of blue black colour
indicates the presence of starch in
the given food material.
Question 14. Find out how much cellulose is made by all the plants
211
Natural product
Synthetic chemical
Natural product
Natural product
212
www.arihantbooks.com
(i) Polysaccharide
(ii) Protein
Glycosidic bond
Peptide bond
(iiii) Fat
Ester bond
(iv) Water
Hydrogen bond.
213
Cotton fibre
Exoskeleton of cockroach
Liver
Peeled potato
Cellulose
Chitin
Glycogen
Starch
Enzyme activity
pH
214
www.arihantbooks.com
(iii) Rubber is a terpenoid and due to its high tensile strength, elasticity
and plasticity properties it is widely used in industries.
(iv) It is a polymeric substance.
Structure of Proteins
N
C
Primary structure
Secondary structure
Tertiary structure
215
ES EP E + P
(iii) The active site of the enzyme, now in close proximity of the substrate
breaks the chemical bonds of the substrate and the new enzyme
product complex is formed.
(iv) The enzyme releases the products of the reaction and the free
enzyme is ready to bind to another molecule of the substrate and run
through the catalytic cycle once again.
216
www.arihantbooks.com
Enzymes are divided into six classes each with 4-13 sub-classes and
named accordingly by a four-digit number.
Oxidoreductases/dehydrogenases Enzymes
which
oxidoreduction between two substrates S and S' , e.g.,
catalyse
James Watson and Francis Crick proposed a structure for the DNA
molecule that suggested the basic mechanism of DNA replication.
According to them
(i) DNA is composed of two strands of DNA running anti-parallel
(remember the 5' and 3' -ends) to each other.
(ii) The hydrophilic sugar (ribose) and phosphate groups of the
nucleotides are face the outside of the molecule and the relatively
hydrophobic nitrogenous bases are on the inside of the molecule,
hidden from water.
(iii) The nucleotides within each strand are held together by the
phosphodiester bonds between the 5 carbon of one nucleotide and
the 3 carbon of the adjacent nucleotide.
(iv) These strong covalent bonds form the glue that holds the
sugar/phosphate backbone together and thus act to keep each
strand together.
217
Sugar-phosphate
backbone
(two; outside)
Nitrogenous
base-pairs
(inside)
A+T
G+C
Held together by
hydrogen bonds
(H-bonds)
Structure of DNA
Nucleoside
O
HOPOCH2
Adenine
HOCH2
Adenine
OH
OH
OH
Adenylic acid
OH
OH
Adenosine