201062601

TROBOLOGICAL AUDIT ON GEARS

Vutla Sandeep Reddy, M.Sc. Automotive engineering, Id- 201062601

1. Introduction
Tribology was defined in United Kingdom in 1966. The name tribology was coined from the
Greek word tribos which means rubbing. Tribology deals with the concepts of friction,
lubrication, and wear. It is the study of interacting surfaces in relative motion. It is used
practically in designing elements of machines and in formulation of lubricants. The main
purpose of tribology is to reduce the friction and wear using lubrication.
Friction is a force created when one surface drags on another surface. Due to the heat
generated between the surfaces because of friction, it causes damage to the surfaces. This
creates irregularities on the surfaces and loss of material from either or both surfaces. This is
called as wear. These type of damages will reduce the performance and life of machines. To
reduce this a viscous material is placed between the materials. It can be solids, liquids or
gases. These materials are called as lubricants. They reduce the contact between surfaces and
thus reduces friction and wear.
Now we will do analysis of gears using tribology. Gears are used to transfer power from one
source/shaft to another. They provide the function of varying the speed and torque. Gears are
used nowadays in most mechanical devices, especially in automotive components. Fig 1
shows how the gears look in a manual transmission.

Figure 1 Gears in manual transmission [1]

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2. Gears
Transmission is used to control the power and for this multiple gear ratios are used together
to maintain the variation in speed of the vehicle. Gearing provides a method to transmit
power from the engine to the wheels. So it is important to reduce the losses caused by friction
and wear in the gears. To improve the efficiency of the gears and to reduce the heat, friction,
wear, noise in the system, proper considerations to lubrication materials is important. Gears
which are light weight and can bear high loads at high speeds are developed in the recent
years, so the design considerations are very important to create such components.
Transmissions have multiple gear ratios to reduce the output speed and increase the torque
transmitted. Depending on the requirement the gear ratio selection is shifted from time to
time. This change in gear ratios can be done manually and also automatically. These are
classified as manual transmission and automatic transmission.
Gears are also classified into different types such as, external gears and internal gears. The
gears with tooth positioned outwards are external gears and which are positioned inwards are
called as internal gears. In any gear pair at least one of them should be external as it is
practically not possible to have contact between two internal gears. In a gear pair the smaller
one is called as pinion and the bigger one is called as rack. Gears can be further classified as.
Spur gear:
It is the simplest and the most efficient model of gears. Spur gear has two parallel shafts
connected using gears on the shafts with teeth parallel to the shafts. It is the most commonly
used gear type, only disadvantage being noise at low speeds. [2] Fig 2 shows the design shape
of the spur gear

Figure 2 spur gear [3]

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Helical gear:
Helical gear also transfers the motion between two parallel shafts. In this type the teeth of
gears are angular to the shaft. This causes thrust along the shaft. But this model runs with less
noise compared to spur gear and the thrust can be avoided using the double helical design. It
has more teeth contact compared to spur gear. [2] Helical gear design is shown in Fig 3

Figure 3 helical gear [4]

Bevel gear:
To transmit motion between two perpendicular shafts with intersecting central line, bevel
gears are used. The gears with straight teeth are called as straight bevel gears. The gear with
teeth cut spirally are called as spiral bevel gear and they used to carry heavy load with very
low noise. [2] Fig 4 show the shape of bevel gear.

Figure 4 bevel gear [5]

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Hypoid gear:
They are similar to bevel gears but the shafts do not intersect, rather they are placed offset to
the Centre. These require special lubricants to maintain the high pressure and rubbing speed
on the tooth. [2] hypoid gear design can be seen in the Fig 5.

Figure 5 hypoid gear [6]

Rack and pinion:
This type consists of a gear with infinite radius called as rack. Pinion is circular and moves on
the straight path of the rack. This model is used to convert linear motion into rotary motion
and rotary motion to linear motion. [2]

Figure 6 rack and pinion gear [7]

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3. Analysis
While analyzing a tribology system it is important to consider various tribological factors and
then design a better interface by selecting appropriate lubricant to reduce friction and wear.
The factors to be considered between the two surfaces in relative motion are

3.1 Material
In general gears are made of various materials ranging from wood to hardened steel.
Depending on the requirements the material is selected. Materials that provide long life and
are strong enough to handle the load are preferred. Accuracy level of gears is also mainly
focused while choosing the material. Gear speed and noise level provide an idea of which
material to choose. Different materials available for manufacturing gears are

Plastics, polymers- low cost and light weight

Non -ferrous alloys- zinc, aluminum, brass, bronze, (strong materials with less
machining)
Cast iron- low cost, machinability. Shock resistant (mixed with other materials for
making gears)
Sintered powder metals- high production, low cost (used in automotive field)
Steel- used commonly for industrial gears [8]

Choosing the material for manufacturing gears is a very important aspect as this will decide
the performance of the machine. many factors should be analysed which influence the gear
operations such as

Cost of manufacture
Strength
Suitable lubricants
Wear resistance of material
Corrosion resistance of material
Size and weight
Time period of load
Temperature
Pressure
External factors (dust or other contaminants)

Steel is the most common material used in gears used for automotive components. Different
grades of steel manufactured using different heat treatment processes are used for different
applications. Aluminum and cast iron are also used in few applications for less weight
purposes. The advantages of steel are

High strength for efficient power transfer

Non-magnetic material
High heat resistance
Corrosion resistance

The compatibility of the material is very important. If wrong materials which are not
compatible are chosen, then it might cause chemical reactions and corrosions.
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3.2 Surface
The surface of the gear plays an important role in the friction and wear performance. Surface
quality defines the efficiency of the product. The surface conformity and the texture are
analysed in gears.
Conformity:
Conformity is the surface contact between two surfaces. If the contact area is more than it is
said as high conformity and vice versa. The conformity between two flat plates can be called
as high conformity and the contact between a ball on the flat plate can be described as low
conformity. In gears the conformity should be maximum for proper engagement and also for
the transfer of load with efficiency.
Texture:
The finish of the material defines the texture of the surface. It is the part that is in contact
with the other material. The surface has many imperfections and irregularities which are
created during the manufacturing process. They are later reduced by polishing, honing or
lapping methods or by doing heat treatment. The initial roughness from the manufacturing
process is reduced automatically during the run-in period. During the initial loading stages,
the irregularities are reduced to an extent and a new surface roughness becomes the standard
of the material. So the initial roughness is maintained keeping the running-in period in mind.
The contact between the two surfaces should be smooth to reduce the friction and wear of the
surfaces.
If the surface has many irregularities then the force of one surface on another creates high
temperatures at these peak asperities and this will cause for the wear and loss of material,
causing increase in friction. The roughness will decide the level of wear and friction between
the surfaces. So it is important to maintain the conformity and smoothness of the surfaces in
contact.
With smooth surfaces the thin lubricant film can run smoothly between the materials and
reduce the wear, friction losses. The irregularities on the surface will also cause noise
problems. So they should be clearly avoided.

3.3 Lubricant
Lubricants are materials filled in between the two surfaces in contact to reduce the friction
and wear. This layer formed between the two surfaces reduces the contact between the
materials and thus reduces the roughness and also noise. Lubricants are the most important
factor in a tribosystem that decides the friction and wear between the surfaces. The type of
lubricant is chosen after considering the material of the surfaces and their compatibility with
the lubricant chemistry and also the temperature and pressure at working conditions along
with the speed.

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The choice of lubricant is important because if a wrong lubricant is selected for a system, it
will cause the system to breakdown with high wear and the life also reduces drastically.
Lubricants are also used to prevent corrosion of the materials. Gear oils are used specifically
in transmissions and automotive components. [9] The various factors to be considered for
selecting a lubricant are

thermal and oxidative stability

compatibility with seal materials

protection against excessive gear and bearing wear

high-temperature extreme pressure protection (EP gear oils)

gear and bearing cleanliness

emulsibility characteristics

rust and corrosion protection, especially to yellow metal components

antifoaming characteristics [10]

The different elements of lubricants that we will analyse are

Viscosity:
It is the resistance to shear in a fluid. In gears lubricants with higher viscosity are preferred as
the gears would be under high pressure. The viscosity of a gear lubricant doesnt remain
constant; it varies with increase in pressure. At very high pressure values the lubricant acts as
a solid material. [11]
Additives:
They are chemicals added to the lubricant to induce new features. Such as improving the
wear reduction, reducing the friction coefficient, increasing the heat resistance of the
materials. Suitable additives are selected to improve the performance of the lubricant.
Contamination:
When external elements are mixed with the lubricant that reduce its performance, it is called
as contamination. For example, when dirt is added to the lubricant from outside, it vastly
reduces the efficiency of the oil and this is bad for the surfaces. In gears this might cause
increase in wear of the material leading to increase in friction. So steps must be taken to
prevent the lubricant from contamination by sealing the gear box properly.
Degradation:
The wear of material due to chemical reactions is called as degradation. Main example of this
is oxidation due to high temperature and pressure. This can be prevented using anti-oxidants.
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Based on these factors appropriate lubricants must be selected that suits the system and
increases the performance of the gears. Different type of gear lubricants that are available are
explained next to help in the understanding of the selection of suitable lubricant.

Types of lubricants:
Oils that provide less friction and wear between surfaces needs to selected. There are many
types of lubricants.

Inhibited oil: they have rust and oxidation inhibitors

Extreme pressure oils: they contain extreme pressure additives, it acts as a friction
modifier
Compounded oil: they are used in warm gear drive to reduce friction. The additive in
this is steam cylinder stocks compounded with acid less fat.
Open gear compounds: they are used in heavy, slow speed gears. These heavy bodied
lubricants contain some additives that allows them to attach to the gear teeth
Greases: they are used only in low speed low load gears. They are thickened with
soap thickeners. [11]

Considering all of this a suitable lubricant is selected for the gear system that improves the
efficiency and life of the gears.

3.4 Operating conditions

Determining the operating conditions of the gears will provide us the required info to analyse
the system.
Load:
It is one of the most important feature that determines the tribological performance. This
factor decides the strength of the gears. Based on this the material selection is done. The
surface stresses, pressure, friction, all are dependent on the load applied. So as the load varies
all these parameters will vary. So it is important to find out under which kind of load is the
gear system actually working. By progressive loading of the gears they can be maintained for
a long time without any heavy wear.
Speed:
The speed at which the gears are rotating greatly influences the performance of the gears.
Mainly the temperate, pressure, coefficient of friction are greatly impacted by the speed. With
high speed of gears, using a coolant is suggested to maintain the temperature.
Temperature:
Temperature is a very important factor for the critical review of the system. It is preferred to
maintain low or normal temperatures and not to let the machine get too hot. If the
temperature increases highly it will cause high friction and wear at the surfaces.
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Environment:
External elements such as dirt, humidity, other fluids in the system can impact the lubricant in
a negative way. So it is always important to know under what conditions is the machines
working. In this way suitable steps can be taken to prevent any contamination of lubricant.

4. Review
Based on the above analysis we review the design and operations of the component, we
discuss the frictional performance, wear behavior, lubrication regimes of the interface.
Gears in general have low gradual wear over a long period of time. They start deforming due
to fatigue. The purpose of the lubricant is to reduce the friction and wear to increase the life
of the gears. Major reason for failure in lubricant is because of contamination or improper
selection of lubricant. Dirt particles are abrasive and when they contaminate the lubricant
they enter the film and cause wear on the surface.
Wear behavior:

Pitting: it is a surface damage that occurs when a fatigue crack starts on the surface of
gear. If water contaminates the lubricant that can lead to pitting. So this can be
avoided by maintaining the lubricant and also reducing the contact stresses by
changing the load. [11]
Micro pitting: this can occur in small scale in gears with surface hardening generally
of 10 micrometer depth. [11]
Adhesion: in gears with low speed and high load adhesion is generally observed as the
lubricant film works in boundary and mixed conditions. This can be avoided using
lubricants with high viscosity. [11]
Abrasion: when hard and sharp particles contaminate the lubricant, this leads to
abrasions on the surface of the gear. Usage of filters can prevent can reduce the
contamination of the lubricant. [11]
Scuffing: when the gear teeth work in boundary lubrication method, due to large
amount of metal to metal contact, scuffing takes place. This can be avoided by using
sulphorous- phosphorous compound additives as antiscuff additive. [11]
Plastic flow: when the elastic limit of the surface material stresses increases due to
heavy loads. [11]

Wear particle analysis:

Normal sliding: rubbing wear particles are generated on the surface of the gear teeth.
[11]
Cutting wear: softer surface is penetrated by the harder surface and this causes wear
particles to be generated. [11]
Fatigue wear: fatigue platelets are generated because of repeated rolling action on
gear teeth. [11]

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Black oxide particles: while scuffing bear metal surfaces can weld and tear, due to the
extreme heat during welding black oxide particles are generated. [11]
Red oxide: due to water or moisture in the lubricant corrosion takes place. [11]

Lubricant mechanisms:
There are primarily three ways to lubricate gears

Grease lubrication: suitable for gears that run at low speeds (0-6 m/s), not suitable
for high loads as there is no cooling effect. [10]
Splash lubrication: normal method of lubrication by simply dipping into a bath of
oil while rotating. Suitable for speeds of (4-15 m/s). [10]
Spray lubrication: suitable for speeds above 12 m/s generally in range of (10-20
m/s). lubrication is done using a nozzle with oil. [10]

Lubrication regimes:
Lubrication regimes are divided into four types based on the film thickness between the
surface contact.

Hydrodynamic lubrication: a layer of fluid film is completely formed between the

two surfaces. So there is no effective contact between the surfaces.
Boundary lubrication: type of lubrication where the asperities on both surfaces are
in contact. So the surface roughness is equal to the fluid layer thickness.
Mixed lubrication: it deals with both hydrodynamic and boundary lubrication. The
film thickness ranges from 0.05-0.1 micro meters.
Elastohydrodynamic lubrication: in highly loaded interfaces the hydrodynamic
film moves into the boundary lubrication. This results in local elastic deformations
and increase in viscosity.

5. conclusion
After the tribological audit of gears with analysis on materials, surfaces, lubrications and
operating conditions, we can conclude that many parameters should be properly considered
before designing and operating gears. Many gears provide very high efficiency i.e. up to
98%. To suggest improvements to this system, proper selection of lubrication is important
and sealing of the gear box prevents contaminations. So suitable enclosements should be
made to the gears. Further developments in the lubricants that can handle wide range of
temperatures is preferable. Lighter gears that can handle very high loads can be developed.
New surface treatments can be implemented to reduce the friction and wear of the surfaces.

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