Figure 37-25 The retina, which is the innermost layer of the eye, contains the photoreceptor cells called rods and cones (bottom). Notice the upside-down image that was superimposed on a photograph of the retina taken through an ‘ophthalmoscope (top). Just inside the cornea is a small chamber (anterior chamber)'filled with a fluid known as the aqueous humor. (The word humor means any fluid within the body.) At the back of this chamber, the pigmented choroid, which contains the blood vessels of the eye, becomes the disklike structure called the iris. The iris is the portion of the eye that gives your eye its color. In the middle of the iris is a small opening called the pupil, through which light enters the eye. The pupil appears as the small black disk in the center of the eye. Tiny muscles in the iris regulate the size of the pupil and thus the amount of light that enters. In dim light the pupil opens to increase the amount of light entering the eye. In bright light the pupil closes to decrease the amount of light entering the eye, thus prevent- ing damage to the delicate structures within the eye. Just behind the iris is the lens. The cells that form the lens contain a special protein called crystalin. Crystalin is almost transparent and thus allows light to pass through. Small mus- cles attached to the lens cause it to bend slightly. This bending _ enables the normal eye to focus on close and distant objects. Behind the lens is a large chamber (vitreal chamber) filled with a transparent jellylike fluid called vitreous humor. Special light-sensitive receptor cells, or photoreceptors, are arranged in a layer in the retina, which is located at the back of the eye. The photoreceptors convert light energy into ;pulses that are carried to the central nervous system. There are two types of photoreceptors: rods and cones. Photoreceptors contain a pigment called rhodopsin (also called visual purple) that can respond to most wavelengths of light. Rods are extremely sensitive to all colors of light, but they do not distinguish different colors, Cones are less sensi- tive than rods, but they do respond differently to light of difier- ent colors, producing color vision. In very dim light, when only rods are activated, objects may be clearly seen but their colors may not be distinguishable. As the amount of light increases, the cones are stimulated and the colors become clear, ‘The impulses assembled by this complicated layer of inter- connected cells leave each eye by way of an optic nerve. The optic nerves then carry the impulses to a part of the brain known as the optic lobe. Here the brain interprets the visual images and, provides information about the external world. Hearing and Balance Sound is nothing more than vibrations in the air around us. Deep, low-pitched sounds result from slow vibrations—100 to 500 vibrations per second. High-pitched sounds are caused bY faster vibrations—1000 to 5000 vibrations per second. In addi- tion to pitch, sounds differ from one another by their loudness. ‘or volume. The sense organs that can distinguish both the pitch and loudness of sounds are the ears. The external ear consists of the visible fleshy part that helps t6 collect sounds and funnel them into the auditoryIN. BIOLOGY The retina contains two types of photore- ceptors: rods and cones. Rods are responsible for black-and-white vision; cones are responsi- ble for color vision. In humans, there are three types of cones: blue cones, ‘red cones, and green cories. Each typé of cone is sensitive to a specific portion of the visible spectrum. The combined stimulation of these cones prodtices all the colors you see. $ et ‘As the accompanying graph shows, the: § of blue, red, and green cones over- aise their sensitivit distinguish 1 canal, The auditory canal contains tiny hairs and wax-produc- ing glands that prevent foreign objects from entering the ear. The auditory canal extends into the bones of the head but stops at the eardrum, or tympanum. The eardrum is the begin- ning of the middle ear. Sound vibrations strike the eardrum and are then transmitted through three tiny bones: the malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup). The stapes vibrates against a thin membrane covering an ‘opening called the oval window. This membrane transmits the vibrations to the cochlea, which begins the inner ear. The cochlea is a snail-shaped fluid-filled cavity. When the fluid vi- brates, tiny hair cells lining the cochlea are pushed back and forth, providing stimulation that is turned into nerve impulses. ‘These impulses are carried to the brain by the acoustic nerve. 829Figure 37-26 Sound waves enter the ear and are converted into impulses that are carried to the brain. The photograph-of-the middle~ ear shows the eardrum, which is tinted yellow, and the three small ear bones. Figure 37-27 The semicircular canals (top) are set at right angles to one another so that they react to up-and-down, side-to-side, and tilting motions. Tiny crystals called otoliths bottom) also play a part in ‘maintaining balance. MippLe EXTERNAL EAR. EAR INNER EAR Semicircular © abl ‘canal In addition to enabling us to hear, the ears contain’ struc- tures for detecting stimuli that make us aware of our move- ments and allow us to maintain our balance. Located within the inner ear just above the cochlea are three tiny canals that lie at right angles to each other. They are called the semicircular canals because each makes half a circle. The semicircular canals and the two tiny sacs located behind them help us sense balance, or equilibrium. ; The semicircular canals and the sacs are both filled with fluid and lined with hair cells (ciliated cells). The hair cells of each sac, however, are embedded in a gelatinlike substance that contains tiny grains of calcium carbonate and protein called otoliths (hearing stones). Otoliths roll back and forth in response to gravity, acceleration, and deceleration. Together, the movement of fluid and the otoliths bend the hair on the hair cells. This action, in turn, sends impulses to the brain that enable it to determine body motion and position. Smell Because the sense of smell is a chemical sense, the cells that are responsible for smell are called chemoreceptors. ‘These cells are located in the upper part of the nasal (pertain- ing to the nose) cavity. See Figure 37-28. These chemorecep- tors contain cilia that extend into the air passageways of the nose and react to chemicals in the air. Chemicals that come into contact with these chemoreceptors stimulate them, caus- ing impulses to be sent to the brain. Unfortunately, relatively little is known about the sense of smell. Although tens of thousands of different odors can be dis- tinguished, it is not understood how one odor is distinguished from another. A challenge for biologists who study the sensory systems is to determine the basis of scent discrimination, &Taste Like the sense of smell, the sense of taste is a chemical sense. And the cells that are stimulated by the chemicals are ‘also called chemoreceptors. The sense organs that detect taste “> are the taste buds. Most taste buds are located between small projections on the tongue. However, taste buds are also found bn the roof of the mouth and on the lips and throat (especially in children). Ga The tastes detected by taste buds are of four main kinds: ©. sweet, salty, sour, and bitter. Each taste bud shows a particular sensitivity to one of these tastes. Because many of the sensations associated with taste are actually smell sensations, humans depend upon both senses to detect flavors in food. Perhaps you are already aware of this fact. When you have a cold and your smell receptors are cov- _ered. by mucus, food seems to have little, if any, flavor. Touch and Related Senses The sense of touch, unlike the other senses you have just read about, is not found in one particular place. All regions of the skin are sensitive to touch. In this respect, your largest | sense organ is your skin. There are several distinct types of sensory receptors that are present just below the surface of the skin. Two types of sen- sory receptors respond to heat and cold; two other types re- spond to touch; one type responds to pain. See Figure 37-29. Sensory receptors for heat and cold are scattered directly © below the surface of the skin. In general, there are three to four =>. warm receptors for every cold receptor. Sensory receptors for touch are much more concentrated in some areas of the body © than in others. For éxample, the most touch-sensitive ateas are located on the fingers, toes, and lips. Pain receptors are located © throughout the skin. Depending upon what type of sensory ‘G2, neurons are stimulated, the sensation of pain can be experi =. enced as either prickling pain (fast pain) or burning and aching pain (slow pain). entity ar Sasa Frontal bone Fibers of olfactory nerve Nasal Figure 37-28 A tiny patch of specialized tissue locateéd over the top of each nasal cavity is responsible for the sense of smell. Figure 37-29 The skin contains many types of sensory receptors that provide information about the external environment. Receptors for touch and pressure Hair Receptor for touch or pressure Receptor for deep pressure Receptors for light touch Dermis i Free nerve endings Epidermis OVOURON 831