TRlBOLOGY SERIES

Advisory Editor: DOUGLAS SCOTT

Editorial Board
W.J. Bartz (Germany. B.D.R.)
C.A. Brockley (Canada)
E. Capone (Italy)
H. Czichos (Germany, B.D.R.)
W.A. Glaeser (U.S.A.)
M. Godet (France)
H.E. Hintermann (Switzerland)
Vol. 1
Vol. 2

I.V. Kragelskii (U.S.S.R.)

K.C. Ludema (U.S.A.)
A.J.W. Moore (Australia)
G.W. Rowe (Gt. Britain)
T. Sakurai (Japan)
J.P. Sharma (India)

Tribology - a systems approach to the science and technology of friction,

lubrication and wear (Czichos)
Impact Wear of Materials (Engel)

TRIBOLOGY SERIES, 2

IMPACT WEAR
MATERIALS
PETER A. ENGEL
IBM System Products Division, Endicott, N. Y., U.S.A.

ELSEVIER SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY

AMSTERDAM

OXFORD

NEW YORK

1978

ELSEVIER SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY

335 Jan van Galenstraat
P.O. Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Distributors for the United States and Canada:
ELSEVIERINORTH-HOLLAND INC.
52, Vanderbilt Avenue
New York, N.Y. 10017

First edition 1976

Second impression (with amendments) 1978

230 figures

L i b r a r ) of Congress Cataloging in Publication D a t a

Engel, Peter A
Impact wear of materials.

Includes biblioaraphical
references and indexes.
1, blaterials--3ynanic testing. 2" Iqact.
I. Title,
~~418.34.
~5
621.8'9
76-44871
ISBN 0-444-41533-5

ISBN: 0-444-41533-5
(Vol. 2)
ISBN: 0-444-41677-3
(Series)

Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, 1978

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher, Elsevier
Scientific Publishing Company, P.O. Box 330, 1000 AH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
@

Printed in The Netherlands

PREFACE
The inspiration t o write this book essentially grew out of the author's experience
with engineering problems pertaining to impacting machine components.
i.e. the wear resulting from repetitive impact cycles i n machinery,

lmpact wear,

i s often a limiting

factor o f service life; its importance i s accentuated i n modern industrial applications

where high-strength materials are called upon t o endure a large number of load cycles
under high local (contact) stress.

These loads induce wear modes which are character-

istic of the process of contacting, and thus traditional wear tests would not suffice t o
evaluate competing designs.
Because impact wear has become a significant factor and prior textbooks hod
traditionally treated sliding and, to an extent,

r o l l i n g as the main source o f mechanical

wear i n machinery, this first book devoted t o impact wear i s hoped t o f u l f i l l a v i t a l

mission,

Following the conception o f this book, the author has continued and widened

his research activities, and diligently studied the literature of tribology; the latter
indicates rapid progress i n a f i e l d where important discoveries are becoming more
frequent.
I n writing this text, the author was concerned t o highlight a hitherto neglected
area o f wear, and also to give expression to a compact philosophy that considers wear
as a geometric phenomenon dependent an the contact stresses and wear mechanisms.
Wear phenomena due to erosion and percussion are considered under the unified
t i t l e o f lmpact Wear.

Erosion i s defined as the action o f streams and jets o f solid

'

particles or liquids, and percussion refers t o the impacts of solid bodies of more substantial size,

The unification of erosion and percussion appears justified because the

common features o f impact stress analysis are i n abundance despite the fact that wear
mechanisms tend t o be distinct and characteristic of a particular impact wear process.
The studies, beginning i n the 1 9 5 0 ' ~o~f materials eroded by solid particles and
liquids have followed distinct patterns i n their development.

An effort has been made

i n this text t o reconstruct a sense of this historic development within those studies.
lmpact wear caused by percussion i s a newer topic and this i s the area of the
author's principal research contributions.

Consequently, there i s an attempt to show

the relationship between the analytical-experimental apparatus used i n percussive

impact versus sliding and rolling work.

The general intent of this book is an analytical-predictive formulation of various

cases involving impact wear.

N e w results i n erosion theory permit the possibility of

quantifying the wear rates that are dependent on a few principal parameters.

For per-

cussive impact wear, a generalized engineering theory emerged from the author's
research, and i t centers around the master-curve shifting procedure detailed i n this
text,

An experimental foundation t o the analytical results i s provided throughout

the work,

The following considerations enter into each quantitative application:

(1) Impact analysis, (2) Identification o f material behavior and wear mechanisms,

(3) Considerations o f the wear geometry, (4) The aspect of surface properties and
behavior.
The emphasis of this book is on conceptual models and a rational treatment,
stead of sophisticated mathematical or physico-chemical presentation.

in-

I t i s hoped that

this approach w i l l be o f benefit t o researchers and engineers, and specifically, to

machine designers, and w i l l stimulate further investigation at colleges, universities,
and research institutions.
When used i n university courses, this text corresponds t o the level of a senior
undergraduate or first-year graduate course i n engineering and the natural sciences.
The organization of the material was designed t o enhance an interdisciplinary attitude
t o the subject matter b y engineers, physicists, and chemists working i n various specialized fields,,

Therefore an appropriate introduction i s provided t o prepare the reader for

each key aspect of impact wear.

Chapter 1 reviews the basic issues of tribology.

Chapter 2 discusses impact (and,

in general, contact) theory; modern computational techniques such as the finite element
method are shown.

Chapter 3 is devoted t o the various aspects o f a single impact on

engineering surfaces; layered surfaces, plastically deformed materials, viscoelasticity

and lubrication are discussed for their role on impact.

An introduction t o osperity-

models focuses on the "microscopic" elements of contact, the synthesis of which being
the "macroscopic" (apparent, Hertzian) contact.

Repetitive impact effects are involved

inasmuch as heat generation i s involved.

Ductile cutting and brittle fracture by small erosive particles i s described i n
Chapter

4. Some successful semi-empirical theories combining wear by the ductile and

b r i t t l e aspects o f the material are presented.

vestigations i n erosive wear,

Chapter 5 treats some of the latest in-

including the effect of particle fragmentation; single/

particle studies have explained several aspects o f erosion dependence an velocity,

angle of incidence,

etc.

Chapter 6 introduces the experimental techniques and various phenomena arising

i n percussive impact wear; some test apparatuses are described, along with test goals.
Chapter 7 i s devoted to the initiation of wear and the "zero wear theory" by which i t
can be predicted based on an engineering description of the materials and loads involved.
Chapter 8 starts with the optimal wear-path principle, and combining this with the wear
mechanism, laws are derived for the continuous wear process i n different geometric
configurations.

The master-curve shifting process facilitates a rapid estimation of the

effects of varying the impact- and sliding velocities,

and other engineering parameters.

surface roughness, lubrication

In Chapter 9, the analytical techniques are extended

t o contacts loaded .into the plastic range, after reviewing numerous experimental results.
Percussive wear of metal vs, nonmetal configurations i s treated i n Chapter 10; the wear
of print-devices and metal vs. polymer pairs i s discussed.
The erosion of liquid jets i s treated i n Chapter 11; impact stress analysis and
damage due t o single impacts is followed by fatigue considerations for multiple hits.
The author has been, for many years, principal investigator o f impact wear work
i n the Materials and EngFneering Analyses Section at the IBM Laboratory i n Endicott,

N. Y.

He thanks his management for encouraging the research project and the publica-

tion of this work.

The thoughtful comments o f G. P. T i l l y helped shape the final con-

tents of the manuscript.

appreciated.

The remarks of E. Sacher and M. B. Peterson are greatly

The interest and helpful attitude of many colleagues at IBM and of the

worldwide scientific community are gratefully acknowledged.

A special note o f admira-

tion i s due to the researchers of Cambridge University who pioneered i n the study of
erosion.

The author also wishes to thank a l l workers i n the field and their publishers,

who consented to lending data and diagrams quoted i n this text.

The skeleton of this book was born i n courses given at IBM and at the School of
Advanced Technology,

State University of N e w York at Binghamton.

warmly remembered for

his help i n crystallizing the material, The author extends his

Every student i s

grateful appreciation to Josie Scanlon for producing an excellent manuscript i n the form
o f camera-ready copy.
Finally, the author's wife deserves high praise for her patience and cheerful
support during the years of work.

Binghamton,
July, 1976

N.Y.

BORROWED ILLUSTRATIONS
The author i s grateful for the permission granted by publishers of several books and
journals t o reproduce material i n this text.

The publications that are quoted include

the following:
Technical books published by Edward Arnold, London; Pergamon Press Ltd.,
Oxford University Press, Oxford; W i l e y and Sons, N e w York.

Oxford;

Journal articles:
ASLE Transactions

Amer. Soc. of Lubrication Engineers,

Park Ridge, ll linois

ASME Transactions
Journal o f Applied Mechanics
Journal o f Basic Engineering
Journal of Engineering for Industry
Journal o f Lubrication Technology

Amer. Soc. o f Mechanical Engineers,

N e w York, N . Y .

Comptes Rendus de I'Academie des Sciences

Centrale des Revues Dunod-GauthierV i l lars, Paris

Experimental Mechanics

Society of Experimental Stress Analysis,

Bridgeport, Connecticut

IBM Journal of Research and Development

IBM Corporation, Armonk, N. Y.

International Journal o f Mechanics and

Physics of Sol ids

Pergamon Press Ltd.,

Oxford

International Journal of Solids and Structures Pergamon Press Ltd.,

Oxford

International Journal o f Numerical

Methods i n Engineering

W i l e y and Sons, N e w York

Journal o f Applied Physics

Amer. lnsti tute of Physics, N e w York

Journal o f Macromolecular Science,

Reviews i n Macromolecular Chemistry

Marcel Dekker Journals, N e w York

Journal of Materials

Amer. Soc. of Testing Materials,

Philadelphia, Pa.

Journal of Research of the National

Bureau of Standards

U. S. Department of Commerce,
Washington, D.C.

Metals Engineering Quarter1y

Amer. Soc. for Metals, Metals Park, O h i o

Proceedings and Philosophical

Transactions o f the Royal Society o f London

Oxford University Press, Oxford

Wear

Elsevier Sequoia, Lausanne

NOMENCLATURE
Symbols which are only used locally are not listed here.
A

Area

A,

Real area o f contact

Contact radius for spherical contact; major axis of contact ellipse

aT(T) Viscoelastic shift factor

Bulkmodulus

Half-length of cor\tact, for cylindrical contact; minor axis of contact ellipse

Constraint factor; stress severity factor

Specific heat

Velocity exponent i n erosion; sound velocity; clearance

Phase velocity

Ductility; contact diameter; erosion resistance; damage

Indenter diameter; distance; particle size (diameter); jet diameter

Modulus of elasticity

E,
E*

Reduced modulus of elasticity,

Complex modulus

Coefficient of restitution

Friction force

Slip factor, vibration frequency

Shear modulus

Oil film thickness; layer thickness; hardness

Depth of wear

Moment of inertia; erosion intensity

Impulse

[ ((1

- v l2 )/"El)

+ ((1 - v 22 )/rE

J1,2,3 Invariants of the stress deviator tensor

Wear constant; stiffness matrix; thermal conductivity

Spring constant

Span length

Bending moment; mass

Mass

Impulse; number of cycles

Impact repetition rate

2)1

-1

Normal contact force

Linear normal force per unit width
Flow pressure; hardness; fluid pressure
Heat; volume; failure parameter
Contact pressure
Volumetric heat generation
Radius o f curvature; roundness
Reynolds number
Sliding pass-length; sheor force; shape factor; impact strength
Radius o f wear crater; percentage o f weight undersize for erosive particle sample
Temperature; modulus of toughness; tension
Time
Contact time (duration)
Slipping time during impact
Energy
Velocity; radial surface displacement
Impact velocity
Tangential (sliding) velocity
Volume (or mass) of wear
(Elastic) displacement; width o f cylindrical indenter

SI i p
Sliding distance
In subscript, denotes yield
Contact approach; pressure-viscosity constant; angle o f attack
Combined curvature; surface damage contribution factor; rake angle

Wear factor

Logarithmic decrement

P e a k - t ~ - ~ e osurface
k
finish

tan 6 Viscoelastic dissipation factor

Strain; deformation wear factor; energy
Nondimensional curvature parameter
Viscosity; asperity density
Angle; rotation
Thermal diffusivity

Nondimensional curvature parameter for wearing plane

Coefficient o f friction
Poisson's ratio
Mass density; nondimensional curvature parameter for wearing round body
Normal stress; contact pressure; standard deviation o f asperity heights
Shear stress
impact frequency; cutting Weor factor ; primary erosion factor
Probability distribution
Contact force ratio,

P/F;

optical reflection coefficient

Angle between principal planes o f contacting bodies; plasticity index;

secondary erosion factor
Angular speed

To the memory o f m y mother

CHAPTER 1

1.

CONSIDERATIONS OF FRICTION A N D WEAR

INTRODUCTION
The interdisciplinary science dealing w i t h the mechanical changes taking place

between relatively moving and interacting solid surfaces i s called Tribology.

was coined from the Greek ( T P Lp e LV) meaning friction.
equivalent i s Friction and Wear, alternative[y used.

Its popular,

The word

English language

The latter term i s hardly a l l -

inclusive; a leading journal i n the field categorizes its subjects of interest i n the following technical areas: concentrated contacts; bearing materials; traction; friction and
wear; fluid film bearings; lubricants; wear control; seals.
Percussion, and impact i n general, also has its place i n Tribology.

In fact,

its

effects on solid surfaces are i n many respects related to those caused by sliding interactions, w i t h which friction and wear phenomena have been more t i a d i t i o n a l l y
associated.
I t was f e l t necessary t o give a concise summary o f the main topics o f friction and
wear theory i n the first chapter of this book.

The historical development of the subiect

w i l l thus be better viewed by the reader; various associations w i l l also be facilitated an important point o f view since our subject grew mostly out of new research.
The early history o f human knowledge i n friction and wear i s a fascinating subject

El1

The cultural beginnings i n the cradles o f middle eastern civilizations are

connected with the making of potter's wheels, door hinges, and later wheeled carriages.
The transportation o f large stone building blocks and monuments required the know-how
o f frictional devices such as water lubricated sleds.

During and after the glory of the

Roman empire, m i l i t a r y engineers rose t o prominence by devising both war machinery

and methods o f fortification,
engineer-artist,

using tribological principles.

Leonardo do V i n c i (1452-1519),

I t was the renaissance

celebrated i n his day for his genius

i n military construction as w e l l as for his painting and sculpture, who discovered that
the tangential force o f friction between moving solid bodies i s proportional to the normal force.

This, i n the form known today as

F = pP
is called Amontons's law or Coulomb's law.

(1

Amontons,
experiment,
in

and, f o l l o w i n g him, Euler, used a mathematical argument,

t o f i n d a ' u n i v e r s a l " value of p .

instead of

The basis o f their d e r i v a t i o n (resulting

= 1/3) was t h e b e l i e f that f r i c t i o n was caused

by

the intermeshing roughness o f the

a d j o i n i n g surfaces w h i c h forced the l i f t i n g o f t h e bodies past one another t o achieve

motion tangential 1 y.
Popular acceptance of roughness-theories o f f r i c t i o n was based o n the observation
that t h e area o f contact d i d not enter i n t o the f r i c t i o n law.

This v i e w ruled u n t i l the

Holm's work

appearance o f research results on the adhesive nature o f f r i c t i o n .

e l e c t r i c a l contacts and Bowden and Tabor's monumental volumes

[21

on

[ 3 1 proved the great

r o l e o f the real area o f contact - often a smal l q u a n t i t y compared t o the 'gross area"
that can be obtained

by a relevant elastic or plastic contact analysis

or b y observa-

t i o n o f the "contact smudge."

Y e t t h e i n i t i a l adhesive f r i c t i o n theory needed much further refinement, and considerations o f t h e microscopic surface

topography

were necessary.

f r i c t i o n adhesive i n noture; the contributions o f adhesion,

N e i t h e r was a l l

roughness, lossy deformation

(hysteresis), and chemical effects were found t o combine for the t o t a l e f f e c t .

Static

values o f f r i c t i o n are usually higher than the k i n e t i c f r i c t i o n coefficients characterizing

sustained motion.
I n this book, wear is d e f i n e d as either mass or volume o f material,

removed or

displaced from a body w h i c h is repeatedly stressed i n mechanical contact w i t h another

body o r bodies.

I t is often accompanied by transfer o f material t o the contacting part-

ner, by adhesion.

Wear, a much younger subject than friction, was i n i t i a t e d on o

l a r g e l y empirical basis.

U n t i l recently, four wear mechanisms were kept i n evidence

14, 51 : adhesion, abrasion, surface fatigue, and corrosion.

Each of these can be

associated i n the same order w i t h the independent f r i c t i o n mechanisms enumerated

above.

A thermal wear mechanism for polymers and the new delamination theory of

wear w i l l be concisely discussed later i n this chapterl

along w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l four wear

mechanisms and the h y b r i d f r e t t i n g wear mechanism.

A l l engineering materials have somewhat imperfect and, furthermore,
surfaces, due t o i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h the environment.

unclean

Thus o purely theoretical treatment,

on a physical (molecular) basis, i s seldom successful.

O n a metol surface,

a thin,

work-hardened layer is generally found on the substrate; this would be covered i n succession b y an o x i d e layer, a n adsorbed gas layer,
Thus the metol is,

i n generall

and o n top, a contaminant layer.

" l u b r i c a t e d " to a degree,

unless subjected t o ideal

laboratory conditions or the vacuum o f space.

Through a r t i f i c i a l lubrication the surface behavior can be greatly changed.
friction coefficient can be lowered by various oils, greases and solid lubricants.

The
Wear

may also be greatly reduced b y the proper lubrication, especially when a f u l l hydrodynamic o i l f i l m i s achieved i n the gap between the surfaces.
Sliding friction i s conducive to high local surface temperatures called "flash
temperature",

which may influence the f r i c t i o n and wear process. Temperature rise i s

especially important i n polymers which are r e l a t i v e l y poor heat conductors; i t i s justified t o account for thermal effects as an independent wear mechanism i n these materials.
I n this book considerable emphasis i s ptaced upon the unity o f surface loading
phenomena (sliding,
phenomenon.

rolling, impact) through the more general concept of the contact

Through Hertz' theory (see Chapter 2),

deformations taking place i n the contact.

external forces can be related to

These, i n turn, facilitate rational theories

for friction and wear.

2.

THE ADHESIVE WEAR THEORY

\,Vhen introducing any o f the basic wear mechanisms, i t i s convenient t o start w i t h

the corresponding friction mechanism.

This does not mean that the two effects are pro-

portional i n relative magnitude: a large f r i c t i o n coefficient often coexists w i t h a small

wear rate

[61 and v i c e versa.

Adhesive friction may be explained by the molecular attractions existing between

two relatively moving materials.

The energy of adhesion i s dependent on the structure

o f the materials; identical materials w i t h matching lattice structure can readily weld
together i f no contamination exists on the interface.

I t i s evident that the smoother the

surfaces the larger the adhesion between the surfaces w i l l be; thus an adhesive friction
mechanism works contrary t o the erroneous classical idea equating smoothness with the
absence o f friction.
When two surfaces slide on one another, their topographic features allow only
the contact of asperity peaks.
contact A , which,

These "junctures" (Fig. 1 ) represent the real area o f

especially for light loads,

may be a very small portion o f the gross

("appaient") contact area, the boundary of which encircles a l l the junctures.

A greatly simplified view o f the f r i c t i o n process may be gained i f we assume a l l
junctures to be plastically deformed i n the softer o f the two materials, under the flow
pressure p.

(The flow pressure i s also called the hardness o f the material.)

The total

Hard

Soft
Surface

Junctures: real area of

contact where plastic
deformation may occur

Gross Contact Area

Fig. 1. The real contact area (junctures) and apparent (gross) contact area of two
surfaces.
normal force of contact i s then P = A,
hesion of a l l the junctures,

F=A

'

p.

For the friction force F to overcome the ad-

the latter must a l l be sheared,

requiring a total force

,. s (where s i s the shear resistance of the softer material,

~ / m ~like
, p).

Accordingly,

the coefficient of friction,

having units of stress,

from (1) i s

S/P

(2)

The crystal structure of certain metals offers ready explanation for their friction
and wear behavior.

The hexagonal crystal system offers numerous easy slip planes, and

these crystals are able to recrystallize following shear deformation parallel to the hexagons; thus a small p results.

Cubic crystals, on the other hand, are susceptible to work

hardening, and thus the shearing of polycrystalline cubic junctures i s harder, tending t o
increase p over that of hexagonal systems.

This i s classically demonstrated

friction test of cobalt sliding on cobalt i n vacuum.

[TI

i n the

This metal i s transformed from the

hexagonal to the face centered cubic structure (f.c.c.)

when heated above 400C;

indeed an increase o f p follows the temperature rise nearing 400C (Fig. 2).

J Complete Welding

--f

f . c . c . on
f . c . c . Structure

,,- Slider,

100

200

300

400

Temperature,

500
C

600

Sketch of Sheared Planes in Hexagonal Syjterr

Fig. 2. Coefficient of friction for cobalt sliding on cobalt i n vacuum at various

ambient temperatures. Sliding speed: 198 cm/s, load: 1000 g. From ~ u c k l e yand
Johnson [71

When adhesive wear forms, atoms (or clusters o f them) are removed from the
junctures, by virtue o f their adhesive junction strength becoming larger than the cohesive strength of the material.

Using an atomic model, Holm

[21 derived the volume o f

wear for a slider:

w = - Z Px
P

where Z i s the number o f atomic layers removed, and x the sliding distance.
consideration was the basis o f Archard's adhesive wear law

[81

The above

Considering plastic

deformations o f the junctures, he assumed that a hemispherical wear particle results

from the sliding of two adjacent surfaces, the adhesion along the base being stronger
than the sum o f the cohesive shear force along the hemispherical surface holding the
potential fragment (Fig. 3).

P
F

Fig. 3. Microscopic view of the removal o f hemispherical wear particle by adhesive

forces at the juncture.
Denoting by K the probability o f a juncture yielding a fragment, Archard's law i s
written:

The value of K i s a nondimensional constant for a given pair o f surfaces; some

representative values are listed i n Table 1.

N o t e that

materials which "weld" more readily together

[51

Supporting the notion o f K being a probability,

than

K is larger for pairs o f similar

.
i t has never been found greater

1. Archard extended his studies t o elastic deformations, wear fragments and

sliders of various shapes and w i t h multiple encounters

[91

Adhesive wear constants have been found to depend on the pressures applied.
Figure
stress.

shows the typical abrupt change i n K occurring at pressures near the yield

For large pressures, "severe wear" takes place w i t h high wear rates, clean

metallic surfaces and a coarse, metallic debris.

A t low pressures, on the other hand,

"mild wear" occurs, characterized

debris

[I01

Table

by oxidized rubbing surfaces and a fine, oxidized

Adhesive wear constants K for various sliding combinations

Sliding Combination

[81

lo3 K

Zinc pair
M i l d steel pair
Platinum pair
Copper pair
Stainless steel pair
Silver pair
Copper on mild steel
Platinum on mild steel
Platinum on silver

Fig. 4. Variation o f wear coefficient K vs. the average pressure, for steel SAE 1095
; speed: 20 cm/s. From
slider (120" cone) on the same material, p 43,000 kgf/cm
Burwell [41

3.

THE ABRASIVE WEAR THEORY

A source of friction between sliding bodies may be the resistance offered by inter-

locking ~rotuberances(asperities) of the interface.

friction.

This i s often termed "plowing"

I t acts independently of the adhesive friction previously discussed; i n fact

these two frictions are additive.

The contribution of adhesion i s s,lp

(Eq. 2), and that

of abrasion can be shown to be

- - tan

'abr

where

TI

i s the "average slope" of the asperities causing the plowing.

This i s also used

i n the derivation of the abrasive wear law, given below.

While a shear resistance to plowing develops on every encounter at a given spot,
a wear particle i s formed out of only a small percentage of those encounters. We distinguish between: (a) two-body abrasion, when a hard, rough body plows into a softer
body, and (b) three-body abrasion when a third agent (usually hard, granular matter) i s
placed between the sliding surfaces, gets embedded into one of the surfaces, and cuts
grooves i n the opposite one.
A simple derivation of the two-body abrasive wear rate may consider a cone o f
rise angle 0 of the hard material plastically deforming the softer surface and plowing
horizontally through a distance x (Fig. 5). The abrasive cone penetrates to a depth z,
causing the flow pressure p of the softer material to arise on a circle of radius
r =z

. cot 0:
p = P/TI r 2
Abrasive Cone 7

Fig. 5.

Abrasive wear model.

From Rabinowicz C51

The volume W o f the softer material removed during a horizontal sweep x of the
cone is a prism of base area r z and height x.
W

rzx = r 2 x

-:

. tan 0 = Px - tan 0/rrp

Thus

Averaging for the actual contact of many "cones" of rise angle Q i

average value tan

8 may be selected

, a statistical

to represent a given plowing surface.

The quanti-

t y pabr = t a n g/rr i s replaced by K abr/3 whereby the statement of Khrushchov's

abrasive wear law is:

The abrasive wear law i s linear i n both P and x,

t i c a l t o Archard's adhesive law,

Eq. 4.

and i n the above form i t i s iden-

N o t e that the hard cones could be those o f the

abrasive grains i n a three-body process.

Some abrasive wear constants are listed i n

Table 2.
Table 2
Some abrasive wear constants
Abrasive material

Type

lo3 K

Steel

2-body

80

Brass

2-body

16

Steel (grain size:

150 p )

3-body

Steel (grain size:

80 p )

3-body

4.5

I t i s important to note that

K a b , undergoes a sharp step-like change when the

hardness of the abraded material becomes as large as the hardness of the abrasive

121

The typical plot presented i n Fig.

[ l 1,

6 explains that very hard materials such as

steel, sliding against some relatively soft ones such as

can eventually display

serious amounts of wear.

p (abraded material)

p (abrasive material)
Fig.

6. Typical dependence of K on the hardness ratio o f the sliding partners.

A common u t i l i z a t i o n o f two-body abrasive wear i s found i n f i l i n g processes:

three-body abrasive wear i s the basis o f polishing.

4.

SURFACE FATIGUE WEAR

Surface fatigue wear is caused by c y c l i c contact loads, at relatively m i l d stress.

I t is related to stress hysteresis o f the surface layer.

Surface fatigue,
only.

u n t i l quite recently, was generally considered i n r o l l i n g contacts

A descriptive account o f its manifestations i n b a l l and roller bearings was given

by Tallian [

131

Rolling elements, subjected t o repetitive cycles o f a Hertz-type

contact stress, develop subsurface cracks w h i c h eventually lead t o a

ure.

spoiling-type f a i l -

This failure mechanism was found t o be h i g h l y stress-dependent by Lundgren and

Palmgren

[I41 , who empirically established the formula

.N

-=

(8

constant

where N denotes the number o f cycles to failure at load P and constant geometry.
Bayer and Schumacher

[I51

found surface fatig u e t o arise i n sliding wear as

was below half

w e l l - at moderate stress levels when the maximum shear stress rmax

the y i e l d value rY

Electron microscope studies o f sliding on a copper single crystal

indicated the appearance o f subsurface c r a c k s ~ m a l l e rthan 1 p m i n size), spalling and

flaki ng i n the contact area i f the sliding path was long enough (Fig. 70).

The great

amount o f plastic deformation stipulated b y both the adhesive and the abrasive theories
was seen only at large values o f the maximum shear stress.

I t was indicated that under

elastic stress conditions surface fatigue wear must also be recognized.

Fig. 7. Surface fatigue wear i n copper single crystal due t o spherical steel sliders at
moderate stress. From Bayer and Schumacher [ 151
(a) Scanning electron micrograph
showing subsurface damage, (b) Experimental and analytical values o f the zero wear
l i m i t i n copper.

Rozeanu

[I61 gives a thermodynamic argument for the pure fatigue wear of mild-

ly loaded contacts at moderate temperatures. The fatigue process entails energy storage
without visible changes and, subsequently, fracture without apparent cause.

During

the first stage, the b r i t t l e state i s reached, which from the point of view of solid state
physics may be visualized as the formation o f favorably oriented holes by the coalescence of vacancies,

migrating against the transient stress gradients.

The second stage

i s identified w i t h Griffith's mechanism of b r i t t l e fracture.

An intensive research program on sliding wear was conducted at the IBM Endicott
Laboratory between 1957 and 1964.

Numerous pairs of materials (metals, ceramics and

plastics) were tested i n the Bowden-Leben apparatus under various speeds, loads and
geometries

generally i n the elastic contact stress range

gathered was consolidated i n a handbook

1181

[I71 .

The experience

The underlying theory w i l l be referred

to as the Bayer-Ku theoiy; i t describes two stages i n the wear l i f e of a sliding contact,
namely the "zero wear stage" and the "measurable wear stage".
During the zero wear stage the surface i s not altered t o an extent comparable
with h a l f of the original finish, 6 (peak-to-valley).

During this "incubation period"

of wear, the part would be indistinguishable from its original condition, from an engineering point of view.

Past the zero wear limit,

however, the surface displays a grow-

ing wear scar which i s deeper than half the original roughness.
The theory concerns two materials, one o f which i s harder than the other; T~ i s
the measure of hardness, The softer of the two materials i s expected to start wearing i n
a "one-body wear mode".

The unit o f the distance of sliding i s the "pass" S, which

corresponds t o the contact dimension i n the direction o f relative motion.

anywhere i n the contact i s considered.

,
dependence, the maximum shear stress T

The analysis involves engineering quantities,

the strength of the materials (E,
load.

%he zero wear l i m i t

v,

No is

such as the elastic properties and

), the geometry of the sliding surfaces, and the

determined w i t h the proposition that the quantity

i s equivalent to 2000 passes a t

,,:T

For load-

= y

v '

y r being a wear constant

(Fig. 7b):

Since for Hertz contacts

a rationalization of

Eq. (8).

T~~~

i s proportional t o

P ' I 3 , this "ninth power law" i s

The wear constant y

depending on whether or not the system i s susceptible to adhesive bond forma-

or 0.54,
tion,

was found t o take on either one o f two discrete values, 0.20

i.e. transfer.

Thus dry systems would favor y r

could be changed t o 0.54,

0.2,

prolonging the zero wear life.

but w i t h lubrication this

De Gee and Vaessen [ I 9 1

arguing that a l l systems start w i t h yr = 0.54,

apparently found a good explanation,

but

o n the first few passes micro-transfer can take place i n adhesive systems, increasing the
stress concentrations between touching asperities and thus reducing y

t o 0.2.

(This

type o f adhesion must be restricted, however, t o the first few passes, or else severe adhesive wear would characterize the system instead o f fatigue.)
found yr values other than 0.2 and 0.54,

These authors have also

depending on conditions of humidity.

I n the measurable wear region, the cross-sectional area Q of the wear scar can
be written as a function o f the wear energy U per u n i t scrubbing area, and the number
of cycles

N [201

dQ

U = const

r\: cans:

The wear energy may be written as a product depending on the contact stress i n
the worn geometry,

U = C
where

T~~~

(11)

i s a numerical constant and

S the pass length.

Assuming, based on Eq. (9),

T9
N - const,
rnax
Eq. (10) yields the differential relationship

dQ = C 1 (T,,

5)

dN

9Q d ( ~ m a xS)

+ 2

max

It i s further assumed that the sliding wear process produces a wear scar i n the
softer body, instantly conforming t o the curvature of the harder body, past the zero
wear limit.

Now Eq. (13) may be solved, subject t o the i n i t i a l conditions o f the wear

depth h being equal to half the original surface finish:

h

--

6/2

(14)

For systems w i t h high transfer, and for certain geometries,

the second term i n Eq. (13) vanishes.

a Q/a U = 0,

and then

This was called a "constant energy system".

Such a system yields more wear than the corresponding "variable energy system", for
which aQ/a

uf

0.

Solutions for various geometries o f slider and substrate were given i n the handbook

[I81

These expressions are v a l i d while the wear mechanism i s unchanged past

the zero wear limit.

5.

CORROSIVE WEAR
Rubbing surfaces may wear b y chemically reacting w i t h either the environment or

the partner surface.

Reacting w i t h the environment,

(e.g. oxides) which i s t y p i c a l l y

most metals form a surface film

10 6 c m thick. Such a f i l m

i s often quite hard, and

may f u l f i l l a protective role i f its thickness does not grow during the sliding process.
Excessive covering-film thicknesses are prone t o b r i t t l e fracture, and thus a wear process would arise.

Hard oxide wear particles often participate i n the wear l i f e of a con-

tact, as abrasive agents.

O n the other hand, when corrosion results i n a soft, ductile

covering layer, wear rates can be reduced.

Corrosive wear i s fomented by high tem-

peratures which increase the activation energy.

Chemical attack on metals often

results from rubbing against substances containing chloride or fluoride.

An "oxidational theory of wear" i s due to Quinn [21

, who

found that there was

a correlation between the temperatures of oxidation indicated b y the presence of certain oxides i n the wear debris, and the temperatures expected to occur at the contacting asperities.

He derived the wear constant K for use i n a wear equation o f the form

of Archard's law, E q . (4), as follows.

definition o f K, i t was assumed that, on the average,

Using the

1/K asperity encounters are necessary at a given asperity contact for a c r i t i c a l oxide
film thickness h to build up.
cle.

This layer would then be detached, forming o wear parti-

I f t ' i s the duration of a single wearing contact, then the total time t to produce

a wear particle of thickness h i s

(1 5)

t = tl/K

Introducing S as the pass length along which a wearing contact i s made ai. sliding
speed v, we can write t ' = S/v,

and hence

(1 6)

t = S/VK

Considering a parabolic relation between the time t of oxidation and the mass Am
per unit area of oxide growth:
2

Am = k p Vt
where k

i s the parabolic oxidation-rate constant.

mass density of the oxide, we obtain

(1 7)
Equating Am

h p where p i s the

From Eqs. (16) and (17), t can be eliminated, and we get

The dependence o f the oxidation rate on the temperature T o o f oxidation can be

written i n an Arrhenius-type equation:
k c , = A o e x p (-u/RTO)

(20)

where A

i s the Arrhenius constant, U the activation energy, and R the universal gas

constant.

Equating To= T,,

where T,

i s the contact temperature,

written i n terms o f the basic material properties (p, U,

of wear (h and S),

K =

A,),

K can now be re-

the geometric parameters

the speed o f sliding v and the contact temperature

SA, exp (-U/RT,

Tc

v h2p2

6.

FRETTING WEAR
The small-amplitude tangential oscillation o f contacting surfaces i s referred t o as

fretting.

Fretting wear i s often called fretting corrosion, since on steel surfaces i t i s

manifested by the chemical change t o the familiar red rust ( a Fe2 0 3 ) .

Fretting wear

may arise, however, without oxidation, i n spite o f lubrication, and on diverse materials such as glass, wood,

jewels and gold.

Whereas, i n ordinary sliding, debris con

readily escape, fretting tends t o keep i t around the contact.

Slip amplitudes of the

order of l o - ? y m and velocities of 15 cm/year have been observed to cause fretting

wear; the latter may result i n a severe cleaning action i f relubrication o f the surfaces

i s prevented.
Ohmae and Tsukizoe [221 investigated the effect of the slip amplitude X upon
the fretting of mild steel flats, a t mild pressure (q = 1.9 kgf/mm2

). They found

changes of wear mechanism and o f the wear rate - W/x computed by Eq.
take place w i t h the variation o f X.
served below X

70 y m.

Between X

(4) -

to

An extremely mild oxidative wear rate was ob-

70 and 200 pm, the wear rate increased lin-

early, w i t h a hybrid adhesive-abrasive-oxidative

mechanism.

Above

300 ym, the

wear rate was similar to that o f ordinary reciprocating sliding.

Bisson [231 describes the experimental observation o f fretting on a steel ball
against a gloss microscope slide so mounted that the area of contact could be viewed

during the test.

Black material was removed from the real area o f contact; i t moved

radially outward from the contact area, gradually changing color as i t d i d so.

This

color change suggested progressive oxidation:

Fe+O2-FeO+02+Fe

3 04 + 0 2 - - F e 2 0

(22

Fretting wear i s i n general a combination of the adhesive, abrasive and corrosive

mechanisms, and i s often linked w i t h the appearance ofsurface fatigue. Waterhouse C241
lists three possible processes i n the occurrence o f fretting corrosion:

(a) removal of

metal from the surfaces by mechanical grinding action or by formation of welds followed
by tearing

subsequent oxidation would not be material t o this process;

(b) metal

particles are removed and oxidized into an abrasive powder which continues the action,
possibly at ever steeper rates;

(c) the metal surface i s oxidized, and this oxide layer i s

continually removed, fresh metal being exposed.

Comparing oscillatory fretting w i t h uni-directional sliding,

Halliday and

Hirst [251 found the adhesive wear model applicable, w i t h linear dependence on the
load and the total sliding distance; they attributed t o the debris the function o f "rollers"
between the loaded surfaces.

Wayson C261 found that the "zero wear" formulae of

Bayer and Ku [ I 7 1 were applicable t o boundary-lubricated oscillating contacts of

steel

- with, however, a y r value o f around 1.

W h i l e mechanical action (adhesion) i s deemed by most workers to be primary, and

chemical action (oxidation) secondary, Feng and Uhlig C271 gave a theory o f the opposite order of events: they proposed an equation superposing the chemical and mechanical events.

A review o f the mechanisms o f fretting and its literature, as o f 1970, was given
by Hurricks C281 , who described the fretting wear process i n the following three steps:

(1) i n i t i a l adhesion and metal transfer; (2) the production o f debris i n a normally oxidized state; and (3) the steady-state wear condition.

The cieation of metal-to-metal

contact through destruction of the original surface structure was regarded as an induction process.
The prevention o f fretting damage hinges on preventing the slip between the adjacent surfaces.

Thus an increase o f the friction coefficient could suppress fretting wear

i f i t eliminates the oscillation; however, i t may encourage fretting wear i f i t does

stop the oscillatory motion.

not

The remedy often lies i n reducing the tangential force;

this can be done b y interposing a soft material ready t o absorb tangential displacements,
thus promoting adherence and eliminating slip (e.g. rubber gaskets may be utilized).

I n general,

any lubricant or surface contaminant would tend to reduce f r e t t i n g wear

i f i t achieved continual reduction o f the adhesive forces.

molybdenum disulfide

7.

Solid-lubricant films l i k e

(MoS2 ) are often useful.

THE D E L A M I N A T I O N THEORY O F WEAR

In

1973, Suh advanced a new theory [291 o f m e t a l l i c sliding wear, based on

The observed wear mechanism

metallurgical observation of several sliding materials.

manifested itself through t h e delamination o f the su,.face i n t o t h i n wear sheets p a r a l l e l

t o the surface.
By sectioning wear scars normal t o the surface, Suh's team at the Massachusetts
Institute o f Technology observed far greater damage i n the subsurface layers than i n the
layer closest t o t h e surface.
layer,

This was a t t r i b u t e d t o less c o l d working i n t h e surface

enabling i t t o absorb plastic deformation.

surface layer, p a r a l l e l t o the surface.

Cracks were noted t o begin i n the sub-

These would occasionally grow to a length far

greater than the dimensions o f the real contact area,

the wear p a r t i c l e .

and would eventually delineate

The creation o f voids around inclusions was found t o be greatly i n -

creasing the tendency t o wear; t o these inclusions,

and not t o the hardness, was a t -

tributed the paramount influence on wear rate.

concise description o f the theory

is based on the f o l l o w i n g reasoning [301 :

(a) The traction a t the sliding contact deforms the subsurface layer, generating
dislocations and vacancies.
voids i n the subsurface layer.

Continued plastic deformation leads t o the formation o f

When inclusions and large precipitate particles are

present, the formation o f voids i s enhanced.

(b) As the deformation continues,

the voids coalesce,

either

by growth

or

by

This e v e n t u a l l y gen-

shearing a c t i o n o f the surrounding material around hard

erates a crack w h i c h i s p a r a l l e l to the wearing surface.

(c) When the crack reaches a c r i t i c a l l e n g t h (which depends o n the material),

the material between the crack and the surface shears,

y i e l d i n g a sheet-like wear

particle.
A d e r i v a t i o n o f the wear equation i s based on the removal o f a number o f layers
from the wear track h a v i n g an area A

cular t r a c k on the surface o f a disk (pin-and-disk machine),

t r a c k on the disk i s denoted b y AT1 and the slider area b y
thicknesses are denoted

by h

and

h 2,

(Fig. 8). I f a p i n is sliding around making a c i r -

respectively.

the area o f the annular

AT2

, The removed layer

The thickness

is constant;

,
SI ider,

Real
contact Area A ,

\-2k

o f Slider

Fig. 8. The circular wear track made by a revolving p i n on a disk surface, as in the
pin-and-disk machine.
i t i s completely independent of the load P, and i s determined by the structure and mechanical properties o f the material.

I f A , i s the real area of contact at any time, then

each point o f the wear track i s i n contact w i t h the mating surface a fraction of the total
time equal t o A, /AT.

Assuming that the plastic displacement d

P'

which has occurred

at any point o f the surface, i s proportional to the total distance x covered by the slider,
and also, to the fraction of time for any contact point spent under actuol contact, we
write
~,=BxA,/A,

(23)

where B depends principally on surface topography.

The c r i t i c a l distance x

x , i s obtained from Eq. (23) i f d

plastic displacement) i s substituted.

(each of thickness h) removed.

In general, N = x/x

(the critical

denotes the number of layers

The total wear from both material partners i s now

written:

w - N , h1ATl+ N 2 h 2 A T 2 = +

hlATl
C1

x
y

h2AT2

(24)

C2

Using the proportionality of normal load with the real area,

Ar

C P/P

(25)

where p i s the hardness of the softer material, we then obtain:

I n this expression the portion i n parentheses signifies the wear constant.

structure o f Eq. (26) i s the same as Archard's (or Khrushchov's) law, Eqs. (4) or
The plastic disp!acernent depends on the d u c t i l i t y of the material,

The

(7).

and i t drastically

decreases with the number of impurities; i t i s expected to rise when incompatible sliding
partners are used, and under lubricated conditions.
The delamination theory states the existence of a non-work-hardening,

highly

plastically-deformable surface layer, while crack nucleation would be confined to the

substrate.

By plating 1018 steel with a very thin, 0.1 p m soft layer of cadmium, the

accumulation of dislocations i n the latter was prevented, and a drastic improvement i n

wear resistance resulted [31 I

8.

FRICTION A N D WEAR OF POLYMERS

The key to the understanding of the behavior of plastics and elastomers lies i n

their structure.

These so-called "high polymers" have extremely long molecules, which

consist of a succession of covalently-bonded chemical units.

fluoroethylene has 100,000 CF2 CF
merization i s 100,000).

For example, polytetra-

units succeeding i n a chain (its degree of poly-

The molecule has a diameter of 5.62 x 10 '-'cm

of 2.6 x 10 3 c m 1321

and a length

Polymers may be classified as linear, branched and cross-linked (network),

as

shown i n Fig. 9.

Fig. 9.
linked.

Three basic types of polymer structure: (a) linear, (b) branched, (c) cross-

The relative motion of chains i s severely restricted i n the cross-linked variety,

and so they w i l l not readily flow or melt when heated; hence their name "thermosetLinear polymers can be more readily softened by heating and, reversibly,

ting".

hardened by cooling; they are called "thermoplastic".

The structure of polymers may vary between the amorphous and the crystalline
order.
energy.

In amorphous polymers, wriggling segmental motion takes place due t o thermal

This i s frozen at the glass transition temperature T
Cooled below this temperature,

value for each material.

forms into a "glassy" one C331

mers heated over the T
greater flexibility.

which has a characteristic

the "rubbery" material trans-

The name "rubber" or "elastomer" i s meant for poly-

The T g can be depressed

by use of plasticizers, enhancing

Chemical structure probably has a bearing on frictional behavior; cohesive energy

densities due to interchain bonding forces tend to increase the friction coefficient. The
mechanical and tribological properties o f polymers, however, are often altered i n practice by reinforcing w i t h organic or inorganic materials, such as carbon black,
glass, etc.

fibrous

Some engineering properties of thermoplastic and thermosetting high poly-

mers are compared w i t h those o f metals i n Table 3.

plastics must be especially noted.

The poor thermal conductivity of

This often makes them prone to heat build-up,

may be responsible for great changes i n elasticity,

which

strength and frictional behavior,

Table 3
Engineering properties of some plastics and metals [321
-

Matt ~ o l

>?
5

Y e e l SAE

1027

Stoinlerr Steel
'ype 3 . 6
A l u m i r v r Alloy

meciric
Gyvi.y,

len.ile
,trergLh,

p .c

kg

-7.85
7.93

brr

39-46
3-63

Yo~og'r
Modulus
kgf,'rr7

20,0C3
20.005

Roc~well

-inear Coefr
3f txoan,ior
'cm/r~)/'C

V~rdnerr

-.

8 78

8 75-90

10.'

- 2.3

- ' mc
C
;t'vi'v,
Wa't tr ' C
x

10'

M a x & ~ ~ -

All=wcde
Service
Temp, C

1.6

2.77

2024

Polymer friction was found t o be intimately connected ~ i t the

h viscoelastic
mechanical properties of the material [34,351

This consideration i s valid,

only i f the friction test i s performed at slow speeds (v

<<

1 cm/s),

o f course,

so that the frictional

heat i s negligible. A demonstration of the applicability of the viscoelastic "shiftproperty" was given by Ludema and Tabor [361 ; p vs. the sliding speed v was experimentally obtained at six ambient temperatures T.

A l l six curves (Fig. 10) could be

combined into one master curve using the shift

where T o i s a material property, independent of T and v (T = T

C , = 8.86 and C

t 50'

C i s often used);

.- 101.6C are the "universal constants" for a l l polymers.

Equation (27) i s also called the WLT-equation.

Legend:
Temp.

('C)

a,

Fig. 10. Friction o f a glass hemisphere sliding over a clean surface o f acrylonitrile
butadiene rubber (load 509). From Ludema and Tabor [36].
The friction coefficient reaches a maximum near the T
and 11.

as shown i n both Figs. 10

Figure 1 1 also illustrates that p declines w i t h the load P.

This may be ex-

plained b y the fact that for most polymers a modified version of Amonton's law i s valid:

(28)

F = ~ P '
where n
creases.

<

1, k = const. Thus p = F/P i s a variable w i t h P, and i t decreases as P in-

Values of n between 0.66 and 0.96 hove been recorded for various polymers.

The wear mechanisms for polymers include those previous1y enumerated (adhesion,
abrasion, surface fatigue, corrosion).

An additional one may be operative,however [321,

= 4 kgf

- 3 kgf
= 1 kgf

80

120
Temperature,

Fig. 11. Frictional force F o f steel slider on plexiglas (Tg = 105') as function o f
temperature (OC). Sliding rate: 0.0017 cm/s. From Bartenev and Elkin [37] and
Bi kerman [34]

to be called "thermal wear mechanism".

polymer by thermal effects.
ing.

This should account for the degradation o f a

In thermoplastics, this type o f wear i s manifested by soften-

I n thermosets, charring may more readily occur.

The wear design o f polymers

should therefore include not only mechanical, but also thermal analysis.
The pairing of identical polymers against one another as mating machine components i s not usually recommended because the great surface energy of the mutual contact surfaces would promote adhesive wear.

Dissimilar pairs of polymer materials and

polymer vs. metal gear-and-pinion combinations have been successfully used i n indusThe state o f scientific knowledge o f the tribology of polymers was well reflected

try.

by the 1974 Conference of the American Chemical Society r381

The available wear design procedures include Lewis' "pv method" [391
basis i s the linear wear law W

K'Pvt.

Its

Dividing b y the worn area, the wear depth i s

obtained,
h = K'pvt

(29)

where p i s the nominal pressure and t i s the time o f sliding.

determined for any given material combination.

The constant K ' may be

Lewis' approach limits the useful l i f e

(h, t ) of wearing materials t o a range o f the parameters p, v, displayed usually i n chartform.

The sliding-wear model developed at the

IBM Endicott Laboratory has also been

successfully applied t o the wear o f l i g h t l y loaded polymers [401

I t was found that

steel sliding against various polymers (delrin, teflon, polyurethane, nylon) involved a

y,

= 0.54 value (see Eq. (9) )

- a satisfactory property as compared w i t h dry friction

between most metals, t o which y,

0.20 i s usually applicable.

The sliding wear of rubber must be treated differently from the previous methods.
Here, adhesive wear may be eliminated, and the wear mechanism depends on the sharpness of the track.

Simulating a sharp track b y scratching rubber w i t h a needle,

Schallamach [41, 421 showed wear resistance t o depend on the tear strength of rubber;
he also found wear t o vary linearly w i t h the load.

For wear due t o sliding on a blunt

track, Kraghelskii [431 found surface fatigue wear t o dominate.

9.

LUBRICATION OF SLIDING A N D ROLLING ELEMENTS

The effect of lubricants can be both chemical and physical.

For their mechanical

role, we note their a b i l i t y t o reduce the shear tractions and the flash temperature on
the protected solids; both friction and wear are lowered b y effective lubrication.

Solid lubricants are usually bound t o the protected surface [5,441

thickness i s o f the order of 10um; graphite, molybdenum disulphide (MoS

The layer

) and

teflon ( a l l of these w i t h binder) are the most popular solid lubricants for sliding components.

Their impact-wear resistance has not been proven as tendencies t o crack prevail.
The outstanding property u t i l i z e d i n liquid lubricants i s their viscosity.

cosity q ( N s m - 2

) i s a property describing the shear resistance

velocity v through the depth z o f the liquid flow.

The vis-

T t o a change of

For Newtonian liquids the linear

law i s valid:

We distinguish between boundary and hydrodynamic lubrication.

lubrication,

I n boundary

only a very t h i n sheet (monolayer) o f lubricant separates the solid surfaces.

This i s usually sufficient to reduce the coefficient o f friction t o around 0.1,

cal metal-to-metal values of p

.=

0.6.

from typi-

Because of its thinness, boundary lubrication i s

not effective i n reducing the pressures i n Hertzian contacts.

Hydrodynamic lubrication consists of a f u l l o i l film i n the contact gap.

We shall

b r i e f l y discuss the variables that influence the thickness H o f the film i n the steady
state, between sliding and rolling elements.
By virtue of its viscosity, a f u l l liquid f i l m can develop pressure between two
originally non-parallel surfaces which have local tangential speeds u

and u 2

The

Reynolds equation for the simplest case of one-dimensional flow i n the x-direction,
constant viscosity,

is

1451 :

where p (x) i s the f l u i d pressure; u = ul

gap;

at

+ u 2'

and H (x) the f i l m thickness along the

fl is the f i l m thickness at the point x characterized by dp/dx

= 0,

When the pres-

sures are relatively smal I, the solid bearing surfaces may be considered rigid, and the
solution o f Eq. (31) may proceed w i t h certain plausible assumptions for the shape of
p (x); this i s necessary t o obtain the unknown constant

Ti.

The thickness o f such a

purely hydrodynamic o i l f i l m between a rotating cylinder and a plane (squeezed together

by a linear force P' per u n i t width) yields an estimate at the narrowest point o f the

gap:
H,

= 2.45 q uR/P1

(32)

Such an analysis has been shown to be inaccurate for highly loaded gears where
f u l l films were observed, i n spite o f the predictions of the hydrodynamic theory.
correction was required,

involving the elasticity of the solids.

The elastohydrodynamic

lubrication (EHL) theory i n fact couples the Reynolds equation w i t h the equation of
elastic deformation to y i e l d the solution.

The influence of pressure on viscosity also

enters, but i n its simple form

::

q effP

(33)

i t can be incorporated w i t h minor complications.

The problem was first solved by the

Russian scientists Ertel and Grubin, who assumed the gap t o be parallel and obtained
the result

where E, i s the reduced modulus for the pair of solids.

The Grubin analysis does not predict a sharp pressure spike on the outlet side, the
existence o f which has been pointed out by more accurate analyses
proven experimentally (Fig. 12).

C461 , and also

It i s also necessary t o account for temperature varia-

tions i n the contact, a circumstance that separates sliding applications from rollingelement analysis.

Inlet

Outlet

Fig. 12. The EHL o i l f i l m between a plane and a rotating cylinder: (a) the lubricated
contact gap, (b) pressure distribution, (c) f i l m thickness.
The Grubin formula points out the basic relationship between the o i l - f i l m thickness, tangential speed, viscosity parameters, elastic properties,

load, and geometry.

Similarly, EHL analyses have led to predictions of frictional resistance (shear traction)
i n lubficated contacts

[451

Full EHL films eliminate adhesive and some abrasive forms o f wear and are therefore desirable t o achieve.

I n applications, however, the o i l film i s often incomplete

over the contact; hence the name "partial EHL contacts".

A study of the relative mag-

nitudes of load carried by asperities and f l u i d f i l m was made by Johnson, Greenwood

and Poon 1471 , The practical design thickness o f an o i l film i s often considered t o be
about three times that of the asperity roughness ( p e a k - t ~ - ~ e a ko)f the surfaces.
The problem of normally-approaching lubricated solids (the "normal approach"
or "squeeze film" problem) arises i n impact.

10.

This w i l l be treated i n Chapter 3.

ROLLING WEAR A N D CONTACT FATIGUE

Rolling i s usually accompanied b y some sliding i n contacting machine elements.

This i s the basis o f the scoring wear design o f gears 1481

, where the

normal contact

force component P transmits the load but a relative tangential motion, and thus a shear
stress

T,

also arise due t o geometry (Fig. 13). This i s because the contacting gear

teeth are necessarily spaced apart b y a small distance called the backlash.

This causes

differential sliding motion during contact, and also slight impact at each engagement.
Another frequent form o f gear failure i s pitting, the formation o f craters due t o surface
fatigue.
a,

$9

2 .%

Fig. 13.

Motion and contact stresses i n gears.

Roller and b a l l bearings have been constructed t o minimize frictional losses.

Under lubricated conditions, these bearings may develop EHL films.

The fatigue f a i l -

An engineering model

ure of such rolling contacts mostly manifests itself i n spalling.

for spalling fatigue failure has been formulated b y Chiu, Tallian, and McCool at
SKF Industries, based on the crack propagation concept 1491

They classified the

origin of failure as (a) subsurface defects, fb) surface defects, and (c) asperity interactions.

In each case, i t was assumed that the formation o f a spall terminates the useful
l i f e of a rolling contact.

Three phases were defined i n the process o f spoll formation.

In the cyclic-loading history, phase 1 ends when a self-propagating crack size i s

reached.

Phase 2 extends t o the point o f spall initiation, and during phase 3 the first

spall forms.
The subsurface-failure model involves a calculation o f the stress concentration a t
an inclusion, due t o the macroscopic Hertzian stress field.

A stress severity parameter

i s derived which includes the effect of the resulting plastic microstrain e p and the
matrix ductility, D.

The crack-propagation-rate

law i s postulated t o be o f the Coffin-

Manson type, and a probability distribution o f failures results for a given l i f e o f

N1

cycles:

where C and

< are material constants.

The surface defects are a t t r i b l ~ t e dt o furrows and pits imparted to the surface i n
manufacture, or b y debris denting occurring during early bearing l i f e .

The maximum

shear stress under a furrow can be calculated; i t was found t o increase, the narrower
the furrow and the greater the furrow shoulder radius (Fig. 140).

Subsequently, the

same type of law as Eq. (35) resulted.

Asperities interacting through t h i n EHL films were causing highly plastically
worked surface layers, i n which microcracks formed, leading to spalls.

The contact

stress between two-dimensional asperities was calculated by the theory of elasticity.

The asymptotic value o f the maximum shear stress for heavy asperity interaction (low
H/L ratio or small R/a ratio) can be computed (Fig. 14b):

where E r i s the reduced modulus, and 0 =

0 1 + Q 2 the combined asperity slope. The

density and size distribution o f micropits are computed by the model, as a function of
the lubrication condition.
The popular testing machines used for the study o f rolling contacts include the
four- and five-ball tester.

In the latter, for example, an upper test b a l l is pyramided

on four lower test balls that are free t o rotate i n an angular contact raceway

[501

Tallian, Brody, McCool and Sibley 151 I studied the wear of Four-ball tester elements
i n the partial EHL range; they investigated the dependence on the r o l l i n g speed and on

the lubricant.

The spin/roll ratio was found to influence the wear, which obeyed

Archard's law (Eq. 4).

1~-

Furrow Width

1 1 1 t 1 1 1 1 ::Stressat

2.0

ness)

Mid-

Infinity

;:tjk,

Mid-line 2

Shoulder

Undeformed
Mating
Surface
,
--

Mid-

Curved Tip

1 .o
0

(Deformed

Mating Surface

x/b

Fig. 14. Microscopic elements of contact geometry, for two-dimensional spalling fa(a) Profile o f surface
tigue failure analysis. From Chiu, Tallian and McCool [491
furrow and contact pressure around a furrow; (b) contact geometry o f idealized asperities.

A fundamental study o f contact failure under oscillatory normal load was made by
Tyler, Burton and Ku 1521

Contact was maintained i n their fatigue apparatus at a l l

times by pressing a b a l l specimen t o a flat,

under large static pressure; a c y c l i c load at

26 kHz was superimposed. The applied contact stress was beyond the elastic range i n
their experiments.

Two distinct contact circles were distinguished: the inner one,

corresponding t o minimum load (and thus minimum contact area), and the outer one,
for the maximum value o f the load (Fig. 15).
Three types o f damage were noted i n the contact: fretting, spalling and plastic
deformation.

Fretting appeared very early after c y c l i c operation was started; i t arose

i n the area between the inner and outer circles.

I t was eliminated by lubrication and

increased when the two partner materials had widely different moduli o f elasticity,

"A

Static

koad
I
I
I

Time

I
I

Fig. 15. Variation of load and contact area on fatigue specimens.

and K u [521

From Tyler,

Burton

which (as discussed later i n Chapter 3) means larger shear tractions induced during the
loading and unloading o f the contact area.
Spal ling was generated i n the same annular area, by crack formation, crack
growth and interweaving, and f i n a l l y flaking out o f the crack surrounded areas.

The

formation of a spall was termed the ultimate failure of the contact.

Plastic deformation caused a depression o f the central area, while preserving its
surface texture.

As an example of the magnitude o f the effects o f c y c l i c loading, a

52100-steel f l a t specimen, tested dry against a ball of the same material at a maximum
calculated Hertz pressure of approximately 500,000 N/cm a

, displayed

1 p m plastic depression and 0.25 pm fretting wear after 750,000,000

an accumulated

load cycles.

The

application o f lubricant generally aggravated the damage rather than alleviated it.
The temperature of the f l a t specimens was observed throughout the tests b y inserting a 0.25mm stainless-steel bayonet thermocouple under the contact area.

The tem-

perature would level off during the first phase of the test, but started rising linearly i n
time when fatigue cracks had appeared.

This phenomenon would then be indicative of

advanced damage wrought on the specimen.

The temperatures reached (of the order of

1 0 0 C ) were not high enough, however, t o bring about changed material properties or
annealing o f the metals.

REFERENCES

D. Dowson, Lubr. Eng., 29 (6) 1973, 245-252.

R. Holm, Electrical Contacts, 4th edn.,

Springer Verlag, N e w York, 1967,

F. P. Bowden and D. Tabor, Friction and Lubrication of Solids, Vols. 1 (1950)

and 1 1 (1 964), Oxford.
J. T. Burwell, Jr.,

Wear, 1 (1957/58) 119-141.

E . Rabinowicz, Friction and Wear of Mateiials, Wiley, New York, 1965.

M . Eudier and H. Youssef, Powder Metall ., 12 (1 969) 462-470.

D. H. Buckley and R. L. Johnson, ASLE Trans., 9 (1966) 121-135.

J. F. Archard, J. Appl

. Phys.,

24 (1953) 981 -988.

J. F. Archard, J. Appl. Phys., 32 (1961) 1420-1425.

J. F. Archard and W. Hirst, Proc. R. Soc. London, 236A (1956) 397.
K . Wellinger and H. Uetz, Wear, 1 (1 957-58) 225-231.
F. K. Aleinikov,

Sov. Phys. Tech. Phys., 2 (1957) 2529-2538,

T. E. Tallian, ASLE Trans., 10 (1967) 418-439.

A. Palmgren, Ball and Roller Bearing Engineering, 3rd edn.,

SKF Industries Corp.,

Philadelphia, 1959.
R. G. Bayer and R. A . Schumacher, Wear, 12 (1968) 173-183.

L. Rozeanu, Wear, 6 (1963) 337-340.

R. G . Bayer, W. C. Clinton, C. W . Nelson and R. A. Schumacher, Wear, 5

(1962) 378-391.

R. G. Bayer and T. C

. Ku,

Analytical Design for Wear, Plenum, N e w York,

1964.
A.W. J. deGee and G . H. G. Vaessen, Wear, 18 (1 971) 494-496.
R. G . Bayer, W. C. Clinton, and J. L. Sirico, Wear, 7 (1964) 282-289.

T.F. J. Quinn, Wear, 18 (1971) 413-419.

N. Ohmae and T. Tsukizoe, Wear, 27 (1974) 281-294.

E. E. Bisson, Am. Soc. Test. Mater.,

Spec. Tech. Publ. 446 (1968) 1-22.

R. B. Waterhouse, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., London, 169 (1955) 1157-: 164.
J. S. Hall iday and W. Hirst, Proc. R. Soc ., London, 236A (1 956) 41 1-425.
A. R. Wayson, Wear, 7 (1964) 435-450.

I. M . Feng and H. H. Uhlig, J. Appl. Mech., 21 (1954) 395-400.

P. L. Hurricks, Wear, 15 (1970) 389-409.
N, P. Suh, Wear, 25 (1 973) 11 1-124.

N. P. Suh, S. Jahanmir, E. P. Abrahamson and A. P.L. Turner, J . Lubr. Techn.,

96 (1 974) 631 -637.
S. Jahanmir, N. P. Suh and E. P. Abrahamson, Wear, 32 (1975) 33-49.
R. P. Steijn, Met. Eng. Q., 1 (2) (1967) 9-21.

A. V. Tobolsky, Properties and Structures of Polymers, Wiley, New York, 1962.

J. J. Bikerman, J. Macromol. Sci.,

Rev. Macromol. Chem., C11 (1) (1974)

1-44.
K . A . Grosch, Proc. R. Soc.,

London, A274 (1963) 21 -39.

K. C Ludema and D. Tabor, Wear, 9 (1 966) 329-348.

G . M. Bartenev, A. I. Elkin and V. N . Nikolayev, Vysokomol. Soedin.
Ser. A, 10 (1 968) 808.
Proc. Am. Chem. Soc. Conf.,

Los Angeles, 1974.

R. B. Lewis, J. Eng. Ind., 89 (1967) 182-186.

W. C . Clinton, T. C. Ku and R. A . Schumacher, Wear, 7 (1964) 354-367.
A. Schallamach, Wear, 1 (1957-58) 384-417.
A. Schallamach, Rubber Chem. Technol., 41 (1) (1968) 209-244.

I. V. Kragelskii and E. F. N e p ~ m n ~ a s h c h i i!Year,

,

8 (1965) 303-319.

H. E. Sliney, Mech. Eng. (Feb. 1974) 18-22.

A. Cameron, Principles of Lubrication, Wiley, New York, 1966.
D. Dowson and G . R. Higginson,

Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication, Pergamon

Press, Oxford, 1966.

K. L. Johnson, J . A. Greenwood and S. Y . Poon, Wear, 19 (1972) 91-108.
D. W. Dudley, Practical Gear Design, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1954.
Y. P. Chiu, T. E. Tallian and J. I. McCool, Wear, 17 (1971) 433-480.
R. J . Parker and E. V. Zaretsky, NASA TND-6745,

1972.

T. E. Tallian, E. F. Brady, .J. I. McCool and L. B. Sibley, ASLE Trans., 8

(1965) 41 1-424.
J. C . Tyler, R. A. Burton and P. M . Ku, ASLE Trans., 6 (1963) 255-269.

RECOMMENDED READING

I. V. Kragelskii, Friction and Wear, Butterworths, London, 1965.

J .F. Halling, Principles of Tribology, Macmillan Press, London, 1975.

CHAPTER 2 - METHODS OF PERCUSSIVE IMPACT ANALYSIS

1.

INTRODUCTION
There are certain approximations commonly made when impact response quantities

(force, displacement,

particle velocity,

ing design and analysis.

etc.) are calculated by engineers for engineer-

These approximations are, first of all, macroscopic i n char-

acter, and thus facilitate problem description i n terms of idealized models of material
behavior.
For metals, usual characterization i s time-independent; some types of stressstrain behavior often assumed are the following(Fig. 1): (a) perfect rigidity; (b) linear
elasticity; (c) perfect plasticity; (d) elasto-plasticity,

etc.

Time-dependent,

visco-

elastic behavior characterizes many polymers.

so) O ? r f p ~ t
rigidity

Fig. 1.

tb) L i n ~ a r
1as:icity

(cl P r rcect
~lasti:it~

id) 'lastoplasticity

Some idealized models for material behavior.

In this chapter, rigid body (stereomechanical) impact theory and elastic impact
theory w i l l be discussed.

In elastic body impact, both vibrational and local contact

displacements are involved.

Consider a steel hammer i n elastic contact with a target

block (Fig. 2):

Fig. 2.

Deformations of an impacting hammer.

The displacement of the center (C. G . ) o f the hammer head from the time of the
start of impact:
n

i 1

where the sum indicates vibration on n modes: X I (x) are nondimensional mode-shapes
(e.g. X l (x)

sin nx/L,

X 7 (x)

sin 2nx/L,

contributions o f the i ' t h mode, e.g.

sinusoidal time-variation,

g (t)

etc.) and g , (t) are the time-variations or

0.01 sin [ 271 (130) t 1 would indicate

w i t h an amplitude of 0.01 cm, a t f l = 130 Hz, and zero

Equation (1) i s v a l i d for either steady or transient motion.

phase difference.

The displacement wC of the contact point C on the hammer also includes a contact deformation a ,
Wc

=wl - a

(2)

where LY i s elastically dependent on the contact force P, the materials and local
geometries.
The stereomechanical impact theory considers neither wl nor a explicitly; i t
cannot predict forces or impact times, merely impulses

(.f

Pdt) and r i g i d body velocities.

The elastic theories are of two kinds: (1) Saint-Venant's (vibrational) theory, and
(2) Hertz's (quasi-static) theory.

Saint-Venant's theory neglects the contact geometry,

and alone i s seldom useful i n contact evaluations.

Hertz's theory considers only local

deformations (a), and neglects stress-wave (vibrational) effects; i t i s an excellent

p~\*mv"
)(I

approximation for spherical or stocky bodies where the contact duration, t*,

i s far from

the natural periods o f vibration o f the system, thus avoiding amplification (Fig. 3).

',
.- 1

V)

/!\?,;

I l/t2

e
+

l/t*

Fig. 3.

lit,

Frequency

(Hz)

Transmissibility for multi-degree-of-freedom

l i t ,,
system.

For slender bodies, both vibrational and contact deformational effects should
generally be included i n the impact analysis.

2.

STEREOMECHANICAL IMPACT ANALYSIS

The momentum ml V1 o f a solid body may be changed t o m V;
1

b y the action o f

the impulsive force P (t) during a collision of duration t",

w i t h another body of momen-

tum m 2 V 7 . The impulse and momentum law i s written for either body, i n vector
notation
mV
t*

where

+{I

t*

(t) dt

mV'

(3

$1 (t) d t i s the impulse of the impact force.

When rotational motion i s imparted,

we speak o f eccentric impact; otherwise, the impact i s centric. The criterion o f cent r i c impact i s that the translational approach speed vector drawn from the centroid musf
normally intersect the contact surface.
mass moment o f inertia I ,

The rotational counterpart of Eq. (3) uses the

of the body:

t*

1 , 8 + / r ( t-) x ~ (-t )

(4)

dt - I,?I

Continuing the treatment i n one dimension, we may dispense w i t h vector notat i o n without loss o f generality.

For the system composed o f bodies ml and m2

, Eq.

(3)

yields the conservation statement:

I f V, and V2 are known and VI1 and VI2 are sought, an additional equation i s
needed.

This can be written from energy considerations,

Denoting the fraction o f energy conserved by e? (

i f the dissipation is known.

O< e < I),

the additional equation

for linear motion is:

where e i s called the "coefficient of restitution".

Combining Eqs. (5) and (6), the

emerging speeds are obtained:

A n alternative, very useful and graphic definition o f e can also be shown:

V',
e
"1

- V',

- v2

The quantity e i s usually associated w i t h the direction normal to the contact surfaces,
and i s taken equal t o u n i t y i n the tangential direction, for glancing impacts.
An example w i l l now be given for a two-dimensional case, which i s also concerned w i t h the role o f friction and energy dissipation during glancing impacts.

tennis ball m approaches the court surface, without spin, at an angle of incidence

Qi

and speed V (Fig. 4).

G i v e n the coefficient of restitution e for the noimal direction

t o the plane, and the coefficient of friction p between the two materials, calculate
the emerging speed V ' and the angle 0

o f rebound.

f v1

Fig. 4. Glancing impact of a b a l l w i t h a plane. (a) Incidence and rebound angles;

(b) impact force components (the weight i s neglected as smal I).
Introducing the notation for the impulse of the impact force:

N
-r

t*

1-P

it) dt
0
its components w i l l be N,,

(9)

N , acting on the b a l l . Writing the impulse and momentum

relations for the bal I,

-m V sin Qi
m Vcos Qi

+ N,

-- mV' sin 0,

Nx = mV' cos 0,

By Eq. (8), the energy loss due t o impact i s expressed:

V' sin O r
=e

V sin 0

I t i s assumed now that for any horizontal advance to take place, slipping must
occur.

Thus the coefficient o f f r i c t i o n p must govern the ratio o f force components Px

and P,

, which
r

means also the ratio o f

or

Or,

= cot

-'

(13)
11,

12 and 13) are adequate to determine the four

N, and N ,, and we obtain

(cot Q i )

-p

(1

+ e)

Subsequently V' can be computed by Eq. (12).

meters e and p on the rebound characteristics,
I f the impact i s perfectly elastic (e
then O r -- 0

-Nx/N,

p,/p,

The four equations (10,

unknowns V',

N x and N

, as expected.

Figure 5 shows the effect o f the para-

O r vs. O i

I), and the surfaces are frictionless (p

If, however, p i s very large (say p

l), then cot Or

O),

30

60

9,, (deg)

90

30

60

90

9,,

Rebound i n terms o f the parameters e and p

Fig. 5.

(deg)

can become negative, resulting i n the spurious prediction o f rebound i n the -x direction.
This i s a fault cf the theory behind Eq. (13), and i n r e a l i t y the condition o f slipping
throughout impact does not need t o hold.
I f the impact i s perfectly inelastic (e = O),

0,

becomes 0, that i s m w i l l slide

along the x axis after impact.

Inelastic Behavior Reflected i n the Coefficient o f Restitution

While taking some possible energy dissipation into account by the coefficient o f
restitution e, no mention o f any deformation o f the contacting bodies has been made.
This w i l l have to wait for the next section, where elastic behavior of the bodies i s conStereomechanical theory i s only able t o predict the external response o f quasi-

sidered.

r i g i d bodies i n the wake o f their impact, but not during i t .

I t can be instructive, however, to consider the thought-experiment of impact as

-,

taking place i n two parts: (a) the period of deformation - from the beginning o f contact

- --

u n t i l some undetermined time t

V1

i . e . the height of impact when the approach speed

V ? becomes zero; and (b) the period o f restitution

impact u n t i l loss of contact.

without considering elasticity.

t o maximum approach,

- - --

for one o f the bodies, b y Eq. (3) and denoting V1

We write,
m V

lasting from the height o f

The ratio of impulses i n the two periods can be calcu-

lated, however, w i t h the knowledge of e.

--

I t i s impossible t o derive time t

m V =
1

1'

Pdt

- Nd

V2

i n the period of deformation

V:

- --$

and
m V',

- m1 V

--

t*

Pdt -

- N,

i n the period o f restitution.

Writing for the second body the corresponding equations,

m2V

m2V'2

m2V2 =
m2V =

NCj
Nr

Eliminating V from the above system o f equations, and comparing the result for Nr /No
w i t h Eq. (8), the interesting result i s :

N, /N,

(15)

which i s another possible definition for e.

O f course, the total impulse i s N = N, + Nd

A consequence of Eq. j 1 5 ) i s that the more inelastic the impact, the smaller the

-/P

f P dt. For perfect plasticity,

0
there i s only a period o f deformation, without any restitution, since e = 0 and thus
restitutive impulse N r =

dt w i t h respect to Nd =

N, = 0. If the force i s measured i n an impact test b y a transducer, the rise o f the

force history w i l l be followed by abrupt, steep descent for these materials (Fig. 6).
For elastic impacts (without vibrations),
Steel,

Elastic Impact

Fig, 6.

the impact history i s symmetrical.

Steel, Plastic Impact

Lead, Plastic Impact

Elastic and plastic impact histories.

Eccentric Impact
The general motion o f a body can be described by the translation o f its center of
mass and its rotation.

Eccentric impact gives rise to both elements o f motion, and thus

both the linear and the angular impulse and momentum relations w i l l be useful.

The

supplementary energy conservation equation must also include both linear and rotational
terms o f the kinetic energy.
I t is expedient t o study the solution procedure for eccentric impact, through the
example of a symmetrical projectile h i t t i n g a hinged rod at speed V (Fig. 7).

The mo-

tion takes place i n the plane; impact i s centric for the projectile, and eccentric for
the rod.

The coefficient o f restitution i s e.

and the magnitude o f the impulse.

We wish t o find the post-impact velocities

In

C.M.

(b)

moment of inertia about 0: I,

Fig. 7. Projectile impact on hinged rod: (a) rod
mass: M; projectile - mass: rn ; (b) center o f percussion for hinged rod.
Writing the equations o f impulse and momentum, Eqs. (3) and

. . . projectile
u' - 0 - L l ~ d t . . . rod

mV'
1,

- mV7

-JP

dt

(4):
(16)
(17)

and the energy equation:

These three equations i n the three unknowns (V',

w' and N 6 j P d t ) yield

for w':

by which the other two quantities are computed:

I , wl/Lm

V' - V -

(20)

and

N - I, wl/L

(21)

The impulse i n the period o f deformation and restitution can be calculated b y

requiring that at the peak o f impact, t, the contacting points o f the t w o bodies travel
w i t h a common velocity,

i.e.,

-;3~

(22)

Center o f Percussion
For the rigid hinged beclm of Fig. 7b, there is a point x

o f load application,

from which zero support reaction force R would result; such a point is called the
"center o f percussion",
a p i n support.

and it can be a proctical consideration for avoiding wear i n

..

The calculation o f x , involves two equilibrium equations, Mzm

P,

by 0 = 2 L,/,,

and lo 0 = x P;now
P

there results

x p :21,/LM

(23)

for the location of the center o f percussion.

We note that for an elastic rod the vibra-

tions during impact cause reactions at the hinge even i f the rod i s struck at x = x

I)'

Since stereomechanical analysis does not yield the impact force intensities, i t
w i l l not suffice for impact wear studies.

3.

HERTZ CONTACT ANALYSIS

H. Hertz was the first t o calculate the pressure distribution and deformations

arising during the contact of solid,

ellipsoids

[I 1 .

linearly elastic, homogeneous and isotropic

For two quadratic surfaces o f the general type z - AX'

+ BY?

Cxy,

Hertz found the stress system satisfying (a) the compatibility of displacements for
mutually contacting points enclosed w i t h i n the contact region S,

and (b) the condition

for surface stresses (tractions) i n the absence of friction (Fig. 8):

= 0 outside S;

Normal tractions:

Shear tractions:

r r , = 0 everywhere on the surface

Fig. 8.

(24)

Elastic contact of two bodies: (a) two bodies i n contact, over region S;
0, dS = P.

(b) system of contact pressure equivalent t o contact force P:

SJ-

The above i s called a "mixed boundary value problem" i n the theory o f elasticity,
since i n some region o f the boundary, the displacements
tions

- are specified.

- and over

the rest, the trac-

Having Hertz's solution for the pressure tractions, elasticians

established the state o f stress throughout the material, due to the Hertz pressure applied
over the contact region.
Mises-Hencky,

The application o f various yield theories (Tresca, Huber-

e t c . ) subsequently opened the door to stress design of diverse rolling

and sliding contacts

from b a l l bearings t o bridge support shoes.

Contact o f Spheres
The analysis considers two points M and N from the two contacting spherical surfaces 1 and 2 (Fig. 9),

respectively,

The sum o f elastic displacements

ration (z l

+ z 2 ) of

to overlap as they become part of the contact area.

w l and w 7 i s then related t o the original normal sepa-

these points and the "elastic approach", a .

The elastic approach

i s constant for pairs of points lying i n the interior of the bodies, since most of the

deformation takes place near the contact region.

I-'

Contact Radius

Pressure Distribution

Original Configuration

Fig. 9.

Approach

Contact Deformation

Contact of spheres.

We have, by geometry
1

+ w 2 = a -(zl

+ Z 2 )

The l i n k between pressures q (r) and deformations w (r) i s the influence function (Boussinesq solution) between a normal point force

applied on top of an infinite half-space,

and the displacement i t causes at a distance r from the force [ 2,

w (r)

1-v2

nE

31

Then the displacement at 0, caused by the elemental force of pressure qdS applied at
distance r (Fig. 10):

1 - v2
w (0) - nE

q (r) dS (r)
r

,-

Infinite Half-Space (E,

Fig. 10.

V )

Elemental pressure applied t o half-space.

By Eqs. (25) and (27), from the contact of two elastic bodies, an integral equation results i n q (r):

approximated by a

where we assumed spherical surfaces, w i t h zlt7

The integral equation (28) has a material constant (the parenthesis on the left-hand
o f the reduced modulus,

El),

and a geometric constant,

An elegant solution o f the above integral equation was given b y Timoshenko

for the contact radius "a" fixed.

The pressure distribution i s elliptical,

[21

i.e. for axial

symmetry,

an essential feature of a l l Hertz contacts.

designated,

Four "contact quantities" may be

since either one i s sufficient t o describe the spherical contact solu-

tion: the contact force P,

maximum pressure, , ,q
lae shown i n Table 1.

the elastic approach a,

. They

the contact radius a,

can be calculated from one another,

and the

by the formu-

Table 1
Spherical contact formulae,
Contact quantities:

P,

R1, R

Geometric constants:

Material constants:

u , a,

by Hertz theory

qmax
;

pi

,v ,E

?,

, combined
1 -v2

1 -v;

Exponent Table:

Relations

P - P

r4

a'--

80 E:

(33)
iJ

-'

-+ 2)
, reduced
RE,

cr = 2 P a

curvature

'mar:

2
max

r2
-

4P E

x,,,

max

modulus

General Quadratic Surfaces

N o matter how the two bodies having quadratic surfaces are rotated, one with
respect t o the other, their principal radii o f curvature (R1, RI1 from the first body and

, Rq2

from the second body) and the angle 9 between the planes defined either

by the primed or the unprimed radii, uniquely determine the ratio a/b o f the major and
minor axes ( x and y) for the contact ellipse.

I t can be shown

[41 that the ncrmal

separation o f adjacent points w i t h i n the contact ellipse i s

z

+ z 2 =Ax2

+By2

where the curvatures A, B are further related t o the radii and

W i t h a knowledge of the geometric constants (R

A and B) and the material constants (E
tween the "contact quantities" (i.e.,

RI1 ; R2,

R'

; 9 ; and thus

E2, v 1 v 2 ) , we can find relationships be1'

force P; approach cr; contact dimensions a, b;

and pressure q).

Defining the auxiliary angle 0 as:

B - A
-

COs-l

B+A

we obtain C5,61 :

The constants c a

, c , c,

are tabulated i n terms o f 0 and A/B i n Table 2.

pressure distribution (42) i s ellipsoidal,

3/2 times the average pressure (q

w i t h the maximum ordinate qmax

,,= P/nab).

The
being

Table 2
Numerical parameters for e l l i p t i c a l contacts.

Cylindrical Contact,&g
-

From Goldsmith

[51

Parallel Axes

When the quadratic surfaces are parallel cylinders pressed together (Fig. 1 I ) ,
several simplifications occur for the stress formulae.
loading, where P' i s the force per width of contact:

with

The results are for plane strain

Pressure Diagram

1 P' [Force per Length1

Fig. 11. Contact along parallel cylinders.
I t i s important to note, however, that the displacements cannot always be calculated, because of a logarithmic singularity i n the solution,

This can be physically ex-

plained by the fact that the truly two-dimensional loading of a half-space i s impossible
i n reality.

Thus, for the contact of a cylinder w i t h a plane, the solution by this ap-

proach i s indeterminate.
experimentally.

In a given case, the elastic approach must then be determined

A survey o f approach formulae for cylinders contacting plates was

given by Nikpur and Gohar [71

The elastic approach for two parallel cylinders made of the same material i s given
i n Roark [81 :

Numerical analysis of
tice,
ends.

cylinder contacts i s treated i n Refs. [9, 101

I n prac-

a l l cylinders are of finite width and thus stress concentrations may arise at their
Stress concentration factors for the end effects have been discussed by Moyer and

Neifert [ 1 1 I

Flat, A ~ i s ~ m m e t r i c a lRigid
,
Indenter on Elastic Half-Space
This is called the Boussinesq problem [ 2 1

verted shape, and the stress approaches infinity at the edge, r

formulae:

The stress distribution i s of an ina (Fig. 12).

Stress

Fig.

4.

12.

The flat rigid cylinder punch problem.

THE STATE OF STRESS IN CONTACTS

For the design o f elastic contacts, the stress distribution must be known.

pressions are often quite complicated,

away from the surface ( z

The ex-

especially for the general quadratic surface,

0) and off the z-axis (r

>

0) o f the contact.

klevertheless,

many of the c r i t i c a l stresses occur on the z-axis and w i t h i n a region less than the contact length or radius away from the surface.

See Appendix

for details.

Spherical Contacts
At the apex (r
a , = -

qmax

0, z

O),

the principal stresses are:

- a ~

"r

- -1 + 2 v
2

q a,x

(50)

Since these are almost equal i n magnitude and compressive, a state o f nearly hydrostatic pressure governs.

Materials are not l i k e l y t o f a i l even under immense hydrostatic

pressures, and thus contacts should not usually be designed for qlnax

, but

rather for

the maximum distortional energy or the maximum shear criterion.

Maximum tensile stresses are generated at the edge of contact (z

0, r

--

a).

Here,

1 - 2~1

- - O o

- T

3
qmax
-

(51

Brittle matterials often fail i n this region.

Since a L - 0 at the same place, pure shear

governs.
The radial stress o r (z
changes sign; thereafter,

0) i s compressive up to near the edge, where i t abruptly

i t falls off gently as a2/r7.

The maximum shear, most l i k e l y to govern the design o f ductile contacts, i s generated i n the depth, at z = 0.47 a, on the z-axis.

Its value is ( a z

- a,

)/2.

A map

of shear stresses is shown i n Fig. 13.

Tbe Contours arr

Plotted in Terr-s of
t i e Averaae Pressure

54

max

Fig. 13. Map of the maximum shear stresses i n spherical contact.

The general variation o f a ,

, 0,

components at the z-axis i s shown i n Fig. 14.

Analytical expressions for the stress components everywhere i n the contact region were
given by Hamilton and Goodman El21 , who treated frictional surface tractions as well
The stress distribution i s given i n Appendix 2-1.

Fig. 14. Variation o f o r

,a>

and

T mdx : ( a 7

- or

)/2 along the z-axis.

General Contact of Quadratic Surfaces

The contact area i s generally an ellipse.
x-direction,

The major axis may be assumed i n the

and the minor axis i n the y-direction.

The general state o f contact stress may be obtained from rather complicated formulae El31

. We shall restrict ourselves t o a few special values of importance.

The

principal stresses a t the center are:

0
X

=-

0,

2v q nlax

- (I- 218)q max

-2vqmax -(1-2v)qlnax
-

b
a

(52)

ab:

(53)

I",,

(54)

At the periphery, pure shear governs since a x

- o V , o7

= 0.

Its magnitude

on the maior axis (x = a, y - 0):

and on the minor axis (y - b, x 7 0 ) :

T

where

<

- (1

- 2 v ) q m a X!dl(1--b/a
5
t

< > 0.89,

yrTq7

The shear traction for

For

arctanh

(57)

< < 0.89 i s maximum at the edge x =

i t i s at the center, and i s calculated by ( o x

a, calculated by Eq. (55).

- uZ

)/2,

(52) and (54).

Cylindrical Contacts
Figure 15 shows the stress distribution at the z-axis.

i s 0.31 qmax

, occurring at a depth z = 0.78

expressions for contact stresses

[41

The maximum shear stress

b on the z-axis.

i s given i n Appendix 2-3.

A general set o f

Fig. 15.

Stress variation i n cylindrical contacts.

Flat Contacts
A description o f the stress distribution i s found, for example, i n Ref. 14.

5.

QUASI-STATIC

(HERTZ) IMPACT ANALYSIS

Hertz d i d not stop at the static solution for the contact compliance, but carried
on t o solve the dynamic contact problem of colliding spheres.

He neglected the vibra-

tions o f the spheres and related the dynamic forces arising during impact t o the static
displacements these forces would have caused when gradually and not impulsively applied; hence, Hertz's impact analysis i s a quasi-static one which works well for compact bodies, especially spheres where vibration periods are short compared w i t h the
contact time.
Consider the central impact o f two masses, the contacting surfaces being spherical;
their speeds are Vl

and V;, (V,'

V;,

) i n i t i a l l y (Fig. 16).

and (CM)2 move x (t) and x (t) w i t h respect t o their i n i t i a l positions,

2
1 .
1
then the elastic approach
I f (CM)

Q ( t ) --xl(t)-xq(t),

(x1>x2)

(58)

Fig. 16. Hertz impact. (a) Position o f impacting masses at the beginning o f impact
(t - 0); (b) Free bodies during impact.

By Newton's second law

For spherical contact,

p=
where n

the static force-approach relation is,

by Eq. (32):

3i2

(60)

E ,/3n.

Further, introducing the constant

we obtain a differential equation o f second order:

subject t o the i n i t i a l conditions

t : 0:

2
'

r0,

Z=V1 -V2

(63)

The exact solutions for the peak approach and contact duration are, respectively [21

[ 1.25 ( V , - V , ) 2 / n n 1 ~ 2 1 5

L"

t*

- 2.943, o / ( V l

(64)

- V, )

(6 5)

The force-time variation cannot be obtained i n closed form.

I t i s a bell-shaped cuive,

which i s reasonably approximated b y

P (t) = P, sin (vt/t*)

where P o

(Inr.;?

(66)

), and t * are available from Eqs. (64) and (65). Another useful

approximation [ 5 1 i s
P(t)

( 1 . 1 4 ( V 1 - ~ ) ) ~ / ni ,f o ) .s i n ( 1 . 0 6 8 ( V 1 - V 2 ) t / u o

(67)

which compensates for the more slender Hertz curve by an 8.8% reduction i n height.
The variation o f the contact quantities (PI r u , a, qmax ) during a Hertzian impact
i s depicted i n the typical graphs of Fig. 17. A solution of impacting circular cylinders

was given by Weber, Stippes and Costel l o C151

Contact Force

Conto:t Radwr

Elortlc Approach

Moxt-nm Prelrvrr

Fig. 17. Time variation of contact quantities during Hertzian impact of spheres.

6.

NUMERICAL METHODS OF IMPACT STRESS ANALYSIS

NON-HERTZIAN PROBLEMS

Instead of attempting an exact solution of the differential equations of impact, i t

i s often advantageous to proceed numerically. The reasons for this may be numerous,
especially i n cases of non-Hertzian impact (Fig. 18):

1.

The load-deflection relation changes during contact.

on bonded elastic layers (see Section

3.3),

This i s the case for impact

or when part o f the body i s stressed

i n the plastic range while the rest i s elastic, or i n case of viscoelastic, elastoplastic or work-hardening action,
2.

etc.

The body contour changes as contact penetration becomes more extensive; the
Rockwell C hardness tester (Appendix 3) i s such.

3.

For more complex impacting bodies, motion occurs over several degrees of
freedom (see Section 2.8).
The Runge-Kutta method i s eminently suitable for impact calculations as the

author has found i n numerous applications involving a l l three cases i n Fig. 18.
Ordinarily, variable coefficient,

higher order differential equations can be treated;

the number of i n i t i a l conditions must be equal to the sum of the orders on each (dcpendent) variable.

(b) Indenter Contour

(a) Impact on Layered Medium

Fig. 18.

(c)

'

Changes

Several Degrees of
(elastic) Freedom of
Motion.

Various cases of impact warranting numerical solutions.

The basic steps o f Runge-Kutta solutions are as follows:

1.

Restructure the system o f differential equations into n first-order differential

equations.

These w i l l be called state equations, and the new variables w i l l be

referred t o as state variables.

2.

Obtain the i n i t i a l conditions on the (new) state variables.

3.

Select a small enough time increment (often by hindsight), avoiding instability.

4.

Use one o f the (suitable order) Runge-Kutta automatic sequential formulations

[I61 ; the fourth-order procedure

i s shown i n Table

3.

Table 3
Solution o f ordinary (simultaneous), first-order differential equations by fourth-order
Runge-Kutta scheme.
Differential equations:

dy
dt

y: vector of dependent variables

= f (t, y);

t:

independent variable

Solution for (n+l)'th time increment:

Y,II

-Yn

1
6

A - k

1
3

+-(k,+k

) + - k
6 4

where
k,-At-f(t,,yn);

k2-At'f

At

1 . 1 an APL program i s shown for Hertz impact solution, w i t h fourth-order

In Appendix

Runge-Kutta procedure.

7.

COMBINED STRESS WAVE A N D HERTZ IMPACT ANALYSIS

A classical chapter of mechanics deals w i t h impact giving rise t o stress waves,

but excluding local (contact) deformations.

The study of impacting elastic rods

involves solutions o f the one-dimensional wave equation,

where w (x, t ) i s the longitudinal displacement and co
waves through the rods.

a2 w/a

t 2 = c2
0

a7

C171

w/ax7

i s the phase velocity of plane

I t follows from the differential equation that two waves may

travel i n a rod simultaneously,

one to the l e f t and one t o the right.

Stress waves are

reflected from free ends w i t h opposite sign (compression waves return as a tension wave);
from the fixed ends the reflection o f stress occurs w i t h the same sign.
two different materials,

both reflection and transmission take place.

At junctions of
The stress-wave

theory o f impacting rods considers the contact surfaces perfectly plane, without relative
approach.
treated

C51

Similarly, torsional and flexural beam and plate problems have been

For the development o f impact wear analysis, the local deformations o f the contact area must be known; thus we need solutions that combine stress waves w i t h elastic
approach.

Such a solution t o the impact o f spherical-ended rods was given b y Sears

C181 ; his solution was experimentally verified w i t h ease, while difficulties always
arise when experiments are attempted on plane impacting surfaces, neglecting local
deformations.

Combined impact solutions between beams and spheres were obtained

by Timoshenko

[I91

Instead of attempting to recapitulate a wealth o f complicated solutions by the

quoted authors and others who followed,

we shall restrict ourselves t o stating some o f

the principles o f combined impact analysis, and subsequently, a solution method b y

matrix techniques w i l l be indicated.

The latter, once mastered, yield answers with

considerable ease, even i n case of complicated geometries.

As a simple model for the combined study, consider the two-body system of
Fig.

19 1201 .' The two masses, ml and m7

, are

longitudinally supported by springs

and dashpots, while the spherical contacting surfaces have definite local elastic
properties, allowing computation of contact deformations.
the support elements, when, at time t

We assume no prestress i n

0, the two systems enter into collision.

Note:

kl (0)

> 4(0)

Fig. 19. Elastic two-body system including springs and dashpots, characterized for
impact analysis.
The resulting equations for the motion o f the two bodies must be solved for the
displacement history o f the two centers of mass, x l and x 7

!,

ml

-. - k l x l

m,x2

xl -f(xl

- x2

force on the elastic approach cu

ncu 3i7
t

can be used.
0:

- x 7 )

(68)

- k 2 x 2 - C ~ ; ~ + ~ - x( *X) ~

The last terms f (x

-cl

, respectively.

(6 9)

) indicate the functional dependence o f the contact

-x

xl

for spherical contact.

Equation (60) i.e.,

The i n i t i a l conditions are:

XI

=of

X7

= 0,

k7

= V

(70)

v 2

(V,,

(71

V7)

The systematic solution o f the above mathematical problem i s achieved by the

I t i s remarked that,

Runge-Kutta method.
damping force P

c 03'?

N'

i n addition to the Hertzian spring, a contact-

(where C i s a constant) has been experimentally found

t o exist i n metallic contacts b y Velusvami, Crossley and Horvay [21 I

I f rods are t o

be simulated, several masses can be connected i n series b y springs and dashpots on both
The programming work i s o f the same order o f d i f f i c u l t y .

sides.

An example for three-dimensional impact (with three degrees of freedom) i s the

impact of a hammer on a transversely moving cantilevered bob C201 shown i n Fig. 20.
The striking surface o f the hammer i s spherical, and that o f the bob, planar.

This ex-

ample involves friction between the colliding surfaces, a typical consideration for the
impact wear of machine components.
law: F

The friction force F i s postulated by Coulomb's

p P.

The bob has three degrees of freedom (x, y, 9) and the hammer likewise.

The

cantilever of the bob and the pivoted handle of the hammer may be replaced by equivalent springs i n those degrees o f freedom

of motion, for simplified analysis.

The

c) The (x, y) Plane a t

time t > 0

b)

a) Impact Plane (y,

d)

Fig. 20.

The (x, y ) Plane at t = O

z)

Free Body of Hammer

e ) Free Body o f dob

Impact of a hammer and a sliding cantilevered bob C201

geometry of approach i n the x, y plane determines the contact force; dynamic equilibrium equations are then written i n the three degrees of freedom, and these are subsequently solved by the Runge-Kutta technique.

8.

MATRIX METHODS OF IMPACT ANALYSIS

The power of matrix methods lies i n the fact that complicated structures can be

chopped into small geometric blocks, and the elastic interaction of these described by
a matrix.

The compatibility of the deformations of two impacting bodies can be ex-

pressed through their common degrees of freedom.

The dynamic solution of the matrix

equations of motion i s conveniently furnished by an automatic Runge-Kutta routine. The

first example i n this section involves a stiffness matrix formulation of the impact of a
sphere on a simple beam.
method [221

The second example i s an application o f the finite element

Impact o f Elastic Sphere on Beam

Figure 21 shows a simple beam upon which an elastic sphere of mass M, and radius

R impinges at a speed V.
m2,

The total mass of the beam i s lumped into three masses (ml

m 3 ) located at the quarter points, respectively.

This arrangement w i l l roughly

represent the three basic harmonics of beam vibration during impact,

1
m

JP (impact

force)

0
TR

(elastic spring force)

Fig. 21. Lumped mass representation o f simple beam impacted b y an elastic sphere.
(a) Arrangement of lumped masses; (b) Free body diagram of m

The equation o f motion for each lumped mass w i l l be written after the elastic
spring-restraint force on each mass m . has been expressed i n terms o f the displacements
w

o f the lumped masses.

For the three spring forces we can write:

where k .. are the "stiffness coefficients."

II

The stiffness coefficient k i j i s defined as

the holding force at point j necessary t o maintain a u n i t displacement w i

L-

1 at point

i, while at a l l other joints ( i f j ) the displacement i s zero (Fig. 22). Thus the holding

, where

forces k;. impose a system o f displacements w .. = 6 ..

I

delta.

11

I n the notation wij

, i refers t o the displaced

6 ..
II

i s the Kronecker

point, and j t o the point o f

application of unit force.

" 1

Fig. 22.

- 6(:

" 2

- 512

"13

Holding-force elements of the stiffness matrix.

The equations o f motion for the lumped masses are then:

m l W 1

m2;;/7

- k 2 ?w

m3'3-

k l lw l+ k 1 2 W 2 + k 1 3 w 3

+ k 2 2 w2 + k 2 3 ~ +
3

k 3 1 w 1 + k 3 2 w 7 +k33w3

- 'i?

and for the impinging mass M,

-P

M,w

(74)

-w

where the elastic approach a

P :- n (w

expression:
t--0,

W,

w
The holding forces

W1

- w2

, Eq.
-w2

i s related t o the impact force by the Hertz

(60).

The i n i t i a l conditions are:

--W2 . = w 3 =W3 - w

=O;

(75)

-v
k

ii

can be calculated by several methods o f structural analysis.

Hardy Cross's moment distribution and Clapeyron's "Three Moment Equations" are
equally w e l l adaptable [231

Perhaps the latter i s more advantageous, since i t yields

the answer i n more easily programmable, straightforward fashion, as a result of simultaneous equation solution.

The former i s a successive approximation method.

The stiffness matrix so obtained i s

The best criterion for lumping the beam masses i s not certain at the outset o f the
calculation,
result

[I91

and could possibly be optimized b y comparison with Timoshenko's exact

I t appears expedient t o consider half the span between quarter-points o f

the beam acting together,

producing equal lumped masses.

Thus we take, at least for a

start:

N o w we rename the displacements w

and their first derivatives

wi

for the state vari-

ables p, i n order t o have a Runge-Kutta formulation:

p 5 -

W 1

P2'W2

p 6=

P3'W3

p 7 = w 3

p 4'

PI

w1

8'W

The resulting system o f state equations i s shown i n Table

Computational results are shown i n Fig. 23.

4.

O n l y rough agreement for the con-

tact force i s noted between the numerical results o f three lumped masses and Timoshenko's solution.

Table 4
Equations o f motion i n Qunge-Kutta f o ~ m

I.C.

Dlt,:

an:

Fig. 23.

,I

ct

cm rqdu
'5.5..

-C

3%. SP

.,

I ~ U UH

1 -n Ral'u

'c.,

on,

? ~ , .F.-.+,I
i,

V,O~

~'"i.,~t

J~

- - - + - & .

4"a

k*

Solution for the impact o f a sphere o n a simple beam.

J.w

- -*

--

A
"-L~np
7

I=

U.-r
*

(See also Fig. 21).

The F i n i t e Element Method

The f i n i t e element method gives a more automatic procedure than the previous
Its principle and then application to the above beam-impact example

matrix method.

w i l l be illustrated below.
For beams the i ' t h element has the following force-displacement relation:

where S is the shear force, M the bending moment, y the displacement and 9 the rotat i o n o f a joint,

w i t h the sign convention as shown i n Fig, 24.

The square matrix i n

Eq. (76) is called the element stiffness matrix.

(1)
0
N o d a l Points
Fig. 24.

J'

Element N o .

1 2

)Oi

1
si

I
Mi

\ I l l
i-1

(N)

(2)

Mi- 1

si-l

N o t a t i o n and sign convention for f i n i t e element beam analysis.

The total stiffness matrix K for the beam may b e constructed by putting the element
stiffness matrices together.
Eq.

For example,

K o f a two-element structure i s shown i n

(77).

E ,I

.):

[ - l 2 ~,I

- 1 8 -

' ,, ,

L"'

-6.

L .

The element mass matrix [ m l i s ordinarily a diagonal matrix; however, i t may be optimized for simulation o f inertia forces i n dynamic (vibratory) motion [241

This form

i s given i n Eq. (78).

where p i i s the linear mass density of the i - t h element.

the structure,[ml

For the total mass matrix of

o f a l l the elements must be superimposed as was the case w i t h [ K l

It i s customary t o eliminate the rotational degrees of freedom 8 i-l

,8

elements, by requiring the moment at the nodal points i-1 and i t o be zero.

of the
That is,

we w r i t e

{M

b y putting

= 0, we express

-. -[K,,I-~

(8)

(Yt

[ K ~ ~ I

and obtain

is1
where [ K

{ Y l

[K,]

R1

i s the reduced stiffness matrix

[K,1

CKl1I

- [Kl,l

For the impact

[K,,].'

CK2,

(82)

of a beam by a sphere (Fig. 21), the matrix equations for

undamped beam motion can be written:

(83)
;;I + C K l { y l = ( P(y1 41
( P (y, x ) 1 i s the contact force and x stands for the displacement of the impact-

[ml
where

i n g mass, M,

The vector of P has the same dimension as the beam displacements,

and only one member o f i t i s non-zero for a single contact; the element standing for the
beam displacement y r , i n the direction x of the approach of the contacting mass.
Therefore, writing the,equilibrium equation for the impacting mass,
M,

= - P ( y c r x),

the Hertz contact condition allows writing, by Eq. (60), P (y,,

X)

(84)
n (X - Y , ) ~ ' ~,

and then the Runge-Kutta simultaneous differential equation solving technique i s

applicable t o solve the impact problem i n time, for a specified set of i n i t i a l conditions
yI

y,

X,

and

i.

The finite element solution was applied by Wang [251 and Lee [26] to several
impact problems, including, as a test case, the ball impacting on a beam, treated
earlier (Fig. 23).

A finite element program for a hammer impacting a flat target i s

given i n Appendix 1.2.

This i s a simplified, two-dimensional representation of a test

hammer, which w i l l be further described i n Sections 3.8 and 6.4.

REFERENCES
1

H. Hertz, J l . fuer Mathematik von Crelle, 92 (1882) 156-171 .

S. Timoshenko and J. N. Goodier, Theory of Elasticity, 3rd edn., McGraw-

Hill, New York, 1969.

3

A.E.H.

Love, ATreatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, 4th edn.,

Dover, New York, 1944.

4

F.B. Seely and J. 0 . Smith, Advanced Mechanics of Materials, 2nd edn.,

Wiley, New York, 1952.

W. Goldsmith, Impact, Arnold, London, 1960.

M . Kornhauser, J. Appl. Mech.,

K . Nikpur and R. Gohar, Tribology, 8 (1975) 2-8.

R. Roark, Formulas for Stress and Strain, 2nd edn., McGraw-Hill,

P. A. Engel and H. D . Conway, Int. J. Mech. Sci., 13 (1 971) 391 -402.

18 (1951) 251-252.
New York, 1943.

10

J . Schwartz and E. Y. Harper, Int. J. Solids Struc., 7 (1971 j, 1613-1626.

11

C. A . Moyer and H. R. Neifert, Trans. ASLE, 6 (1 963) 324-336.

12

G.M. Hamilton and L. E. Goodman, J . Appl. Mech., 33 (1 966) 371 -376.

13

H. R. Thomas and V. A. Hoersch, Bulletin 212, Engineering Experiment Station,

Univ. of Illinois, June 1930.
10 (1975) 113-122.

14

B. R. Lawn and M . V. Swain, J. Mater. Sci.,

15

J. R. Weber, M . C. Stippes and G . A . Costello, J. Appl. Mech., 41 (1974)

1137-1 138.

16

A. Abramowitz and I. A. Stegun, Handbook of Mathematical Functions, Dover,

New York, 1965.

17

H. Kolsky, Stress Waves i n Sol ids, Dover, New York, 1963.

18

J. E. Sears, Trans. Cambridge Philos. Soc., 21 (1908) 49.

19

S. Timoshenko, Vibration Problems i n Engineering, Van Nostrand, New York,

3rd edn., 1956.

20

P. A. Engel, J. Lvbr. Technol., 96 (1 974) 455-463.

21

M. A . Velvsvami, F.R.E. Crossley and G . Horvay, J. Eng. Ind., 97 (1975)

814-835.

22

R. H. Gallagher, Finite Element Analysis, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs,

N.J.,

1974.

23

of Engineering Mechanics, McGraw-Hill,

W. ~ l i (Ed.),
~ ~ Handbook
e

24

J. S. Archer,

25

H.C. Wang, IBM Endicott Laboratory, personal communications.

26

C . H. Lee,

1962.

J. Strvct. D i v . Am. Soc. C i v . Eng., 89 (1963) 161-178.

IBM Endicott Laboratory, personal communications.

RECOMMENDED READING

J. W. S. Rayleigh, Phil. Mag.,

11, Ser. 6 (1906) 283,

B. Hopkinson, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 213 (1914) 437.

C . V. Ramon, Phys, Rev.,
C . Zener,

Phys. Rev.,

15 (1 920) 277.

59 (1941) 669.

S. C . Hunter, J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 5 (1957) 162.

W. Goldsmith and R. L. Taylor, Exp. Mech.,

16 (1976) 81.

N e w York,

CHAPTER

1.

3 - IMPACT RESPONSE O F E N G I N E E R I N G SURFACES

INTRODUCTION
I n t h e previous section,

ideal, homogeneous bodies,

eral,

impact analysis methods were discussed,

w i t h elastic behavior.

suffice for a study o f impact wear.

considering

These assumptions do not,

i n gen-

W e shall devote t h e present section to the

various effects o f impact response, w h i c h i n v o l v e more closely the r o l e o f surface

structure and material properties other than just the classical elastic ones.

Except for

some o f its temperature effects, we shall not d w e l l on repetitive loading, as yet; that
aspect is l e f t t o the f o l l o w i n g chapters.

The present topics are important, however, as

impact wear is envisioned t o be influenced b y three maior categories,

shown i n the

diagram below:

/
IMPACT WEAR

C H A N G E O F THE SURFACE
Permanent deformation, p l a s t i c i t y .
STATE OF STRESS
Layered material, anisotropy,
Viscoelasticity
Friction

inhomogeneity

Asperity (microscopic) loads

Lubrication

MECHANISM
Thermal
Chemical
Environmental

Effects

I t is clear from the diagram that some o f the factors influencing impact wear c a n
b e i n more than iust one category; e.g.
chemical role.

l u b r i c a t i o n has a stress-modifying as w e l l as a

O n the other hand, the relationship is also somewhat non-linear,

since

impact wear may react upon each o f the main categories i n turn.

2.

PLASTIC D E F O R M A T I O N

IN IMPACT

The term p l a s t i c i t y suggests permanent deformations remaining i n the material

a f t e r i t has been stressed beyond the y i e l d stress.

Most mechanical analysts are inter-

ested i n t h e macroscopic manifestations o f plasticity: the average pressure and the size

o f indentation.

Its microscopic origin,

i n metals, i s the motion and generation o f a

large number of dislocations through the crystal structure of a solid.

Dislocations, how-

ever, do appear to a minor extent, much before the proportional l i m i t i s reached [ ll

Frequently, engineering materials are described by their uniaxial stress-strain

behavior.

This characterization, o f course, does not suffice for the complex triaxial

states o f stress experienced b y plastically stressed contacts.

Analysts have been able

t o relate plastic contact compliance for diverse geometrical shapes t o the simple longitudinal bar tests.

Direct measurements o f plastic contact compliance are made i n pen-

etration hardness tests.

The external process of contact deformation also entails a microscopic pioblem:
the interaction of asperities on the surfaces.

I t i s thus conceivable that plasticity

governs the microscopic asperity contact w h i l e the elastic Hertz theory describes the
gross, macroscopic contact; the converse situation i s also possible.
The plastic " y i e l d " of a contact can be estimated

by

the theories o f y i e l d [ 2 1 :

(a) The maximum stress theory: A t the apex of a spherical contact, the principal
stresses are so close (Eq. 2.50) that a nearly hydrostatic state of stress governs; this is
unlikely to cause failure.
tact (Eq. 2.51),

(b)

The tensile stress i s maximum at the edge of a spherical con-

and this should be checked for b r i t t l e materials.

The maximum shear stress (Tresca) y i e l d criterion: Generalizing from a lon-

gitudinal tensile test t o any specific stress state, this requires the condition:

I n spherical and cylindrical Hertz contacts, , ,T

0.31 qmax,so that the pressure

causing y i e l d i s
q m a x= ~ ~ / 0 . 3 =
1 1.6 oV

(2

Thus Hertz contacts have a 60% reserve strength w i t h respect t o o

; first yield i s i n

the substrate.
(c) The Huber-Mises-Hencky distortional energy criterion: The second invariant
of the stress deviator tensor J 2 i s equated w i t h
uniaxial stress case.

0;/3,

lane strain

and putting, , ,T

v --0.5770~

2/3,

which gives o l = o

i n the

For a state of pure shear i n

T :dX

'J

= T~

(o, =

- o3

, we get

,,,

; 'J

= 0) Eq. (3) yields

(4)

For ductile materials, this i s often preferred t o Tresca's T

contact problem, Fig. 2.14 shows

u Z , u 2 = u3 -

1
z
0.470, Eq. (3) yields - [ 2 (2-r m a x j2 I = u3/3.
6
again q max = 1.6 u
i s obtained as i n Eq. (2).

0,

=u
-

ug

Inserting

/2.

In the spherical

on the z-axis.
T,,,~~

= 0.31

At

max,

Elasto-~lasticContact Stress
As the load i n a spherical indentation test (i.e. Brinell or Meyer hardness test) i s
increased gradually,

deformations spread towards the surface.

o f course accompanied by growth o f the contact area.

This process i s

The pressure diagram undergoes

a change from the Hertz-elliptical towards a f l a t shape.

At the point o f f u l l plasticity

(in the absence o f a strain hardening phenomenon), the "flow pressure" p, of uniform
intensity,

i s applied over the contact area (Fig.

1). This state, while never f u l l y

reached (see Fig. 5, later) i s a convenient idealization because of the simplicity of the
pressure distribution.

Fig. 1. Idealized pressure distributions i n a contact at three stages of plasticity:

(a) Limiting e[astic stress state; (b) N o t f u l l y plastic (eiasto-plastic) contact; (c) Plastic
contact.
The f u l l y plastic state has been analyzed from several points of view.
ical theory of plasticity

The class-

[31 treated the blunt indentation problem involving a rigid-

plastic material which flows along slip lines.

In the two-dimensional indentation

problem, two kinematically admissible orthogonal slip-line systems may form, along
which material flows towards the surface, on the sides of the punch (Fig. 2).
two solutions are due to Prandtl and Hill, respectively.

(a) Prandtl's Solution

Fig. 2,

(b)

H i l l ' s Solution

Slip-line fields for blunt two-dimensional (plane strain) punch.

Those

Both the Prandtl and H i l l solutions arrive a t a common result, relating the flow pressure
to the uniaxial yield stress, oy :

Even when the pressure distribution i s not constant, p w i l l be referred t o as the average
pressure. The p,/cr,

ratio w i l l be called the constraint factor C.

Applying classical plasticity theory and postulating the so-called Hoar-Karman

hypothesis [41 for the behavior of the plastically deforming material, several researchers subsequently derived solutions for a x i a l l y symmetrical, three-dimensional indentat i o n problems.

The value of C, dependent on the shape o f the punch, was nevertheless

found close t o 3 i n the latter configurations.

Some configurations are tabulated i n

Table 1.
Table 1
A x i a l l y symmetrical solutions o f plasticity theory.

c-

Punch P r A l e m

Aulbr

FIot circular prnch

Hencky, 1923

Spherical punch

Ilhl imrky, 1944

Shield, 1955
Shield

h u e r e punch

After Show and deSalvo [ 5 1

8 Drucker,

1953
Uniformly l w d e d circulor
smooth punch
Cones (52.5' C 8' C

Con-

(30"

8)

PO" )

Levin

Lnckett, 1963
Huddon 8 Donyluk,

1964

The classical plastic indentation solutions assume rigid-plastic material behavior.

Neglecting elastic compressibility i n the contact zone, they a l l conclude w i t h the
necessity of upward flow o f material "squeezed out" under the indenter.
Shaw and DeSalvo E51 pointed out that i n a plastically deforming contact,
elastic deformations also play an important role.

They observed plastic deformations

under a hard sphere indenter; i t was restricted t o the inside of a boundary c i r c l e extending down from the edge of the contact area (Fig. 3).
The elastic-plastic boundary-circle resembled the shape of a Hertzian constant
shear contour line (Fig. 2.13);

the right one was analytically located.

These consider-

ations led to a constraint factor near 3, i.e. much closer t o experimental results than
the findings of the classical plasticity theory.

Fig. 3. Deformed grid patterns of specimens indented by a sphere: (a) plasticine,

(b) mild steel, (c) interpretation of (a) and (b). From Show and DeSalvo C51

In the transition region following the maximum elastic load limit, stress analysis
by classical continuum-mechanical means becomes intractable.

While the above

analyses depended on certain simplifying assumptions, the finite element method can
yield numerical results with great accuracy, without heavily relying on assumptions.
Such a study on elastic, perfectly plastic materials was made by Hardy, Baronet and
Tordion

C61

They considered a spherical indenter increasing the load from the

elastic limit P , to P = 100 P e

in terms of the P/P,

. Some of their- results are illustrated i n Figs. 4 and 5

ratio. Pe corresponds to qm,

= 2.76 T~

, by Eq.

(4).

Figure 4 shows the progressive yielding of the indented elastic material; note that
an elastjc zone remains at the apex region of the surface.

Progressive pressure distri-

butions over the contact area are shown in Fig. 5 .

For indenter shapes other than spheres, an investigation by K.L. Johnson [71
considered elasto-plastic behavior of the indented medium.

Distance along the Surface r/a

Elastic Zone

;
.

Fig. 4. Progressive yielding of a half-space.

From Hardy, Baronet and Tordion [61

The contours designate the P/P,

ratio.

Fig. 5. Progressive change of pressure distribution i n a plastically yielding contact.

From Hardy, Baronet and Tordion [61

The above discussion on the state of stress i s valid for most metals, but does not
hold for glasses,
(E/a

< 133),
-

polymers and,

C81

i n general,

for materials with a low E/uy ratio

For such materials, Marsh C91 has found the constraint factor

i n spherical indentation t o be a function of E/oy,

about

rather than a constant value of

3:
C

p/ay

0.28 t 0.60 I n 0.7 E/aY

(6)

The reason for this i s the readiness of the material t o undergo great densification,
unlike the compact crystal structure of metals.

When plastically deformed i n a hardThis i s similar t o

ness test, glasses and polymers display a great amount o f radial flow.

the behavior of a solid subjected t o internal pressure from a spherical cavity, rather
than the flow pattern of metal i n a hardness test.
leads back to the pre-plastic,

Shaw and DeSalvo's argument [ 8 1

elastic deformation part of the hardness test which,

according t o them, should produce constant and not Hertz-like pressure distribution i n
materials characterized by E/uy ( 133.
The plastic indentation of metals was studied by Tabor
mic conditions.

He found that, due to elastic recovery,

[lo1

i n static and dyna-

the indentation rebounds t o a

shallower curvature after being deformed i n contact w i t h a hard body ("shallowing").

The effect of the strain hardening of a material manifests itself i n a non-uniform
pressure diagram, since strains are largest i n the middle, and diminish towards the edge
of contact.

The strain

at the edge of indentation has been found proportional t o

D/d (the ratio of indentation diameter and indenter diameter).

If e o i s known,

can be obtained from the uniaxial stress-strain curve, and finally the average pressure
is again determined by p

3 a,

Plastic Impact Analysis for Spheres

The Hertz impact analysis for elastic bodies was based on the static relation between contact force P and approach
two constants

For plastic contacts, empirical formulae w i t h

(k and n) have been suggested, and thus the equation o f motion during

impact can be written:

P-kwl

--mi:

Assuming a constant flow pressure to apply,

(7)
its relation to the force i s p -. p/sa2.

simple analysis for two similar spheres m of radius R i n centric collision (Fig. 6) can be
made by assuming the approach to equal the flattening of each cap by the amount
2

a /2R.

The resulting differential equation i s for the displacement x

a 7 / 2 ~of the

centroid of each sphere: m

;

21rpRx

0.

This leads t o harmonic motion at angular

trequency w = (2rpR/m) 'I2

w i t h contact lasting for a quarter period t * - (m/21r~~)'!~r/2;
at this point of maximum approach, no stored energy is l e f t i n the system, b y definition
o f f u l l plasticity (e

Fig. 6.

0).

Two similar spheres i n plastic centric collision.

As a refinement of the above, Andrews [ l l I considered the elastic approach of

the rest of the spheres below the cap t o c o n t ~ibute an additional amount of a2/2R (by
Hertz analysis) t o the motion o f the spheres toward one another.
m i

+ r p Rx,

and t *

This resulted i n

Since both of the above methods contain con-

( m / ~ ~ R ) l "/2.
;~

tradictions, Tabor [ I 0 1 suggested taking the average value o f t * since the real situat i o n should l i e between those extremes:
t* -

1.3 (m/rpR)'

(81

which gives acceptable agreement w i t h experimental observations for many metals;

Tabor lists a maximum error of 5096.

I t i s an interesting feature o f the analysis that

the impact speed does not enter i n this "quasi-static range" of the impact phenomenon,
where Eq

. (7) is valid.

Dynamic Hardness Test

The flow pressure p has been identified i n the previous treatment with the hardHardness, as a material property,

ness concept.

i s an important ingredient of wear

considerations; therefore a concise description o f common static hardness tests i s given

i n Appendix

3.

The flow pressure may also be found i n a dynamic mode; the drop test (sclero-

scope) can serve as a dynamic hardness test [ I 0 1

is dropped on a plane test b l o c k (E2,
t o a height L
is

U = mgL

, T yZ

v2

C-r

A hard b a l l (R,,
Y1

denoted by R

; the plastic dissipation energy U3 is calculated from

is the plastic deflect ion o f a point w i t h i n the contact area S.

the volume o f the indentation,

El,

)fromaheightL,;

L ,), and leaves a dent o f diameter D = 20,

(L2

m,

vl

,T~~

itrebounds

The incident energy

/Ip

d S - d i , wherez
r S
The integral is p times

a spherical cap the radius of curvature o f which w i l l be

(considered positive):

The work o f elastic recovery forces i n pushing t h e b a l l back t o a height L 2 i s then

U,

U,

- U,

=mgL

110)

N o w one could obtain p simply from the above equations,

Another condition for U 2 is available,

however: i t must also be equal t o the elastic

work o f the b a l l m, required i n establishing f u l l contact over the already existing indentation o f diameter 2a,
over the approach a

U,

and radius o f curvature R

'Ye can integrate the force

=SP( u ) do.

(12)

Expressing both the approach o. and force

P from Hertz theory, i n terms o f the variable

contact radius a (see Table 2.1):

N o w the integral (12) i s evaluated between limits

whi ch supplies a new condition,

and

R2

0 and

a,

may be eliminated from Eq. ( 1 1 ) .

f l o w pressure is f i n a l l y written i n a convenient form,

The dynamic

where W,
ture

i s the volume of a hypothetical impression o f diameter D and radius o f curva-

R, , i.e,

that of the b a l l m.

By the above principle, the hardness of a plane specimen con be measured for a
given boll, by measuring the rebound height.

Such "scleroscopes" (e.g. Shore) con

be calibrated and used for the rapid determination o f hardness.

The dynamic hardness p d
two reasons.

i s always larger than the static one p S

The first one i s the rise of the y i e l d point, which i s especially dramatic

for very soft materials.

Another reason i s the viscous response i n the material, which

depends on the velocity of indentation.

steels p d /ps

While for high-strength materials such as

i s not far from unity, the ratio becomes substantially larger for soft metals

l i k e lead ('1.58) and indium (5.0),

3.

, mainly for

[lo].

IMPACT ON ELASTIC LAYERS

Layered media are often used for engineering surfaces.

platings offer increased durability.

O n one hand, hard

O n the other hand, soft coatings (often involving

polymers) serve for protection of the metal substrate,

The two extremes of hard-on-soft

and soft-on-hard layered composites also correspond t o vastly different contact stress
states when subjected t o local indentation.

I n the sense used here, hardness i s equiva-

lent t o stiffness ( E l the modulus o f elasticity being its measure) and softness t o
flexibility.
When a stiff layer i s supported on a flexible one, the state o f stress resembles
flexure i n an elastically supported plate; layer analysis i s required here.

When the

layer t o be supported i s flexible compared t o the substrate, the relative size o f the
contact area dimension "a" w i t h respect t o the indented layer thickness H i s on important indication o f the analytical methods required.
a/H

-<

1/2

For a spherical shaped indenter,

would allow use o f the Hertz analysis o f a homogeneous half-space,

disregarding the elasticity of the substrate.

thus

As a/H increases, important changes i n

the pressure distribution take place, however, and layer analysis i s again necessary.
O n elastic contact stress solutions i n layers, Chen and Engel [ I 2 1 gave a list of
the relevant literature up t o 1972.
The a x i a l l y symmetric analysis o f Ref. 12 combined the homogeneous half-spoce
indentation pressure q (r) and a truncated series of base pressures qi (r) =Ai (1

- r2/a2)i.'!2

(where A . are undetermined coefficients, a is the contact radius) t o obtain the solut i o n i n two- or three layered media.

Displacements i n the contact are0 were matched,

and the A . coefficients calculated from an integral-least square or collocation criterion.

The base functions were selected from physical considerations; thus for f l a t indenters

0,

1, 2,

. .., and for spherical contact i .- 1,

2, 3,

. . . yielded best results.

Figures 7 and 8 show the variation of non-dimensionalized contact force and

penetration, respective1y,
r i g i d and spherical.

for a single layer bonded t o a half-space; the indenter i s

Figure 9 shows pressure distributions i n two- and three-layer

combinations.
Gupta, Walowit and Finkin [ 131 have

For two-dimensional layered contacts,

presented results.

Figure 10 depicts the interfacial shear i n the bond for a single layer

H bonded to a half-space, i n terms of the ratios GI / G 2 and H/a ( G denotes the shear
modulus).

The flexural tensile stress o f

, perpendicular to the axis

cylinder i s depicted i n Fig. 11, for relatively stiff layers ( G 1 / G 2

10

1
7
. '

3 \

2.5

-L i m i t

-2-0

\I

of the indenting
1).

P
Hl

,
I

El,

=/.

Fig. 7. Load vs. HI /a variation for a single layer bonded t o a half-space;

l,, = 1j2 - 1/3.
From Chen and Engel [ I 2 1

Limit

Fig. 8,
"1

~ i m i -t '--a

-1--0

Elastic approach vs. H /a for a single layer bonded t o a half-space,

1/3. From C hen and Engel [ 121

v2 -

Fig. 9. Normalized surface pressure distribution q(r)/q(O) for one or two layers bonded
t o a half-space [ 121

Two-dimensional contact
(plane strain)

Fig. 10. Maximum interfacial shear stress at layer-substrate interface as a function of

G,/G~ and H/a when the layer surface is subjected to an e l l i p t i c a l pressure. From
Gupta, Walowit and Finkin [ 131

5Two-dimensional

4-

- 3-

+-

2-

1-

Fig. 1 1 . Maximum flexural tensile stress i n the layer lotted as a function o f G1/G,
and H/a for a relatively stiff layer (G1/G2> 1); e l l i p t i c a l normal stress i s assumed on
the layer surface. From Gupta, Walowit and Finkin C 131

Quasi-static Impact Analysis

During impact the contact force P and the central surface displacement w can be
written i n terms o f the changing (a/H
layer:

w
where

E,

H:

H;f1

) ratio, where H1 i s the thickness of the top

(17)

(a/H1)

(18)

f2(a/Hl

i s the combined curvature parameter, and El the reduced modulus for the con-

tacting bodies (see Table 2.1); f

) and f

(a/H

(a/H1

) are nondimensional functions

determined by elastostatic layer analysis.

For the case of a "rigid" b a l l of mass m and radius R dropped from a height L on
elastic layers, the equation o f b a l l motion during impact i s m y

+P

0,

Transformations o f this make i t suitable for integration by the Runge-Kutta scheme,

, w and the speed V:

w i t h three state variables: a/H

dV

= -E,

dt

H:

fl(a/Hl)/m

(21)

subject t o the i n i t i a l conditions,

t

0: a/H

= 0, w

0,

V =

1/2SC

Experimental work also confirmed the v a l i d i t y of this analysis [ I 2 1

4.

VISCOELASTIC IMPACT
Many polymers, especially elastomers, display viscoelastic behavior when sub-

jected t o dynamic loads.

I t i s often important t o evaluate this effect on impact re-

sponse, since i t may significantly alfer the contact time, cause heat build-up under
repeated loading,

and otherwise affect mechanical component operation.

Viscoelasticity i s a combination o f the spring-like (elastic) and dashpot-like

(viscous) behavior of a solid.

I n the linear theory o f viscoelasticity, the material i s

described by two time-dependent relaxation (or compliance) functions,

constants which characterize linearly-elastic materials [ I 4 1

instead of two

A n expeditious choice

o f characterizing functions i s the shear relaxation function G ( t ) and the bulk relaxation
function B(t).

A relaxation function i s defined as the variation o f the appropriate

74
stress q u a n t i t y due t o a corresponding,

step-wise applied strain q u a n t i t y

(Fig. 12).

Stress,

Stroin,

Moxwell Fluid:

Kelvin Solid:

3-Parameter Solid:

(a) Relaxation Functions

1'

(q,

qu '

- p,q,)

'

( b ) Compliance Functions

Fig. 12. Simple functional models for viscoelastic materials; d i l a t a t i o n a l and distort i o n a l behavior may be specified b y distinct models. p i and q i are constants,
O r d i n o r y stress analysis problems can usually be solved b y a Laplace transformat i o n o f the time-dependent d e f l e c t i o n equation obtained from known loads (applied a t
a specified point o f the surface) and material parameters.
continuum,

however,

In the impact problem o f the

t h e boundary conditions are themselves time-dependent,

and this

causes d i f f i c u l t i e s i n the solution.

A n approximate solution t o the spherical impact problem was first g i v e n b y
Pao

[I51

who assumed (a) that the difference i n the contoct area between t h e elastic

solution and the viscoelastic solution was negligible, and (b) that the bulk-modulus was
linearly elastic instead of being time-dependent.
Lee and Radok [ I 6 1 developed a solution showing the v a l i d i t y of the Laplace
transform technique to the Hertz solution for non-decreasing penetration.

Later

Hunter [ I 7 1 extended this solution to include a single maximum followed by decreasing

penetration.

Ting [ I 8 1 solved the problem for any number of maxima of the penetra-

tion, and Graham

C 191

generalized the solution.

Engel C201 presented a numerical

method of solution by time and space-wise point-matching (collocation).

C a l v i t de-

vised a numerical scheme based on Hunter's solution, and d i d experimental work on

polymer blocks impacted b y metal spheres 121 I

In problems of stress analysis, one would wish to have the relaxation or compliance
functions available for the material.
tion,

Especially for the early times o f the impact dura-

the change of material stiffness should be significant.

The procedure of Sackman

and Kaya [221 establishes the relaxation function b y considering the attenuation o f
stress waves along rods made o f the investigated material.
w i t h six polymers fashioned into Hopkinson bars [231
functions are often represented by idealized two-,

This procedure was also used

The relaxation (or compliance)

three-,

foui- or higher-parameter

models, each parameter representing a spring, doshpot, relaxation time, etc.,

finite,

linearly viscoelastic assembly

lationship, though time-dependent,

[I41

of a

The adjective "linear" signifies the re-

between corresponding stress and strain components.

A n alternate method of specifying viscoelastic behavior o f materials utilizes

vibrational frequency dependence, instead of time dependence 1241

The interchange-

a b i l i t y of time t and the reciprocal o f frequency f i s o f course justified on a dimensional

basis; i n addition, for moderate frequencies (f ( 1000) i t i s usually more convenient t o
obtain characterization by the frequency methods. Testing methods u t i l i z e either forced
vibration (measuring transmissibility and phase angle) or free vibration (measuring frequency and attenuation).

A popular test apparatus, u t i l i z i n g the forced-vibrat ion method, i s the Rheovibron*.

This subjects a t h i n pretensioned polymer strip specimen t o harmonic tensile

stress, a t small strain levels.

The environmental temperature of the specimen can be

varied over a wide temperature range, and the responses at a fixed frequency are used
t o establish the complex modulus, E*,
E*(f)

defined as follows:

E ' ( f ) s i EM (f)

Toyu Rht,nvit,rnn Di~r:ct-R;~rl~ng

V~scoc:asrornct+r.

(23)

where E' is called the storage modulus and E" i s the loss modulus. The ratio of E t t and

E' is the dissipation factor

tan 6

E"/E1

(24)

which i s the tangent of the angle by which stress response u lags behind the input
strain e i n the harmonic vibration test.
a ' = E ' e and

The in-phase and out-of-phase components of o are, respectively,

'I

- E"E

C141 is

The energy loss per cycle

==Eue?

(25)

I t is noted that an i'ntimate relationship exists between the frequency- and temperaturedependence of E* for polymers; the WLF equation (Eq. 1.27) describes a transformation
b y which E* (f,,

T) can be shifted t o other temperatures at the same frequency fa.

transformation o f El and E" from a fixed set of values, fo

set (f, T),

f aT and To

:
:

The

, to another

i s facilitated by the equations

tan S (f;T)

= tan 6 (f

' a I ; To

(27)

Thus from a set of Rheovibron test results, a complete temperature- and frequencydependent representation E * (f, T) can be constructed C251

Noting the dependence of both the elastic modulus E' and loss modulus E" on the
frequency,

T i l lett [261 was among the first t o determine these moduli from impact ex-

periments.

Impact can be considered a "half-cycle" o f oscillatory motion, the contact

time t * being half the period.

Then the "impact frequency" i s simply

F = 1/2

t*.

Measuring the impact time t* and the coefficient of restitution e for a steel ball (m, R)
bounced on a ~ o l y m e r late, both E' and tan 6 can be approximately determined as
follows.
The Hertz theory gives for the contact time

The polymer material function E p / l

- vlF

cc

E l can be determined at many fre-

is fairly independent o f frequency,

E' is ob-

The dissipation factor is obtained from the energy loss of the rebound.

By mea-

quencies 1/2 t*; i f the Poisson's ratio v

tained this way.

suring the rebound height L,

Chapter 2).

, the ratio o f

L , t o the drop height L yields e 2 (see

Now i n damped free oscillations the logarithmic decrement

A,

while i n

forced sinusoidal vibration the phase angle 6, characterizes the loss properties o f a
material.

The relationship between the two i s [26, 271

A=vtanS

(29)

The relative energy loss 1

f - 1/2 t*,

- e2

occurs during a half stress cycle of equivalent frequency

and i t can be shown E271 that for the half c y c l e (of "free vibration"):

1 - e 2 =,tan6

(30)

so that tan 6 and thus E" can be obtained i n terms o f frequency.

Figure 13 shows the experimental determination o f tan 6 for plexiglas [21 I . Rebound heights were noted for various size metal balls, with varying temperatures, environmentally induced i n the viscoelastic material.

The corresponding determination o f

the storage modulus E' was done by measuring the contact time i n the same ball pendulum test (Fig. 14).

A good background o f the physical behavior and testing procedures o f viscoelastic

materials may be gained from Smith's work [281

More w i l l be said of elastomer

impact i n Section 8 o f this chapter.

X 0.47 cm. dia. Steel Sphere

A 1.12 cm. dia. Steel Sphere
0 1.75 cm. dia. Steel Sphere
2.54 cm. dia. Steel Sphere

40
Fig. 13.

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

2OO0C

Rebound height versus temperature for Plexiglas, for various ball sizes.

From C a l v i t t211

X 0.47 cm.
A 1.12 cm.
0 1.75 cm.
0 2.54 cm.

40

60

dia.
dia.
dia.
dia.

Steel
Steel
Steel
Steel

100

80

Temperature,

Sphere
Sphere
Sphere
Sphere

120

140

160

180

200C

Fig. 14. Time of contact versus temperature for ~lexiglas, measured for various b a l l
sizes.
From C o l v i t [211

5.

CONTACT, WITH SHEAR TRACTIONS

In actual contact problems, shear tractions o f two basic types often arise:

(a) shear tractions due to a tendency for differential expansion of the two surfaces; and
(b) sliding or slipping due t o applied shear force.

Tendency for Differential Expansion

When two surfaces are normally pressed together,

contact pressures tend t o give

rise to a tangential surface displacement u i n both bodies (Fig. 15).

I f the body under

pressure approximates a "half-spaceu (the ratio a/H of the contact dimension t o its

< 0.5)) then LJ i s inward oriented (negative); i f the a/H ratio becomes appreciable, a/H > 2 and the sublayer under the indented body i s quasi-rigid,

depth i s small, say

the Poisson's ratio effect w i l l dominate, and a tendency for outward displacements
~esults[291

. The two bodies would,

however, differ i n their tangential expansion

rates unless both their elastic properties (E, v ) and their a/H ratios are identical.
Since there i s always some adhering capacity between two real surfaces, their differential expansion w i l l be at least partially prevented by shear tractions arising i n the
contact.

These troctions constitute a self-equilibrating system.

E2

, vl:

(Polymer)

Area

Fig. 15. Differential tangential displacements tend to arise between steel and the more
flexible polymer, upon being pressed together.
Assuming that the adhering capacity between two round surfaces i s potentially
infinite, Goodman [301 solved for the contact shear tractions arising i n spherical contacts (Fig. 160).

His solution,

achieved on an incremental basis, using the potential

functions o f elasticity theory, neglected the effect of the "secondary" shear stresses
upon the original Hertzian pressure distribution.
shear-stre~s/~ressureratio at the edge o f contact.

Goodman obtained an infinite

Numerical solutions (by point match-

ing) o f the corresponding slab-indentation problem [291 indicate that differences i n

the maximum contact pressure may not be negligible.

I t was also shown that the shear

tractions change sign as the indented body's thickness i s decreased.

Fig. 16. Contact solutions for adherence resulting i n self-equilibrating shear tractions.
(a) Adhering contact (from Goodman r301). (b) Traction distributions for partial slip
model of a r i g i d sphere pressed into an elastic half-space; a' i s the adherence length
v = 0.3.
and a0/a uniquely defines p
From Engel and Conway C341.

The adhering contact between a f l a t indenter and slabs was analyzed by Conway,
Vogel, Farnham and So [311

Exact solutions have been given by Spence [321

The

obviously unrealistic assumption of an i n f i n i t e friction coefficient can be avoided b y

assuming that only part of the contact area ( 0
(a'

< r<

a) i s able t o slip,

r (a'

<

subject to the shear traction:

a) i s adhering, while the rest

T

-po

numerical solutions for both f l a t indenters 1331 and round ones 1341
dissipation can also be estimated.

This allowed

The energy

Figure 16b shows the tractions calculated for a r i g i d

sphere indenting an elastic half-space,

w i t h ~ a r t i a slipping;
l
each solution corresponds

to a discrete a'/a ratio which i s uniquely related t o p

Applied Shear Force

The following brief review addresses the class o f contact problems characterized
by a superimposed shear force F i n addition to the normal contact force P (Fig. 17).

It

i s obvious that i n order t o avoid rotation o f the slider, either (a) the resultant of the
contact pressures must a c t forward o f the normal to the contact, or
moment must be applied t o the slider.
symmetrical,

otherwise i t is not.

(b) a

restraining

In the latter case, the contact profile may be

The asymmetry of the contact region plays an irnpor-

tant role when the slider moves on a viscoelastic material; i t can be shown 1351 that
the viscoelastic delay effect i s sufficient t o create a lopsided geometry so that a roller
would encounter a net resisting force.

( c ) Viscoelastic M a t e r i o l

Fig.

17. Forces acting on slider.

( d ) Shear Force is Applied i n

Contact Plane ( O r d i n a r y Assumption)

In order t o avoid unnecessary complications,

that F acts near the plane of contact.

slider studies generally stipulate

Two kinds o f problem are distinguished,

accord-

ing t o whether the force F i s sufficient t o bring about continuous rigid-body sliding
motion or not.
When F
f r i c t i o n law.

<

P, no gross sliding motion takes place according t o the Coulomb

M i n d l i n [361 and Cattaneo

[371 found that when adherence i s sufficient

t o prevent slip everywhere, the tangential displacement for a circular contact surface

of radius a is

and the shear traction is (Fig. 18):

slip

Fig. 18. Distribution o f tangential traction, w i t h and without s l i p . From M i n d l i n C361.

Further assuming that the shear traction T is l i m i t e d t o u times the pressure (the latter
being equal t o the frictionless,

Hertz value),

M i n d l i n also analyzed the case o f s l i p

i n a n exterior annulus a t the contact ( a '

a (1

- 1_)1'31
uP
r(

The shear tractions were:

The slip i n the annulus a'

K. L. Johnson [381

5 r 2 a was further calculated and experimentally proved b y

An important case of net shear force i s the limiting shear accompanying sliding:

p P.

Since the total shear force i s proportional t o the total normal force,

i t may be

assumed for the stress analysis that the shear traction everywhere i s also proportional t o
the pressure and, o f course, opposing the direction of relative motion.

The Hertz

pressure may be combined w i t h a superimposed system of shear tractions, proportional t o

the pressures (T = p o 7 ).
The two-dimensional (plane stress or strain) sliding contact solution was given by
Smith and L i u [ 3 9 1

Using these results, Caubet and Cortier [401 constructed an

envelope of principal stresses for the space underlying a two-dimensional contact: the
parameters p and

1,

were fixed.

This envelope permitted several interesting obser\la-

tions (Fig. 19) for the variation of the maximum compressive and surface shear stress,
and also for the location of the point of the maximum shear - a l l i n terms of the
friction coefficient p
0.1

03

.
1.0

0.6

e
b"

" "

0.1

0.3

0.5

'

"

"

(b) Maximum surface shear stress vs. p.

(a) Maximum compressive stress vs. p.

~:LLL

(c) The distance x o f the point of

maximum stress from the axis vs. p

0.2

0.1

U.3

0.5

tJ

Fig. 19. Graphs for two-dimensional sliding contacts, v

Cartier [ 401

0.3.

From Caubet and

I f the slider i s spherical, sliding contact i s described by a combined system of

the Hertz pressure q and a proportional distribution

(yZ=1.1

q) o f shear tractions.

Con-

cise formulae for the state of stress for each effect separately were given by Hamilton
and Goodman

(see Eq. 3) were obtained i n terms of p (Fig. 20).

J :I2

[411 (Appendix 2). Contour maps of the critical yield stress parameter

'

, / , T -,:..J - pz
U

f'
,

,<

- -

o'.

Icl.l'\J.L*
",
(b)

0.25

/-;--

Fig. 20, Lines o f constant J~I~/~,,,

on plane z = 0 beneath circular contact.
Hamilton and Goodman [411

From

6.

ASPERITY CONTACT
Actual contact surfaces are far from being ideally smooth as assumed by the Hertz

theory.

When solids are pressed together,

protruding above the surface terrain.

contact occurs only on a few asperity-peaks

Understanding the mechanics of contact on the

microscopic "asperity level" i s crucial t o explaining the various contact phenomena from sliding friction to rolling and impact

- which are commonly treated

by macro-

scopic (Hertzian or related) theories.

When the asperities are high (and thus the surface i s "rough"),
provoke their plastic deformation.

loads are apt t o

Yet even i f the asperities are grossly deformed, they

In the experiments o f Moore C421,

are usually retained as seen after removal of the load.

a hard cylinder was pressed against a work-hardened copper surface provided w i t h fine
grooves parallel to one another and the axis of the cylinder.
the tips of the asperities deformed plastically.

Upon light loading, only

Increasing the load, however, caused

plastic deformation of the underlying bulk material, without eliminating the grooves.
Coupled with plastic deformations, elasticity i n the contact was sufficient t o maintain
the grooves i n a reduced form (Fig. 21).

Fig. 21. Profilometer records o f a grooved surface deformed by a hard cylinder placed
with its axis parallel t o the grooves: (a) light load, ( b j heavier load, (c) very heavy
load. For light loads the plastic deformation i s restricted t o the tips o f the asperities.
O n l y at heavier loads i s the underlying metal deformed plastically, but even here the
irregularities retain their identity. From Moore C421

In Chapter 1, a simple analysis of adhesive contacts (Eq. 1.2) accounted for a l l

asperity interactions as purely plastic.

Greenwood [431

many pieces of evidence against that theory.

, among others,

pointed out

Perhaps most basic i s the fact that even

i f asperity stress levels were purely plastic at first load application,

during a running-

i n process much o f the plastic action would give way t o elasticity.

While i t i s somewhat

harder t o explain the proportionality between load and the real contact area for elastic
or plastic strain-hardening materials,

Greenwood and Williamson 1441 achieved this

b y consjdering a statistical distribution o f the asperities.

Their argument i s based on

the contact between a rough (asperity covered) surface and a hard, smooth one
(Fig. 22), both nominally flat; the i n i t i a l restriction o f flatness (later.removed [451 )
avoids the influence of one loaded asperity upon another.

/--

Hard, Smooth Surface

'

Reference Plane i n
Rough Surface

The contact between a rough surface and a smooth flat one.

Fig. 22.

In the Greenwood model, an even density q of asperity peaks, and a common

asperity radius R are considered.

The heights of the asperities follow a statistical

distribution; the probability of an asperity having a peak reaching a distance above the
reference plane i s

cp (z). The number o f asperities w i t h this height i s Ncp(z).

smooth surface i s located at a distance z - d, then a l l asperities with height z

I f the

dwill

make contact.
The individual asperity i, developing contact force Pi over a contact area Ai
w i l l be depressed by an amount w i . In general we may write, for the compliance relationships o f elastic or non-elastic materials,

Pi - f (w) ;

A,

g (w)

(34)

which i n the special case of the Hertz iheory becomes

p ,,312

(35)

We substitute the excess height for w:

w = z - d

(36)

and sum the force and area o f the n individual load-bearing asperities using the proba b i l i t y function cp (2):

Also
n

- I"

(Z

- d ) Ncp (z) dz;

N o (z) dz

00

A =fg
d

(Z

- d) N $ (2) dz

(37)
(38)

Substituting for 9 (z) the exponential distribution, w i t h the parameter u :

(z)

;exp

(-z/o )

(39)

the result of the integrations i s

p
A

Ne -d'u

f ( t ) dt

exp ( - t / o ) l

g(t) dt

[e x

'

Ne'"'y:

Thus, eliminating d, we find the proportionality of both A and n w i t h P, regardless of

the mode of deformation (f(w) and g(w) ), or the shape of the asperities.

As the load

increases, so does the real area, not by the individual contacts getting larger but by
the contacts getting more frequeni
In actual contacts, however, not the exponential but the Gaussian probability
distribution has been found prevalent: denoting by o the standard deviation o f z, we
write:
1
9(z) -

exp

-z2/2u 2

o f i

Evaluation of the

P vs. A , relation now requires the choice of explicit asperity de-

formation laws f(w) and g(w).

Considering the appropriate Hertz expressions (Eq. 35),

the area of contact was found very nearly linearly changing with load, as shown i n
Fig. 23.

Figure 23 was constructed on the basis o f 11 Ro

0.03,

E'

= 25 kgf/rnm2,

where q i s the asperity density [ mm-7 I, R the asperity radius, and

2
2
1- v
1-1,
+L),
where E l i s called the effective modulus.

kt-(-

0.01

C.l

1
load /kg)

10

100

Fig. 23. Relation between area of contact and load. Curves shown are for o - 0.03,
25 kg/mm7. The minor role of the nominal area of contact i s shown.
E'
From Greenwood [431

Calculating the relation between mean real pressure (pr= P/A

sure (q

,- P/A ,),

(Fig. 24).

) and the apparent pres-

p,was found nearly constant for an extreme1y wide range o f loads

The average value i n the i n i t i a l flat part of Fig. 24 suggests the adoption of

an "elastic contact hardness" value o f p = 0.25 E

10-5

10'

lo3

lo7

apparent pressure, q /f4/3

' m .

10'

%x)

1 R u)(E1

Fig. 24. Relation between mean real pressure and apparent pressure. Values used for
Fig. 23 give apparent pressures from 1 0-3 to 100 kg/cm 2, real pressure from
500 t o 1100 kg/mm
From Greenwood [431

'.

Another useful concept born o f the Gaussian asperity model i s the "plasticity
Plastic deformation starts between a spherical asperity R and a flat, at a value

index".
w

o f the asperity compliance:

w

= R (p/~')2

where p .- 1.1 q

(44)
was substituted i n Eq. (2.3413).

The plasticity index i s defined as the quantity

and i t turns out t o be a good indicator of the type of micro-contact (elastic, plastic or
in-between) existing between two surfaces.
cause plastic deformations; below
surfaces [431

Above

1, even the lightest loads

0.7 contact i s elastic, i n nominally flat

Greenwood and Tripp [451 found that the gross pressure distribution

between rough, round surfaces i s nearly Hertzian only for large loads; otherwise a pronounced t a i l t o the pressure distribution i s added at the edge.
For the stress analysis o f asperity contacts, various asperity models have been
suggested [461

The importance of such models i s accentuated by the consideration

that under the loaded asperities, the micro-Hertzian stress field combines t o give the
macroscopic Hertz contact stress.

An experimental proof of the obove phenomenon was

given by Leibensperger and Brittain

C471 , using photoelasticity. A theoretical analy-

sis of asperity impacts (without inertia effects) was made by Fowles [481

7.

IMPACT ON LUBRICATED CONTACTS

Here we shall briefly review the squeeze film problem, i.e. the description of

the film thickness and pressure distribution when surfaces approach each other normally
against the resistance of lubricant trapped between them.
Bowden and Tabor

C 491

describe the plastic indentation of lubricated copper

surfaces by steel balls of 25 mm diameter, dropped from a height of 4 cm. While no

metallic contact took place when the lubricant was a viscous oil (500 centipoise),a
dimple resulted in the copper surface, as a result of plastic deformations. This dimple
was i n fact deeper than the indentation obtained when no lubricant or an extremely
thin one was applied.
by Finkin E501

Further experiments with greater drop heights were performed

In order to analyze the normal approach problem outlined i n Fig. 25, the basic
Reynolds equotion i s obtained from the Navier-Stokes equations by making a set of
assumptions valid for the typical fluid motion C51 I

These include neglect of inertia

and surface-tension terms, and consideration of an incompressible Newtonian liquid

with no slip between liquid and solid at their interface.

In two-dimensional (x, y) con-

tacts, the Reynolds equotion i s

where q i s the viscosity, H the film thickness, and p the pressure.

If the lubricant i s isoviscous, i.e.,

its viscosity i s constant, then the obove

equation, between parallel surfaces, reduces to

and the pressure p i s obtained by two consecutive integrations.

When the pressure i s

integrated over the area of the parallel plates, the total force P i s obtained.
iation of force and film thickness are expressed i n the following equation:

The var-

where L

i s a typical length-dimension o f the plate and c i s a shape factor, shown i n

Fig. 26 for various shapes.

Fig. 25.

The squeeze film between two parallel surfaces.

Shape of Flat Plate

L~

Sound:

<ectongular:
( N o side flow)

Fig. 26.

Shape factors for various parallel plate shapes.

From Moore [ 511

The solution for rectangular plates i s by Hays [521

, who also solved the

a f i l m squeezed between curved surfaces and inclined surfaces.

Integration of Eq. (48)

w i t h respect t o time yields the f i l m thickness H, achieved at constant force

from,the original value H,,

The depth at which a mass m starting at V,

H -

(cq L -r/mV,

case o f

P,

starting

i s stopped, i s approximately

1 I?

(50)

A derivation o f the impact pressure for f l a t hammers striking a lubricated elastic halfspace was given by Bowden and Tabor [491
relation i s shown i n Fig. 27

The maximum pressure vs. film-thickness

i n a qualitative manner.

Fig, 27. Squeeze f i l m pressures for impact loading at various energies vs. distance o f
hammer to anvil. Initial thickness o f film, H = 0.5 mm; q - 25 centipoise; hammer
radius - 1 cm. After Moore [51 I,
The squeeze film between rough surfaces has been analyzed by Moore [511
considering the statistical parameters of the asperity distiibution.
are summarized i n the schematic drawings of Fig. 28.

His typical results

.-

Smooth

ti

(a) Characteristic curves

Fig. 28.

(b) Sinkage curves

Squeeze film characteristics for rough and smooth surfaces. From Moore C511

I t i s important to consider i n practice that both pressure (p) and temperature (T)
variations greatly influence the viscosity o f oils.

Rising temperatures can drastically

decrease viscosity, while the 7 (p) relation i s often of a dramatic exponentially increasThese two laws are expressed by typical formulae, discussed byCameron [531.

ing nature.

For pressure dependence, many mineral oils exhibit the relation

'7 'I,e
where

(57

i s the pressure-viscosity parameter.

For temperature dependence, a good ap-

proximation i s often:

wheie B, c and ;' are constants.

The most complete research to date for pressure-

viscosity characterization of various oils i s contained i n Ref. [541

Using the exponential pressure-viscosity variation, Butler [551 analyzed the

squeeze film problem between axisymmetrical rigid surfaces.
plates of given radius R and for a given
ness i s achieved,
occur.

He found that for flat

and initial velocity V, a limiting film thick-

beyond which no further expulsion o f the lubricant can theoretically

This result was arrived at by consideration o f rigid plates, and Butler pointed out

the necessity of taking into account the elastic or plastic deformation o f the plates i n
the locality of the contoct.
More recently, attention has been extended to the elasto-hydrodynamic squeeze
film problem, which includes the elastic displacement of the solid boundary when subjected to high pressure of the lubricant; this was first tackled by Christensen C561

bibliography of the work done up to 1973 i n this area i s contained i n Lee and Cheng's
paper [571

, which

presents a solution i n two dimensions, under plane strain.

These

authors applied a numerical solution technique,

which satisfied both the hydrodynamic

equation and the elasticity equation; both compressibility o f the liquid and variable
viscosity were considered.

The analysis indicated the possibility o f a pocket forming

during the early stages of normal approach due t o the high pressures prevailing i n the
center of the contact.

While the o i l i s expected t o warm much more easily than the

metal enclosure, the narrowness o f the gap and the conductivity of the solids are l i k e l y

t o diminish thermal effects; a non-isothermal analysis was presented b y Gould [581

THERMAL EFFECTS OF IMPACT

8.

The two basic heat-generation mechanisms o f impact are (a) surface (frictional)
heating and (b) internal (viscous) energy losses.

For understanding, and for the analysis

i t i s sometimes helpful t o con-

of the impact heating process i n a given configuration,

sider the heat-generation process and then the heat transfer separately, since impact i s
usually orders o f magnitude faster than heat conduction through the contact region.
general, the differential equation o f transient heat conduction w i t h a source

where
C

L'

i s the thermal diffusivity,

In

q"' applies:

K the thermal conductivity, p the mass density and

the specific heat; we have the relation

K/pC

p.

The heating of sliding contacts was studied by Holm [591, and Ling [601 treated
rolling as well.

The concept of flash temperature was introduced by Blok [611

Barber [621 solved several thermoelastic contact problems.

In what follows,

both single and repetitive impact w i l l be considered for heating

effects.

Experimental Measurements o f Impact Temperature

In an experimental study of the repetitive impact response o f elastomers [631
butyl-rubber slabs were bonded t o a steel foundation,

Fig. 29.

A pivotal hammer (to

be further discussed, see Section 6.4) was applied, normally striking the top surface
at adjustable repetition rate (n

50 Hz) and impact speed

VL

5 m/s.

The thickness

o f the sheets was H - 0.30 cm, 0.15 cm and 0.030 cm.

During impacting, the temperature on the surface was measured by an infrared
microscope, focused at a point i n the contact area.

The contact area was partially

covered b y the moving hammer, and so the final temperature was only seen immediately
after stopping the hammer impacts.
copper-constantan thermocouple,

The temperature inside the slabs was measured by a

inserted at about mid-height under the contact.

Figure 30 shows that the temperature rose to a steady-state value AT within roughly
half a minute, depending on H, V and n.
excitation ceased.

Figure 31 shows the variation of AT w i t h V, for n

50 Hz, measured i n the three slab sizes

Hammer:

I,

I t decayed i n about the same time after the

-

20 Hz and

- both on the surface and inside the rubber.

1.827 g-cm2

Es

0.39cm

meq - 0 . 5 5 g

Hommer Length

sr

A-A

Thermocouple

0.

(Transducer)

Fig. 29. Thermal response measurement i n an impacted rubber sheet by embedded

thermocouple. The steel hammer face has a mild curvature (R = 3.49 cm i n the plane
o f the paper).

--4

(a) Measured Surface Temperatures V

1 min

4.27 m/r and n = 5 0 Hz

Note: Time-recording
is in a right-to-left
direction

H = 0.305 cm

1 min

(b) Measured Temperatures at Approximately Half the Depth; V = 4.57 m/s and n

50 Hz

Fig. 30. Typical temperature traces recorded during steady repetitive impact processes
(butyl rubber specimens). From Engel and Lasky C631.

Fig, 31. Temperature rise measured on the surface, and inside o f buty[ elastomer.
From Engel and Lasky C631.

The thermal fatigue phenomenon i s usually more c r i t i c a l for rubber than for metals,
at operational load levels.

The above investigation d i d not investigate the thermal

fatigue o f butyl.
Uetz and Gommel [641 studied the impact of small steel spheres (1-2 mm diameter) upon steel plates, at extremely large speeds, between

--

45 and 70 m/s.

The

temperature rise and electrical charges were measured by interposing a thin (5-10
f o i l made of constantan or a nickel-copper alloy.

m)

During impact, the foil would be

dragged by the proiectiles into the plastically deforming contact crater, and thus the
temperature was measured on the contact surface, during impact.
perature rise AT

360

O C

They found a tem-

for a 1 -mm diameter ball hitting at 70 m/s,

and noted the

proportionality of AT w i t h V and its inverse proportionality w i t h the diameter of the

ball.

The above temperature arose i n a situation characterized by a strongly plastic

contact stress state.

Bowden and Tabor [491 found a modest temperature rise from dropping smooth
metal balls onto metal surfaces.

Approximate Thermal Analysis i n Hertz Contacts,

Based on Strain Energy [651

During impact, a heat source q arises i n the contact region, due to internal
mechanical energy dissipation.

The temperature must rise t o its highest peak during

impact, since heat w i l l subsequently be distributed throughout the body, b y conduction.

I t m a y ~ b eassumed that the maximum volumetric heat Q o generated i n the contact
region i s due to the volumetric strain energy

at the impact peak; for Hertz contacts

this may be a good assumption since l i t t l e vibratory energy dissipation takes place.

Q,

(1

- e7) Ul,

(54)

The peak strain energy for spherical contacts has been mapped i n Fig. 32; its maximum
value,

at the apex (z = 0, r

peak pressure.
volume i s Q

0) i s

Uo

max

-0.47q~/~,whereqoisthemaximun

I f the impact i s "instantaneous",

0.47 (1 - e 7 ) q 7 E .

heat balance, AT

Q o/p C

:-

,.

then the available heat per unit

The temperature rise AT can be found from a

The resulting estimate for the maximum temperature

rise i n the contact i s

For impact involving first y i e l d o f the material, q l ,

on steel, e.g.

= 280 kgf/mm2

, e - 0.8

and C

1.6 o y ; for the impact of steel

1,-

462 m ?/sec2 O C ,

the result i s

AT - 4OC. This small temperature rise i s i n l i n e with that found by Bowden and
Tabor [491

radius, r,a
'

--

u
m

Fig. 32. Contour maps for the volumetric strain energy U E/~:,~
i n a spherical
contact, v = 0.3. (a) Distortional energy; (b) Total strain energy.
This type of calculation also lends itself to linearly viscoelastic materials, where
different dissipation factors may be assigned to both the dilatational and distortional
parts of the volumetric strain energy.

Figure 320 shows the volumetric distortional

strain energy U

The quantity

i n a Hertz contact.

Ud

can be calculated from the

distortional (deviatoric) contact stress components (see e.g. Appendix 2).

The maximum distortional strain energy occurs i n the substrate z

0.47 a, r = a

(the location of T max ) where the dilatational strain energy i s greatly reduced from its
maximum value:

lnax

= 0.17

:/E.

.Modified Archard Thermal Analysis i n a Hertz Contact

Assume the heating effect to be derived from the contact surface; i t is restricted
t o the contact duration t*.

The heat generated i s written assuming that both contact

partners equally share the dissipated energy:

I f the heat i s not equally shared between the contacting surfaces, Q,

can be properly

adjusted.

If this amount o f heat were instantaneously generated on the surface, its effect
at a depth z would be maximal
z =a, we obtain t

I f t l/t*

>'

[661 at time t

z ? / 2 ~ . Substituting for the depth

a 7 2 ~ .

1, only a t h i n layer o f the material i s heated appreciably.

This

situation i s analogous t o a fast-moving heat source on a plane, where the sideways flow
o f heat from the contact can be neglected compared to that flowing inward.

In that

case, for a circular contact, Archard computed the average temperature rise over the
contact area (t* now stands for the time the slider spends over a point i n its path,
i . e . a / v 3 t*):

where K is the heat conductio,i coefficient.

As the next example o f steel ballistic impact w i l l show, tl/t*
metals, and therefore Eq. (56) w i l l possibly be applicable.

i s indeed large for

This ratio being large means

that the heat generation process i s very fast compared w i t h the conduction process; i t
does not imply heat build-up i n the depth of the material.
Approximating the heating rate dQ/dt b y the average value of QD/tk,
serting the Hertz formulae a

1.24 (mV2R7E';

)0.4

,and Eq.

and in-

(28) for t * we obtain:

Example
Calculate the temperature rise on the spherical surface of a steel impact-wear
test projectile, striking a smooth steel disk.
Chapter 7.

The yield point o f the steel i s high enough t o absorb the impact without

any plastic deformation.

The coefficient of restitution i s e

veniently represented i n S.

I. units, for the calculation.

m = 0.0012 kg
V

The projectile i s desciibed in Table 3,

1.73 m/s
0.14m

El= E 2 = E = 2.1 x 10"

N. m w 2

0.9.

The data are con-

Substituting into Eq. (58), we obtain: AT

--

1.47 OC.

Approximate Thermal Analysis i n a Viscoelastic Slab, for Repetitive Impact

We shal l consider an elastomer slab bonded t o a metal half-space (Fig. 29).

An

exceedingly simple model i s adopted for the repetitive impact of a slightly curved hammer surface (R >,

k=

SAE/H;

b) [631

. The sheet i s modelled as a linear spring w i t h spring constant

the shape factor S i s assumed t o account for the contact conditions, and i t

i s found by static penetration tests o f the hammer against the elastomer slab.
outline o f the hammer contact - a

A i s the

rectangular area at maximum approach.

The dynamic mechanical characterization of the material E* (f, T) is assumed t o

be completely given w i t h i n the temperature and frequency ronge of expected operation,
Fig. 33 shows the storage modulus i n the range

5 f ( lo5 Hz and 23

F T 5 60 OC.

Fig, 33. Frequency-dependent storage modulus for butyl, averaged from four sets of
Rheovibron data, corresponding to F - 3.5, 11, 35 and 110 Hz. Master curves were
shifted to a family of temperatures [631

This was obtained by the transformation methods discussed i n Section 4 of this chapter.
For an impacting equivalent hammer mass m, the impact frequency f i s obtained by trial
and error from the non-linear equation

We put the contact time t * z 1/2f,

and measure the coefficient of restitution e; now

assuming a sinusoidal impact pulse with peak force P o (P = Po sin

R t/t*),

the impulse

and momentum relation gives

t'

m v - / ~ ~ s i n n t / t * dt = - e m V
0
which i s solved for P o :
Po-

amV (1 l e )
2t*

The heat generated i s equated with the energy dissipation, U = mv2(1 - e7)/2,

and

the volumetric heat generation per unit time i s written for an "effectively heated plug"
of the slab,

H high and A' of area:

q'" = U n/HA'

(62)

where n i s the impact repetition rate.

The heat-transfer calculation i s set up for a one-dimensional medium (Fig. 34)
which i s connected to a perfect heat sink (the metal base) on the bottom, and i s insulated on the top (air convection i s neglected).

nsu1atir*7
.. .

. . ..

The temperature rise i s then

Heat Sink
(Metal Foundation)

E671

Boundary
z - 0 : Conditions:
T=O

z-H:-

aT
az

=O

Initial Condition:
T(z, 0)

Fig. 34. One-dimensional model for heat transfer i n a rubber sheet impacted from
above, and supported by a steel substrate from below.

The steady-state solution i s independent of the summed term, and we obtain

T (z, t = a )

- -(;

'

2q"'H
K

(t)')

The temperature rise so estimated i s of a parabolic profile; it i s proportional to V' and

t o n; i t i s also proportional t o q " '
tional t o H L261, and q"'

. H ', Since U - (1 - e 2 )

U/H,

i s often in\/ersely propor-

AT may become independent of H, an interesting

result shown by the repetitive impact experiments on butyl rubber, Fig. 31 ,1631

The above analysis allows consideration o f repetitive impact, provided the consecutive energy pulses can be smeared out into single, equivalent, constant-energy
input. This treatment i s admissible for elastomers at repetition rates 10 to 50 Hz since
poor conduction properties ensure the "bottling up" of heat between two consecutive
cycles. The analysis proving this [631 considered the transient problem of consecutive
rectangulai heat pulses and found the equilibrium temperature very close to that of an
equivalent smeared-out constant heat source (with zero delay time), provided the
pulses were close enough. W i t h the aid of simplified boundary conditions, computerized heat-transfer analyses have been found helpful both for transient and for steadystate calculations C681

REFERENCES
Plasticity
1

F. A. McCl intock and A. S. Argon, Mechanical Behavior of Materials, AddisonWesley, Reading, Mass.,

1966.

A. Nadai, Theory of Flow and Fracture of Solids, Vol. I, 2nd edn., McGrawHill, New York, 1950.

3.

R. Hill, The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity, Oxford Univ. Press, 1950.

A. Mendelson, Plasticity, Macmillan, London, 1968.

M. C . Show and G . J . DeSalvo, J. Eng. Ind., 92 (1970) 469-494.

C . Hardy, C . N . Baronet and G.V. Tordion, Int. J. Numer. Methods Eng., 3

(1 971 ) 451 -462.

K . L. Johnson, J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 18 (1970) 115-126.

M. C . Show and G . J. DeSalvo, Met. Eng. Q . (May 1972) 1-7.

D. M . Marsh, Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 279 (1964) 420-435.

10

D. Tabor, The Hardness o f Metals, Oxford Univ. Press, 1951.

11

J. P. Andrews, Philos. Mag.,

9 (1 930) 593.

Layers
12
13

W. T. Chen and P. A. Engel, Int. J. Solids Struct., 8 (1972) 1257-1281.

P.K. Gupta, J.A. Walowit and E.F. Finkin, J. Lubr. ~e'chnol., 95 (1973)
427-433.

Viscoelasticitv
14.

W. Flt'gge, Viscoelasticity, Blaisdell, Waltham, Mass., 1967.

15

Y. H. Pao, J Appl . Phys ., 26 (1 955) 1083-1088.

16

E. H. Lee and J . R. M . Radok, J. Appl. Mech., 27 (1960) 438-444.

17

S. C. Hunter, J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 8 (1960) 219-234.

18

T.C.T. Ting, J. Appl. Mech., 35 (1 968) 248-254.

19

G.A.C. Graham, Int. J. Eng. Sci., 5 (1967) 495-514.

20

P. A. Engel, Int. J. Numer. Methods Eng., 5 (1 973) 465-479.

21

H.H.Calvit,

22

J. L. Sackman and I. Kaya, J . Mech. Phys. Solids, 16 (1968) 121-132.

J.Mech.Phys.Solids,

15(1967)141-150.

23

R. F. Kuhn and P. A. Engel, Lett. Appl. Eng. Sci.,

24

J. D. Ferry, Viscoelastic Properties of Polymers, Wiley, N e w York, 1961.

25

P. A. Engel and E. Sacher, J. Appl. Polym. Sci.,

26

J. P. A. Tillett,

27

J . M . Lifschitz and H. Kolsky, J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 12 (1964) 35-43.

28

T. L. Smith, Polym. Eng. Sci.,

1 (1973) 229-240.
19 (1975) 791-799.

Proc. Phys. Soc. London, Ser. B, 67 (1954) 677-685.

13 (1973) 161-175.

Contact with Shear

29

H. D. Conway and P. A. Engel, Int. J. Mech. Sci.,

30

L. E. Goodman, J. Appl Mech ., 29 (1 962) 51 5-522.

31.

H. D . Conway, S. M . Vogel, K. A. Farnham and S. So, Int. J. Eng. Sci., 4

11 (1969) 709.

(1 966) 343-359.
32

D. A. Spence, Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 305 (1968) 55-80.

33

H. D . Conway and K. A . Farnham, Int. J. Eng. Sci.,

34

P. A. Engel and H. D , Conway, IBM J. Res. Dev.,

35

S. C . Hunter, J . Appl. Mech., 28 (1961) 61 1-617.

36

R. D. Mindlin, J. Appl. Mech.,

37

C. Cattaneo, Rend. R. Accad. Lincei Roma, [61,27 (1 938) 342-8, 434-6, 474-8.

38

K. L. Johnson, Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. 9 2 3 0 (1955) 531 -548.

39

J, 0 . Smith and C . K. Liu, J. Appl. Mech., 20 (1953) 157-166.

5 (1967) 145-154.

15 (1971) 116-122.

16 (1949) 259-268.

40

J. J. Caubet and M . Cartier, C. R. Acad. S c i . Paris, 268 (1969) 1581-1584.

41

G. M . Hamilton and L. E. Goodman, J. Appl. Mech., 33 (1966) 371 -376.

Asperity Contact
42

A. J.W. Moore, Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 195 (1 949) 231.

43

J. A. Greenwood, J. Lubr. Technol.,

44

J. A. Greenwood and J. B. P. Williamson,

89 (1967) 81-91.
Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 295

(1966) 300-31 9.
45

J. A. Greenwood and J. H. Tripp, J. Appl. Mech.,

46

Y. P. Chiu, J. A. Martin, J. I. McCool, et al.,

34 (1967) 153-159.

U.S. Dept. of Navy, O f f i c e

of Naval Research, Contract N o . F 30602-67-C-0147,

Report No. AL 68P003

(SKF Ind., Inc., King of Prussia, Pa.).

47

R. L. Leibensperger and T. M. Brittain, J. Lubr. Technol

48

P. E. Fowles, J. Lubr. Technol., 93 (1971) 383-397.

.,

95 (1 973) 277-286.

Lubrication
49

F . P. Bowden and D. Tabor, The Friction and Lubrication of Solids, Vols. I and

II, Oxford Univ. Press, 1964.

F. Finkin, J. Lubr. Technol., 95 (1973) 393-394,

50

E.

51

D. F. Moore, Wear, 8 (1965) 245-263.

52

D. F. Hays, J. Basic Eng., 85 (1 963) 243-246,

53

A. Cameron, Principles of Lubrication, Wiley, N e w York, 1965.

54

ASME Pressure Viscosity Report, 1953.

55

L. H. Butler, J. Inst. Pet., London, 46, N o . 435 (1960) 63-73.

56

H. Christensen, Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 266 (1 962) 312-328.

57

K. M. Lee and H. S. Cheng, J. Lubr. Technol.,

58

P, Gould, J. Lub. Technol.,

95 (1973) 308-320.

93 (1971) 207-208.

Thermal Effects
59

R. Holm, J. Appl. Mech.,

60

F. F. Ling, Surface Mechanics, Wiley, N e w York, 1973.

61

H. Blok, Wear, 6 (1 963) 483-494.

62

J. R. Barber, Proc. IUTAM Symp. on the Mechanics of the Contact Between

19 (1952) 369-374.

Deformable Bodies, Enschede, The Netherlands, August 1974, Delft Univ. Press.

63

P. A . Engel and R. C . Lasky, SESA Spring Meeting, Chicago, I l l . , 1975,

Exp. Mech.,
64
65

16 (1976).

H. Uetz and G. Gommel, Wear, 9 (1 966) 282-296.

P. A. Engel, IUTAM Syrnp. on the Mechanics of the Contact Between Deformable

Bodies, Enschede, The Netherlands, August 1974, Delft Univ. Press.

66

J. F. Archard, Wear, 1 ( 1 958/59) 438-455.

67

B. Gebhort, Heat Transfer, 2nd edn., McGraw-Hill,

68

R. Dunn, IBM Endicott Laboratory,

New York, 1971

Personal communication.

RECOMMENDED READING
J. B. Bidwell, editor, Rolling Contact Phenomena, Proc. Symp. on Rolling
Contact Phenomena, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1962.

A. H. Cottrell, The Mechanical Properties of Matter, Wiley, New York, 1964.

L. A. Galin, Contact Problems i n the Theory o f Elasticity, (I.N.

North Carolina State College, Raleigh, N.C.,

1961

Sneddon, ed.),

D. F. Moore, The Friction of Pneumatic Tyres, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1975.

Arner. Soc. Test. Mater., Spec. Tech. Publ. 563 (1 974), Instrumented Impact
Testing.

P. R. Noyak, J. Apple Mech., 39 (1972) 456-460.

D. J. Whitehouse, Tribology, 7 (1974) 249-259.

CHAPTER 4 -

1.

EROSION BY SOLID PARTICLES: DUCTILE A N D BRITTLE THEORIES

INTRODUCTION
The next two chapters w i l l be devoted t o t ' i e erosive action o f small solid particles

travelling i n inert f l u i d streams, at speeds of the order of 20

- 500 m/s.

A t these speeds,

the incident individual particles cause cuts and indentations on the target surfaces,
stressing them into the plastic range.

The wearing action i s superposed from the dents

accrued from closely striking random particles.

This sets erosion apart from percussive

wear, where the impacts are similar, discrete events.

The common mechanisms o f particle erosion are abrasion, mostly associated w i t h
shallow angles of attack; and the fracturing of the surface layer following work hardening and b r i t t l e cracking -observed

mostly at large angles of attack.

Abrasion i s some-

times indiscriminately associated w i t h erosion, so that the erosive particles are often
referred t o as "abrasives".

Surface fatigue i s o f secondary role, and has not been

studied on its own merit.

Many industrial processes involve jets of liquids or gases i n which solid particles
travel at high speed; these are potential erosives for internal machine surfaces.

This

action t y p i c a l l y occurs i n transport tubes carrying abrasive material i n an airstream under pressure C1,21

The compressor blades of gas turbines are subiect t o erosion damage

by dust carried i n the intake C31

Engine l i f e i n helicopters operated over dusty ter-

rains may reportzdly be reduced by a factor of ten, due t o ingested sand particles.
Severe erosive damage of rocket-motor t a i l nozzles has been noted, due to solid parti-

.
C51 .

cles i n the gas stream C41

Various examples o f erosion occurring i n the o i l industry

are described i n Ref.

Streams of solid particles can also be harnessed, however,

i n a useful manner, as i s done i n sand blasting and shot peening [61 ; various cutting
applications and rock d r i l l i n g have also been suggested C71

The quantitative, analytical developments o f erosion date from the mid-fifties,

and this material w i l l be largely treated here.

From the antecedent literature,

important to note the survey o f Wahl and Hartstein

i t is

[81 who documented experimental

results on erosion prior to 1946. The first systematic investigations were carried out b y
Wellinger, Uetz and their colleagues; a bibliography of their work i s found i n Ref. [ 9 1
These workers found strong dependence of the erosion upon the angle of attack and the

hardness o f the att.acked surface, i n relation t o the hardness of the abrasive

(Fig. 1 ) .

The erosion o f soft steels was found t o peak at f l a t angles, while hard steels

wore t'ie most under normal impingement.

Accordingly,

the total erosion was attributed

to two contributing mechanisms called "rubbing" and "shock" wear, respectively,

Among Soviet investigators, Kashcheev [ 1

500

1000

01 found similar phenomena.

1500

2000

2500

p, hardness of t'le abrasive,kgf,'mm2

Fig. 1 . Dependence of the erosive wear of C60H steel (p 750 kgf/mm2) on the hardAfter Wellinger and Uetz [91
ness.of the abrasives. Normal impact, ru --90'

Various erosion testing apparatuses have been designed by researchers. A pneuinatic "sandblast" type tester,

i n which the velocity, direction and amount of abrasive

may be controlled, was used b y Finnie

[l 1 I

The individual particle velocities were

measured by taking photographs w i t h a high-speed double flashlight source; such photographic procedures contributed greatly i n i'nvestigations o f the mechanisms of erosion i n
general.
In order to eliminate the influence o f the f l u i d carrier,
"vacuum free-falling apparatus",

Bitter

[I, 21 used a

consisting o f a 5-m long vertical tube.

the top and a vessel a t the bottom were provided.

A hopper at

The target plate at the bottom was

adjustable for the direction of impingement.

Goodwin,

Sage and T i l l y

[I21 devised a "whirling arm erosion r i g " i n which

blade specimens are tested i n vacuum.

Specimens having f l a t test k c e s were attached

at each end o f a rotor arm spinning i n a chamber evacuated t o

torr.

The abrasive

dust was fed froln a dispensing device (also evacuated) so that i t fell into the path of a
specimen which impacted and bounced the particles into a catchment fitted against the
chamber wall.

About

7% of the dust missed impacting one of the two test faces; the

latter were adjustable for any angl= of attack w i t h respect to the particle fall.
]<leis and Uumeyis [13, 141 described a centrifugal particle accelerator i n which
abrasive particles from a hopper f e l l through a metering device to the center of a rotor;
from here they were thrown through the rotor channels onto the specimens located at a
set angle relative t o the traiectory of the particles.

These authors also discussed a

vacuum rig i n which particles were fed through gravity, and impacted against a rotating
specimen set at the desired angle.

2.

THE THEORY OF EROSIVE CUTTING

In 1958, Finnie introduced the theory of erosive cutting [151,

which explained

many aspects of the erosion of ductile materials under the action o f streams of more or
less angular particles.

The theory assumes that a hard, angular particle, impinging

upon a smooth surface at an angle of attack u , w i l l zut into the surface, much l i k e a
sharp tool.

The d u c t i l i t y of the material means its a b i l i t y to flow plastically during the

cutting process.

from the target by the mechanical action

Deriving the volume remo~~ecl

of a single particle of mass m, inferences can be made about the wear arising due to a
larger quantity of similar cutting bodies of total mass M.
Figure 2 shows the incident particle, a protruding t i p of which plows a traiectory

(x,,

z t ) into the ductils surface,

center o f mass (C.M.)

Plane motion i s assumed throughout the impact; the

translates (x, z) and rotates

(0).

The t i p pushes a chip i n front.

The contact area w i t h the chip has a vertical pr3jection A; i t has a width b (a;org
which the flow pressure p acts horizontally),

and a height L.

Chip

'0)

I b)

Fig. 2 . Incident two-dimensional erosive particle cutting into a ductile surface at an

angle of attack cu. (a) Cutting geometry; (b) Contact forces acting on the particle
during cutting.

Since a l l erosive cuts are shallow, the motion of the t i p may be simply related t o
the motion (x, z, 0) o f the center of mass: xt

P/F = x

get

= Lbp = q z t bp.

The ratio o f the ver-

z.

P and F, i s assumed t o stay constant

t i c a l and horizontal contact force components,

throughout the impact,

+ 1-0,

Meanwhile F

Ap, or introducing

, we

L/zt

The three equations of planar motion are then, neglecting the

moment of P about the center of mass as smal::

(1

mG+qbpz =O
mz+qbpxz -0

(2)

I Q + q b p r z =O

(3)

where I i s the rotary mass moment of inertia o f the particle about the center of mass.
The i n i t i a l conditions oi' the impact are:
t=O:

x-zLO=O

;( = V cos cu, z

V sin

LY,

. .

0 = 0,

The solution o f the system of differential equations (1,2,3)

x - z - 0 = -

V sin a.

sin p t r ( V c o s c r ) t -

Px

V sina

V sin cu

is

(5)

sin p t

P
mrVsincr
PxI

(sin Bt -

5 t)

0, t

where we introduced

(8)

(qpbx/m)l'2

Two kinds of cutting processes may be distinguished: (a) the particle cuts into the
d u c t i l l surface, and subsequently leaves i t when z,

becomes zero; and (b) the particle

i s stopped during its scooping action at some depth, as its kinetic energy i s exhausted,
i,e.

x , = 0.

I n the first case, we get for the impact duration t*,

by Eq. (6), sin B t * -0,

or
p t * =lT

(9)

For the other case, the particle motion stops i n a shorter time, calculated from

x, = x

+ r 0 = 0.

and 0,

= 0, there results
cos p t * = 1

Using the solutions (5) and

- u /3

(7), and the approximations I

mr2/2

tonu

N o t e that the conditions ( 9 j and (10) are identical when a = %

angle of incidence separates the two types of cutting processes.

(10)

tan-' ( u /6);

this

The volume of wear removed by the particle m is:

t*
t*
w = b $ z .dxt = b $ z . d ( x + r ~ )
0
0
This integration can be performed since z (t), x (t) and 0 (t) are known from Eqs.
(6) and (7).

(5),

The total wear due to an aggregate mass M of similclr particles can be

obtained i f we multiply !V by M/m.

For the case (a) of rebounding particles (a

w = -MV'

(sin 2c

lvP x

- sin20
X

For the case (b) of stopped particles (a

5 oo

) we obtain:

cro

), there results:

For maximum erosion, we solve for a from dW/do = 0, and get a,,,
which i s in the rebounding region at a shallow angle, since o
The determination of

x = P/F

1
= - tan

< ffo

~/3,

from an erosion test i s very difficult, but the F and

P forces arising in two similar abrasive processes (namely scratch hardness testing and
surface grinding) are likely to yield similar ratios C161

Thus a value

x = 2,

found as

a good description of those two related processes, i s also justified for erosive cutting.

A value y,

This

= 2 on the other hand was borrowed from metal cutting experiments [ I 7 1

yields c

1
w = -M
- V ~
2
P

16.84'

and a

sin 20

18.43'.

3sin2m

N o w the erosion expressions become:

; O<rY(ao

(14)

and

It i s remarked that, besides meaning total volume removed, W occasionally stands for
weight or weight of target removed per weight of erosive particles, etc.

M V 1~
W = - 2
P

. f (cr),

the function f (a)i s plotted i n Fig. 3.

Writing

Three sets of experimental

points are also scaled in Fig. 3, the maximum ordinate being selected to coincide with

that of f (a).
In Fig. 3 a discrepancy appears between theory and measurements at large angles;
at a = 90'
tgined.

the theory predicts no erosion, while experimentally, sizable values are ob-

Finnie explained this by the roughening action of the initial impacts of erosive

material; owing to this, the effective angle of incidence would no longer be very close

60

:iO

90

a .mgle of attack. dagrees

Fig. 3. Predicted ./ariation o f volume removal with angle for a single abrasive grain.
SAE 1020 steel, 0 aluExperimental points for erosion b y many grains ( A copper,
minum) are plotted so that the maximum erosion i s the same i n a l l cases. From
Finnie [I51

to

90, and a larger erosion rate would be indicated. This explanation i s supported by

the experimental evidence o f Fig.

f l a t i n i t i a l slope.

4, where the 90' curve appears to "pick ~ p after

"
a

Later investigators also attributed this behavior to other aspects of

particle impact. behavior; the following sections w i l l deal w i t h those views.

Apart from

the i n i t i a l slow start o f some W (M) curves at large angles, steady erosion has generally
been found to be a constant rate process.

10

70

30

40

VI, quantity of abrdsive, grams

4. Variation o f weight loss w i t h quantity of abrasive. ~ a t e r i a l , a n n e a l e d SAE

1020 steel; abrasive, 60 mesh silicon carbide (d .- 0.25 mrn). V 76 m/s. From
Finnie [I61 .

Fig.

The effect of target hardness on erosion i s demonstrated i n Fig. 5 for various

metals [ I 8 1

The anglz cu

20'

was near the angle

,,,

of maximum erosion.

Angular particles of silicon carbide (Sic) were used i n 250 pm average size.
the two impact velocities,V

76 m/s and 137 m/s,

For

the data are lined up along

parallel lines i n the log-log representation.

'9

I\,

LTGEND:

Fig. 5. Volume removal (cubic millimeters per gram of 60-mesh s l l ~ c o rcarbide

particles, d = 250 pm) as a function o f the hardness for metals eroded at c
20 deg
and velocities o f 76 n/s and 137 m/s.
( N o data was taken for nickel at 137 m/s.)
A l l metals except cadmium were i n annealed condition. From Finnie, Wolak and
Kabil [ I 8 1

Farthest up fro n a straight line i n Fig. 5 are the body-centered cubic (bcc)
metals (Fe, M o and three steels) which erode much more than expected from their
hardness.

This can be attributed t o the role o f small amounts o f impurities which

raise the i n i t i a l yield stress, and thus the hardness, o f bcc metals.

A t large strain

rates, however, as i n erosion, this hard-r,;,ig effect is minimized

Raising the hardness b y cold working has also proved ineffective i n increasing
erosion resistance; at large strain rates the flow pressure i s insensitive t o prior work
hardening.

Increasing p through heat treatment i s similarly ineffective i n raising

erosion resistance, as illustrated by Fig. 6.

Heat treatment may, however, change the

behavior of a steel from ductile t o b r i t t l e type; such a change o f character would be

visible from the W

(0)

curve for that target material; this w i l l be discussed i n the next

+ Annealed condition o f qiven metal

---x--- Work hardened c o n d ~ t ~ o nf gr

m

Mo

Tool Steel

,i v t j l
Thermally h a r d ~ n e dcond t l o n o t glven metal

1020 steel drlnealed

1020 s t r t l as recalved

1045 Strel
/A1

W
0

100

H
,

200

300

400

500

, V~ckevsharclnacs, kqf

600

P'

700

800

900

Fig. 6. Resistance t o erosion (grams of eroding particles per cubic millimeter removed)
as a function o f the hardness for erosion by 60-mesh silicon carbide particles, d=25OPm,
at a - 20 deg. and a velocity of 76 m/s.
From Finnie, Wolak and Kabil [ I 8 1

',which slightly under-

The velocity dependence o f Eqs. (14) and (15) i s W - V

2.4

estimates the value of the v e l o c i t y exponent; experimentally,

i s closer t o the aver-

age value found for ductile erosion?

As for the shape o f the erosive particles,
than from angular shot o f the same material.
sand grains i n tests, keeping cr = 45' [ 161

less erosion results from spherical shot

This was demonstrated b y using different

The erosive cutting theory (Eqs. (12) and

(13)) could accommodate for a change i n particle shape by the parameters

The influence o f

x on the angle

a rising tendency: crTax

--

of maximum erosion i s not excessive but i t shows

a max

0.5 tan-l

(~/3). W h i l e

the derivation o f Eqs. (12) and

(13) i s not strictly v a l i d for spherical particles, an increase i n

increased radius o f curvature
mental increase o f cu a,x

i s expected from an

OF the cutting t i p . This i s confirmed b y observed experi-

when hardened round steel shot i s used (urnax 28' ) as cam-

pared w i t h sharp particles of the same steel, yielding c ,nax

Finnie and Kabil

x and 9 .

[I91

17' [51

observed the formation of ripples on the surface of some

specimens subjected t o erosion (Fig. 7).

They found that this phenomenon was re-

stricted t o ductile erosive cutting, at low angles of attack.

The ripple wavelength i s

approximately a multiple of the length of the cut taken by a single particle.

As

A late; e ~ a l y s i s(Wear. 48 (1978). 181-190)cam*. closrr t . , tnis result h y ass~rrninqthe contdrt 'arc? t o i r e
conceritratad at d heiyh* Li2 over the t i p o f the irrcident particlt i n Fic. 2.

Fig.

7. Ripple pattern formed when commercially-pure aluminum i s eroded by sand at

30'.

Horizontal component o f particle velocity i s directed from top t o bottom on

photograph. From Finnie and Kabil El91
~u

erosion continues, plane waves form, and the whole wave form moves downstream.
rate o f ripple growth i s more rapid for soft metals and higher impact velocities.
particles can cause rippling at larger values of

3.

The

Round

than angular particles.

BRITTLE EROSION THEORIES

Erosion tests on b r i t t l e materials produce a W (Q) diagram very different from that

obtained on ductile ones.

Figure 8 shows several plots for both b r i t t l e and ductile

erosion; the former i s recognized b y a rising tendency w i t h increasing

Q.

20

40

60

80

20

40

60

80

n , p a r t ~ c l eapproach angle,

a ,p a r t ~ c l eapproach angle, deg.

deg.

'1:'

(a)

Fig. 8. Erosive wear of a number o f materials versus the particle approach angle; the
abrasive is Sic grit; V - 152 m/s.
(a) Predominantly b r i t t l e materials; grit mesh size
120 (d = 0.127 mm). (b) Predominantly ductile materials; grit mesh size 1000
(d - 8.75 pm). From Sheldon [201

Ideally, b r i t t l e materials cannot deform plastically; they crack and fracture when
subjected t o large tensile stresses.
failure criterion applies,

Thus for these materials the maximum tensile stress

i n a contact situation.

The maximal tensile stress i n an a x i -

symmetrical Hertz contact is the radial stress a t the edge r = a o f the contact circle;
for a half-space (E?,

v2

) h i t by a ball (E

v l ) which has a mass density p, we have

by the Hertz theory,

aa

;
.

Ring cracks,

0.05585 ( 1 - 2 v 2 ) ( E , ~v

~ ~ ) " ~

originating from the maximum contact circle,

(1 6 )
have been noted i n b r i t t l e

materials (e. g. glass, plexiglas) subjected t o normal impact of spherical bodies.

The intensity o f tensile stress is governed by the normal component ( V sin cr) o f
the impact velocity; thus i n t u i t i v e l y the erosion i s also expected t o depend on sin cr.

This i s confirmed by the shape of the curves i n Fig. 8(a).

The peak of those curves i s

sometimes reached slightly off the normal position, cu = 90';

the particles were angular as i n the case of the
cause peaks consistently at cu - 90'
The velocity relation W - V

[51 .

this was found only when

Sic grit quoted.

Round shot would

of erosive wear has not been found to be as con-

sistent i n brittle materials as i n ductile ones.

Velocity exponents c have been found

t o range from 3 to 6.
An analysis for brittle erosion at

08

- 90' was given by Sheldon and Finnie [21 I

Figure 9 shows an erosive particle indenting a half-space with an effective radius of

curvature R' and contact radius a, causing initial cracking of the surface.

For expe-

diency of analysis, a rigid particle i s considered indenting an elastic half-space; the

penetration i s denoted by z.
cracking has initiated - a n

The Hertz relations P(z) are assumed t o hold even after

approximation borne ot:t by tests.

Fig. 9. Enveloping spheres of overall and contact surfaces of abrasive particles. The
contact radius a i s that at which initial cracking of the surface occurs during penetration o f the particle. The final cracked contact region i s defined by a* and R*. From
Sheldon and Finnie C211

Experience with brittle materials indicates that due to the volume and surface
distribution of flaws of various sizes, initial fracture occurs at a tensile stress equal to
the statistical tensile strength corresponding to the stress distribution i n the region.
Thus i n the following derivation that tensile strength aa itself must be found.
The extent of the area containing cracks is determined by the radial tensile stress

which exists only outside the contact radius a, and has the value

o,

cs (a/r)

(r

1a)

(17)

In order t o calculate the fracture stress at the surface, Weibull's theory [221 i s used
now.

The mean fracture strength of a material w i t h a volume distribution o f flaws is

m

where a;, i s the stress associated with zero probability o f failure; S the probability of
survival i s defined S = e

-',where B,

the "risk of rupture",

i s the volume integral

throughoc;t the cracked space:

d (Vol)
Vol

p being the flaw distribution parameter and a.

As an approximation,
where k

i s a constant

a scaling stress,

the cracked volume i s taken as a surface layer h = kl z,

( = 1); thus, the annular elemental volume d (Vol) = 2 r r h . dr is

written by the aid of the geometrical relation a 2

2R1z:

Through the depth h at the radius r, the stress ar i s assumed constant for simplicity,
Working out the integral (19), and ultimately equating a,, = 0

and i s given by (17).

(an approximation successfully used i n various other stress ~roblems), one gets

I n order t o evaluate the unknown oa

, this

value of B for the Hertz problem i s set equal

to the risk i n the flexural problem of a beam [211 :

where V b is the volume of the beam, and o b the fractare stress i n bending.

Equating

(22) w i t h (21), we obtain the strength o f the material i n the given Hertz stress state:
'=a

= k2(R' z 2 ) - 1 / ~

where
k 2 = ab

{ vb

(p

- 1)/[4=

(23)

(p + l ) k l ~ ~ ! p

By writing the Hertz expressions a, = 2 k 3 p/a2 and P =: y.3 R'

y

[a

r]
1

- v2

113

andkg-

- 2v

, R'
41T

i s expressed as

z3j2

, where

After the initial cracking of the surface, further penetration of the particle may
Since the cracked surface layer does

toke place due to its remaining kinetic energy.

not materially influence the load-penetration relation, the particle penetrates to a

depth z ,

calculable from Hertz formulae.

I t w i l l now be assumed that the final

cracked space i s delineated by the radius of curvature R* (Fig. 9), and this can be
used as the local radius of curvature of the indenting mass m,
when the ball penetrates to z,.

Equating R' = R * and z = z,

just producing cracking

i n (24), we get

Solution far the maximum fracture radius a* (or the fictitious contact radius of a ball of
radius R*) i s obtained by use of (a*12 = 2R*z,

The relation (26) was fairly well substantiated i n tests, with P

( 55

a 3.175 mm diameter steel ball and a brittle pyrex glass surface, having
bending.

The contact area was sectioned for measurement of a*,

kgf, between

t~ = 8

R* and z,

in

The volume removal i s approximately equal to the volume of the spherical cap
defined by R* (or a*) and z :

TI

(a*)

zrn

(27)

From the Hertz solation of a ball >f equivalent diameter 2R and mass density p,,
at the local radius of curvature R*,

Inserting this i n (27) results in

the peak depth of indentation i s

hitting

where

k 4 has the role of the erosion constant:

Applying Eq. (29) to spherical particles, we put R* = R, and get

W = k, R ' V '
where

For angular particles,

W = k, R "

R* can be considered a constant, and (29) yields

V'

(33)

where

I t i s possible t o simplify the form o f the erosion constant

imations y

E - I I ~and

k 3 / k 2 = ]/ah

v~~~~.

k4, by using the approx-

For b r i t t l e materials,

large, e.g. for glass, graphite and hardened steel, t~ = 8,

p i s usually

16.9 and 20, respectively.

Thus we get

i . e . erosion resistance, the reciprocal o f

k 4 , i s approximately proportional t o the

strain energy o f the material at its flexural strength o b

A similar result has also heen

found for cavitation and liquid-impact erosion, b y Thiruvengadam C231

Figure 10

shows the v e l o c i t y dependence and particle-size dependence of erosion, for angular

SIC grit,

impacting plate glass.

An important consideration for a l l indentation processes i s the size effect.

shown by Sheldon and Finnie

I t was

[241 , that small enovgh particles can produce the effect

of ductile erosive cutting i n nominally b r i t t l e materials.

relation for three sizes of angular

Sic g r i t

glass, a nominally b r i t t l e material.

Figure 1 1 shows the W ( Q )

(127 pm, 21 pm and 9 tJm), eroding plate

A l l but the small size (9 tJm) g r i t displayed b r i t t l e

erosion characteristics; the small size g r i t produced typical ductile erosion.

The size effect i s due t o the distribution o f flaws throughout the material.

These

produce stress concentrations upon contact loading, and the probability o f encountering

,o

9O

60 Mesh

'0.25 mm)

00

00

120 Mesh
(d - 0.127mm)

0
0'

Slope 3.0

V, abrasive particle velocity, m/s

d, abrasive particle diameter, mm

(b)

(a)

Fig. 10. Brittle erosion of glass by angular Sic grit, at cu - 90' : (a) as a function of
particle velocity, (b) as a function o f particle size. From Sheldon and Finnie [ 2 11

10 20 30

10 50 60 70 80 90

n , p a * t , c lapproach
~
anglr, drg.

Fig. 11. Weight removal as a function o f particle approach angle for plate glass
eroded by angular silicon carbide particles at V . 152 m/s.
From Sheldon and Finnie 1241

these decreases with decreasing dimensions of the contact region.

Thus the fracture

strength effectively increases for small size indenters, and the material w i l l tend t o
flow instead o f fracturing.

The hydrostatic compressive component of the stress state

which i s prevalznt i n contact loading, suppresses fracture without influencing flow.

The size of an indenting sphere under which d u c t i l i t y (i.e. plastic flow) i s expected i n glass, can be estimated

C241

as follows.

I n i t i a l cracking i s stipulated under

-c

the conditions described i n Auerbach's empirical law 1251 :

P/R

(36)

where R i s the particle radius, and C is a material constant.

obtained from Hertz formulae, a

y (RP)'

the contact of two elastic bodies).

, where

The contact radius can be

( 3 n / 4 ~J ' "

(redefined for

This i s rewritten w i t h Eq. (36), and there results

, which is solved for the load causing b r i t t l e fracture,

a - y P 713/C Ir3

To estimate the load at which ductile behavior (i.e, plastic flow) i s possible, the flow
pressure p

i s considered; this can be measured i n a microhardness test, using

p/na2

Equating P from Eq. (37) w i t h na2p, the dimension of the contact

a diamond pyramid.

area required for ductile behavior i n static indentations i s

a <

0.1 C
-

(38)

y3 p2

For tests performed on spherical

Sic

particles normally i.npacting a glass surface, the

following parameters were measured: y = 0.051 (mm7/kgf)1.13

p

540 kgf/mm2.

; C = 4.29 kgf/mm;

Thus Eq, (38) yields

I f the indentation i s achieved i n impact, the flow pressure p may be substantially larger
than i n a static application.

Thus an even smaller size contact may be necessary t o

achieve d u c t i l e erosion.

Obtaining the force P f r o n the impact velocity V and the

particle mass density p

through Hertz formulae,

the limiting contact radius becomes

120
COMBINED THEORY OF EROSION

4.

The distinct erosive characteristics of ductile and brittle erosion are most pronounced i n the W (Q) curves.

Since various erosive configurations often exhibit W (Q)

curves differing from either the ideal ductile or brittle shape, i t is

t o assume

that real materials can be characterized by elements of both behaviors combined; thus
the total erosion would be the superposed effect.

In two publications,

Bitter [ 1,

21

postulated the separate existence and superposability of cutting wear and deformation
wear; the former referred t o ductile erosive cutting while the latter was attributed t o
repeated deformation sustained i n collisions, eventually breaking loose a piece of
target material.
Bitter's approach i s based on the computation of the plastic energy dissipation

Up, from the impact parameters of a single erosive particle. The wear i s then postulated to equal the energy dissipation divided by a wear factor which i s a material property, meaning the amount of energy needed to remove a unit volume of material.
Applying the subscripts c and d t o refer to cutting and deformation respectively,

wc

W,

-.

uc/9

(40)

U,/e

(41

and

and e being the appropriate wear factors.

form, the normal component V,

value VeI

For both cutting and deformation wear t o

of the impact velocity is assumed t o be larger than the

K1 at which the Hertz theory yields for the maximum peak pressure the

value, q o = aV

For a spherical particle of moss density p,,

given eroded surface material characterized by o

, K,

is a constant for a

Deformation Wear
Consider the collision of an elastic sphere (m, R) against a plane which deforms
both elastically and plastically.
reaches a

(Fig. 12a) is,

zel = 24.35

The elastic approach at the time the peak pressure

by the Hertz theory:

-2

RE,

(43

This is now assumed, for simplicity, t o signal the onset o f the elasto-plastic regime.
After increasing the load (Fig. 12b), the pressure plastically increases to ov

over a

I
I

q av

(2/3)q max

Fig. 12. Pressure distribution and contact deformations i n the contact area.
(a) Elastic impact; (b) The continuing elasto-plastic phase of the impact. From
Bitter [ l I

radius rp, w h i l e contact extends t o r t

The total approach of the centers o f gravity is

written as the sum o f an elastic and a plastic displacement:

z --Z,I
Since r

I-,

<<

(44)

+ZPl

R, the assumption o f equal compressive displacement o f the sphere every-

where inside the plastic concavity (0

< r<

r p ) can be f a i r l y made; this means the

radius o f curvature i n both the sphere and the deformed piane i s approximately R there.
.- 2 r R (zpl

The total contact area i s approximated by r r :

r ;r

. Thus the elastically loaded area is

= 2 r Rz

r r t 2 - nrp2

2rR (zel + z p l

- 2rRzpl

2rRzPl = r r ,

which i s thus independent of the size o f the indentation.

i n this area must be mV,,

/2.

the plastic area i s

The elastic strain energy U,

The potential energy of the elastic deformation zel

t o the load r r p u Y i n the plastic area is Up,

+ z PI );

r r s u v zel

due

Thus the total elastic

energy stored i n the sphere and the plane at the peak o f the impact:

ue + uPe

ve: + -21

r r

Pmax

(45)

91

This energy i s returned t o the particle as kinetic energy m ~ , , 7 2a t the end o f the
impact;

v,, is the normal component of the rebound velocity,

The permanent plastic deformation requires the energy

rnax

u p- J
0

r rp2u,, dzpl

= ITRZ;,~

uv

V.

since r l = 2Rzpl

, z,,,

U,,

being the maximum depth o f the permanent indentation.

is thus the eneray dissipated.

Writing the energy balance o f the impact:

(47)

By the use of (42) and (43) this can be c ~ s it n the form

Neglecting the last term on the right-hand side as small, there results For U p :

Thus, the defornation wear for any mass M of erosive particles i s obtained from the
definition (41):
( 1 / 2 ) ~ (V sin cu
Wd

K1) 7
(49)

Cutting Wear
As discussed earlier under erosive cutting, two possibilities exist for the cutting
process: i f cu
speed

<

ou

, then

the incident particle leaves the surface with a non-zero

In the opposite case, i.e. cu

after cutting.

For the first case (cu

<

a.

>

cu0

,V

= 0.

), Bitter calculated the energy of scratching i n both

parts of the impact, corresponding t o the incidence and the rebound o f the particle C21
The time o f peak i s calculated from Andrews' analysis,

Eq. 2.8; the analysis of elasto-

~ l a s t i cdeformations, as worked out previously for deformation wear, i s used again.

The resulting cutting wear formula is:

Wc,

= 2M

C (V sin

cu

C (Vsinc.

K1)

' ( v cos.

where

C = 0.288 ( p p / o y )'"

/oy

For the second case (u > cu o), the cutting wear formula is:

- K1 ) 2

where

K 2 = 8.093

(ap / p p )

E;'

csy

(53)

We note that the angle c u 0 separating the two cases

by Finnie's criterion

cyo

(52) and solving for a

(Wcl and Wr2 ) could be estimated

(~/6),
or should rather be found by equating (50) and

= tan

The similarity between the cutting wear equations and Finnie's fornulae,

Eqs. (12)

and (13), can be appreciated, for example, by comparing (52) - neglecting K2 as

small

with (13).

Setting 3q p i n Eq. (13) equal t o

9 i n Eq. (52), the results are

identical.
Figure 13 shows typical

W,

hard and b r i t t l e material.

W,

superposition,
-

0,

Wc,

or

Wc2 i s calculated from Eqs. (50) and (52)

WcI i s calculated from Eq, (49). The total wear curves are plotted by

respectively;

K7

W vs. a solutions for a soft and ductile material and a

W(,

+ Wc

The dashed lines show

The

Wc2 calculations can be simplified by setting

Wc2 without this approximation; the difference i s

indeed small.
Cln51on

E*oc~ul>

15

00

45

60

15

90

a , d.iillr o f ~ t t c l c k ilq.
,

(0)

15

(b)

45

30

a ,a g

60

75

90

of attack, ~ : c q

Fig. 13. Typical erosion curves of (a) a soft and ductile material, and (b) a hard and
b r i t t l e material, From Bitter [ 2 1

We remark that for the soft material a0 i s smaller (15') than that for the hard
material

(0

- 60' ) i n Fig. 13. The total wear i s very similar t o the real erosion

behavior of ductile materials, which was not quantitatively explained by the erosive
cutting theory.

Bitter's combined approach was considerably simplified by Neilson and Gilchrist

[261

, who

i n the form o f Eq. (54) and (55), postulated a simpler form o f the cutting

wear equations (terms (A) and (C)

), while retaining the deformation wear equations

(terms (B) ):

(C)
Altogether, four constants are included: e ,
gential component of the rebound speed.

(D)
9, K ,

Vp

and

I t i s convenient,

The latter i s the tan-

however, t o introduce a

new variable:

6 = (\/VCOS a ) 2
which is,

(56)

by definition, zero when cu = oo and 1 when a =

steeply from a

0, and its slope flattens toward cu = a

0.

, the

Since erosion increases

above variable i s now

replaced by yet another function of a :

6 = I- s i n ( n a )
where n i s a constant t o be determined,

W =

7 MV

N o w (54) can be recast:

(cos a ) sin nc

4'

where sin na,=- 1, so that n

(A)
rr/2a

M ( V sin cu

- K , )2

; (Q < a,

..

We shall now discuss the influence of the system constants n,

curves W (o). The fourth system constant K,
The derivative dW/da

dru

= ~

c s ion a s

for cu

<

,9

on the erosion

a. :

(f -;)
a

This means that for b r i t t l e systems ( q / ~

for ductile systems (+/E

w i l l be neglected as a small quantity.

i s written f r o v Eq. (55),

(58)

(B)

I), the slope of W(Q) i s positive w h i l e

1 ) i t i s negative, past

ru

= a*.

For q/e

= 1,

W i s constant

i n this range of cu.

I n the range
following result for
$/e

0 < cu < a
IY

sin noi

cu

,, E q .

(58) i s valid, and setting dW/do

,,, - n cos nQ ,,, /2

tan ,,,oi

0 yields the

,, then nomax = r / 2 and thus q / ~- 1, from (60). I f cum,, < a,,

(60) yields q / ~
< 1; i f cr ,,, >
p/e
1 and Eq. (60) is not satisfied.

I f omax =
then Eq.

'Y

Q,

For soch b r i t t l e systems (e.g. glass eroded b y round steel shots), the W (cr) plot peaks
at cr = 90'.
Figure 14a shows the relationship between,,,c

9 / ~= 0

and n, for various values of

between 0 and 1.

I t is remarked that

wear takes place;

Q = 0 would mean no resistance t o cutting,

means e

a, and thus only cutting

Fig. 14. Erosion characteristics: (a) Variation o f amax w i t h

w i t h q / e and n. From Neilson and Gilchrist [261
o f cr
I t is useful t o introduce the angle c.~,;,
(a = 90'

and

-9
E

cos 2crl,2

sin n~~~~ ;

-Z. - sin2 qi2

This relationship i s illustrated i n Fig. 14b.

and thus infinite erosion.

q/e

and n; (b) Variation

w i t h the definition: W (alr2

). It can be shown that

(~l.'~<ff,)

q/e

.2

0.5 W

Some typical erosion characteristics for progressively larger P/E ratios (passing
from ductile towards b r i t t l e systems) are shown i n Fig. 15.

Fig. 15. Typical erosion-angle of attack characteristics. (a)$/ - 0 (e -. m, perfect

ductile erosion),n - 5; (b) Q/E - 0.5, n - 2 and 5; (c) Q/ = 1, n -- 2 and 6;
a. ), (n .- 1.5, uIl2 cuO ).From Neilsonand Gilchrist [261
(d) 9 / ~= 2.5, (n - 5, cu
Erosion characterization (9,

<

,ao

) for a given speed; erosive and target combin-

ation can be performed from the measured W, (cu) curve i n the following way:
90,

can be evaluated.

(1)

By (55), at u

(2)

From term (8) of both Eqs. (54) and (58), the deformation wear curve Wd (cv) can

be plotted.

(3)

Subtracting this from the total wear curve W t ( a ) , the cutting wear curve W, (cu)

i s obtained; the peak cu

(4)

Since 9/e

,,

of the latter curve i s noted.

- 0 means pure cutting wear, from Fig, 140 the intersection of the

q / ~= 0 curve and the

cumax coordinate determines n, and thus

mum ordinate of the W t curve, we can find 9/e

a,.

N o w for the maxi-

from Fig. 140 once more.

Since e i s

already known, 9 i s now obtained.

(5)

If 9s',

>

1, however, then after calculating n and u, as above i n step 4, a

i s found from the Wt curve.

N o w Fig. 14b yields 9 / ~and thus 9 .

The experimental curves of Fig. 16 show a great deal of variation o f e and 9 with
V; the ratio

does not vary greatly however.

P/E

of change for the wear factors.

Particle size represents another source

Further considerations of particle behavior are discussed

i n the next chapter.

S z xe of2 abras~ve
1 0 ~ 4 ~articles:

3En 15

Z.>

Y,~-

-.z

+-

100wm
2 9 7 ~ ~ ~

60 90 12P :50 180

V,

1.1

60 90 120 150 180

V, m:,

Fig. 16. Variations o f deformation and cutting wear parameters w i t h particle impact
velocity. Aluminum plates eroded by aluminum oxide particles. From Neilson and
Gilchrist [261

REFERENCES
J. G.A. Bitter, Wear, 6 (1963) 5-21.
J. G.A. Bitter, Wear, 6 (1963) 169-190.
W. Sage and G . P. Tilly, Aeronaut. J.,

73 (1969) 429-430.

J. H. Neilson and A. Gilchrist, Wear, 11 (1968) 123-143.

I. Finnie, Am. Soc. Test. Mater., Spec. Tech, Publ. 307 (1962) 70-82.
P.H. Black, Met. Eng. Q. (Aug. 1972) 46.
I. Finnie and H. Oh, Proc, 1st Congress of Int. Soc. Rock Mechanics, 2 (1 966)
99-1 04.
H. Wahl and F. Hartstein, Strahlverschleiss, Franckh'sche Verlagshandlung,
Stuttgart, 1946.

K Well inger and H Uetz, Wear, 1 (1957-58) 225-231

V.N. Kashcheev, (in Russian), Zhur. Tekh. Fiz., 25 (1955) 2365.

1. Finnie, Soc. Exp. Stress Analysis, Spring Meeting (1 959), Washington, D.C.
J.E. Goodwin, W. Sage and G.P. Tilly, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng.,

184, Pt. 1,

NO. 15 (1969-70) 279-292.

I. R. Kleis, Wear, 13 (1 969) 199-21 5.

1. R. Kleis and K.K. Uumeyis, U. D.C. 620.178.165.05 (in English).

I. Finnie, Proc. 3rd U. S. N a t ' l . Congress of Appl. Mech., 1958, 527-532.

I. Finnie, Wear, 3 (1960) 87-103.

I. Finnie and M.C. Shaw, Trans. ASME, 78 (1956) 1649.
I. Finnie, J. Wolak and Y. H. Kabil, J. Mater.,

2 (1967) 682-702.

I. Finnie and Y.H. ~ o b i i , Wear, 8 (1965) 60-69.

G. L. Sheldon, J. Basic Eng., 92 (1970) 619-626.

G. L. Sheldon and 1. Finnie, J. Eng. Ind.,

88 (1966) 393-400.

W. Weibull, lngenior Vetenskaps Akademiens Handlinger, No. 151 (1939) 1.

A. Thiruvengadam, J. Basic Eng., 85 (1 963) 365-376.
G. L. Sheldon and I. Finnie, J. Eng. Ind.,

88 (1966) 387-392.

J. P.A. Tillett, Proc. Phys. Soc. London, Ser. B, 69 (1 956) 47-54.

J.H. Neilson and A. Gilchrist, Wear, 11 (1968) 111-122.

CHAPTER 5 -GENERAL

1.

ASPECTS OF SOLID PARTICLE EROSION

PARTICLE FRAGMENTATION A N D DEPOSITION

Most of the previous development on erosion was devoted t o the earlier theories

(up to about 1968) i n which the properties o f eroded surfaces received far more attention
than those o f the erosive particles.

Thus only two properties o f the particles were

quantitatively considered for erosive cutting: their hardness and their angularity.
Greater hardness for the particles than for the target was seen essential for significant
rates of erosion (Fig. 4.1).

Greater angularity tended to decrease

x and thus

,,,, ,

the angle o f maximum erosion, by Eq. (4.12).

T i l l y and his colleagues found that a decisive role i n the erosion process (both
ductile and brittle) was played by particle fragmentation upon impact
two-stage mechanism o f ductile erosion i s described as follows.

[11

Tilly's

The first stage consists

of chips cut and also gouges and vulnerable extrusions plowed up by the impinging particles.

The second stage i s produced b y radially flying fragments which cause further

damage on the eroded surface.

Accordingly,

we may distinguish between primary and

secondary erosion.
By high-speed photography, using a few microsecond intervals, T i l l y and Sage [ 2 1
demonstrated the fragmentation process by firing d
a steel target,
and,

3 mm diameter glass spheres against

at a normal impact velocity V = 274 m/s (Fig.

I).

The spheres fractured

i n doing so, disintegrated l i k e a drop o f water, sending out radial particles at

1.7 V.

The radially scoured area had a 3d diameter.

The type of damage i n the

scoured area resembled that caused by sharp quartz particles.

and on its side, extruded fragile ridges, were found.

Both o central gouge,

In impacts at o = 30, the

sphere fractured similarly, but the fragments covered an area enclosed by a 40'
around the main gouge.

angle

The primary fracture of the sphere took place w i t h i n 20 ps,

and the flow process lasted for at least 70 ps.

The high-speed photographic technique was also applied t o the impact of streams
of sharp, 500-850 pm size quartz particles against steel, at u

90'

and V = 183 m/s.

The scoured area this time was irregular, and the rebound speed o f the fragments was
0.3 V.

(b) G L A N C I N G IMPACT

fa) A1881YIAL M P A C T

(a! SURFACE DAMAOE FOR (a)

'

(dl S U R f A C E D A M A G E FOR

(It)

I
1000 ,m

-1c30pm

Fig. 1. Impact of 3 rnm diameter glass spheres against steel at 274 m/s.
Sage C21

From

T i l l y and

In the wake of such erosion tests, the debris was collected and the size distribution for both the erosive and the eroded material plotted as i n Fig. 2.

The drastic re-

distribution i s another proof of the fragmentation process.

An important element in Tilly's two-stage erosion theory i s the variation o f erosion rates with particle size, d, which was observed experimentally.
o f quartz particles below the threshold size de.

The abrasiveness

5 prn was found slight [31 ; i t in-

creased (normally as the square o f the size, i.e. W = kd '),

until, for some target

materials,

i t reached a saturation point and continued on a plateau,

Fig. 3.

This

phenomenon w i l l later be explained from the point o f view of fragmentation.

Fig. 2. Erosion test of nylon and fiberglass targets by quartz particles: size distribution
for quartz and target chippings after erosion tests at V - 244 m/s and o = 90"
From
T i l l y and Sage [21

Nylun
V 744 n

Fig. 3. The dependence of erosion rate on the particle size at fixed impact speed V.
(a) The influence o f quartz particle size on the erosion o f different types of materials
From T i l l y and Sage [21; (b) Schematic of typical W(d) dependence: no
at cr = 90'
erosion takes place below the threshold size d d, ; the ascending phase i s followed
by a saturation plateau a t d = d,; at larger d (dg), the curve w i l l be expected to rise
again. At some d
the maximum primary erosion takes place, without secondary

,,

The primary erosion W1 caused b y an accumulated mass M of particles of size d

i s evaluated as follows.

Following Bitter's formulation,

(Eq. 4-40); where 9 i s the primary erosion factor,

we write W 1

and U,

Uc/9

i s the dissipation o f energy,

approximately equal t o

similar to Eq. (4.48).

, below which no erosion

Introducing the "threshold size" d,,

occurs at a l l since the impact stress is too small, the elastic energy becomes
3
2
~ n d eVet~
U ~ =
I
The pair of values VeI
d
define a threshold combination.

12

The energy dissipation

U,

is,

then, for a test velocity V, :

The primary erosion, due t o unit mass of particles, at test velocity V,

by dividing U, above b y

>

A t any other speed V

9 , p v d /6, where q l

, we

obtained

i s the value of 9 at V = V, :

can equally w e l l write

We introduce W 1 as the value o f maximal erosion for the speed V,

secondary erosion takes place.

, i s then

If d>
.

dPi and (or) V

>>

Vel

, i.e.

where no

, then the

term i n Eq. (3) i s l i k e l y t o be much smaller than 1; thus we get

Assuming

9 = 9, , then from Eqs. (2), (3) and (4), there results

Example
The test velocity
particles, at LY
for this size, V,,

- 90'.

d = 30 prn, to be W

V,

V, = 247 m/s i s given i n the erosive testing o f steel by quartz

The threshold size VeI at this speed i s del

= 5 pm; therefore,

, The maximum primary erosion i s measured at V - 305 m/s and

= 0.4 cm '/kg.

We wish t o find the maximum primary erosion

W1 at the test velocity V,

Solving from (5) for

4, :

The secondary erosion W 2 which i s due to fragmentation,

i s assumed t o be pro-

portional t o the incident kinetic energy U; compared t o this, the (lower) threshold
elastic energy is negligible.

where

We postulate

i s the secondary erosion factor,

i.e. the amount o f energy needed t o remove

u n i t mass o f material by secondary erosion, and F

mentation.

F (V, dl cu) i s the degree of frag-

F can be established within a specified optical size range (Fig. 2):

where s 0 i s the proportion o f the sample (by weight) w i t h i n the specified site range
before erosion testing, and s l

, after testing.

To show the dependence o f F on d and V,

these variables can be put as subscripts t o F, denoted FdGv

specified range are broken into smaller pieces, then F - 1 .

I f a l l particles i n the

Equation (6) becomes

where W 2 i s the maximum secondary erosion for the test velocity V, , W7 can be
A

evaluated from the plateau erosion W and the primary erosion W 1 :

, i s written from

Finally, the total erosion, for the test speed V,

(5)

d,,

312

An application of this analysis allowed

behavior W vs. dl

V6,, l2
v

(5) and (8):

2

+42iy)

Fd,v

(10)

T i l l y t o produce excellent estimates of erosion

for given test speeds V,

11 1

The broad consequences o f the fragmentation phenomenon include an explanation

for ductile erosion at cu
reaches a maximum at cu

:-

90'.
20

Whereas primary erosion for d u c t i l e materials usually

- 30,

secondary erosion for d u c t i l e materials reaches a

maximum at normal impact, illustrated i n Fig.

4. Thus the erosion of ductile materials

30

60

90

a ,impact angle (degrcesl

Fig. 4. The influence of impact angle for 135 pm quartz against H 46 steel at
V = 366 m/s. Secondary erosion i s increasing with the angle a . From Tilly 11 I
at 90 should certainly be underestimated by the simple erosive cutting theory.

An-

other consequence of fragmentation regards velocity dependence. The effective veloc i t y exponent c, i n W - V
demonstrated by

Eq.

(10)

', must be larger than 2 because of fragmentation,

as

- a consideration especially valid for larger particles.

As mentioned already, fragmentation may also explain the particle size dependence of erosion (Fig. 3).

Below the threshold size (e.g.

occurs, and the secondary stage i s missing.

creases with fragmentation.

5 Clm), no fragmentation

Increasing the particle size, erosion in-

However, when the saturation plateau i s reached, the

damage varies with the particle size i n such a manner as t o leave the erosion caused
by unit mass of abrasive particles constant,

A subsequent size-range may also exist,

at which the particle size will cause gross fracture of the test specimen; this renewed
rising tendency would follow the plateau behavior.

Deposition
Investigators were quick to notice that while erosion progressed at a linear rate
with respect to the mass M of particles, i t often required an "incubation" or "waiting"
period to start.

This i s not due to a fatigue damage phenomenon; the bombarding

particles can be initially deposited on the attacked surface, and erosion turns from
"negative" to "positive" only after the rate of removal exceeds the rate of deposition.
The variables of deposition were studied by Neilson and Gilchrist

[41

In

particles,
erosion tests of aluminum plates by 210 pm angular aluminum oxide (A1 203)
they found the incubation period to (a) increase with angle of attack for constant
speed (Fig. 5a),

and (b) to increase with decreasing speed for a constant angle (oc

=90 )

Further testing into the positive region o f W (M) showed linearity,

o f attack (Fig. 5b).

w i t h larger slope at smaller cu (Fig. 5c).

40

005 -

192m's

'71

E?

F
100

200

300

100

M, mass of abraslvrs (qrams)

200

300

400

500

M, mass of abrasw~., (g.ams)

(a)

(b)

M, n,asc of abras ves, giams

(c)

Fig. 5. Weight change of aluminum surface vs. total mass o f A 1 2 0 3 erosive particles
90, various
o f 210 p m size. (a) V - 192 m/s, various angles o f attack; (b) u
velocities; (c) V T 129 m/s, various angles o f attack. From Neilson and Gilchrist 141

I t was noted that no deposition took place w i t h spherical particles and with
b r i t t l e specimen surfaces such as glass.
mers [51 at 90 impacts, Fig. 6a.
at V

--

104 m/s,

Large incubation effects were found i n poly-

Here three kinds of plastic materials were tested

by angular quartz particles i n the 60-125 p m range.

nylon stabilized a t a small weight gain, while polypropylene,

deposition,
At

(Y

40,

Carbon reinforced

showing large i n i t i a l

required M = 2000 g of erosives t o swing into the positive erosion range.

no incubation period was found (Fig. 6b) for the other variables (erosives,

their size and the impact velocity) left constant.

Analyses of deposited matter have found i t t o consist of fragmented particles;
these would be further driven into the surface by the impact of newly arriving particles.

LEGLND
N: Nylor~
CRN: Cart1011RI.I 1fur~edNy,or,
P Polyp~opylene

400

800

CRN

1200

400

800

M, mass of ab~as'ves,grams

M, mdss of abras ves, grdms

(0)

(b)

1200

Fig. 6. Variation of weight loss w i t h quantity o f abrasives (angular quartz particles,

d 60 - 125 pm range), for polypropylene and nylon. (a) o - 90" ; (b) a - 40'
From T i l l y [ 5 1

Darkening o f nylon and polypropylene was due t o chemical changes arising under an
intensive local temperature rise (190C)
leads t o eventual removal o f material

2.

[21

This kind o f degradation of the surface

- erosion turning

positive.

THE TRAJECTORY A N D SPEED OF PARTICLES IN A FLUID STREAM

The velocity and direction o f solid particles traveling i n the stream o f an inert

f l u i d (be i t water, oil, etc.) may greatly differ from those o f the surrounding fluid.
Small particles may change their trajectories i n the v i c i n i t y of a solid surface obstructing the flow.

An analysis of the velocities attained by particles introduced i n the

f l u i d flow was given b y T i l l y [ 5 1

, taking

irregular particles and determining an effec-

t i v e spherical size d.
Consider particles of mass density F
density p a

and diameter d traveling i n an airflow of

Denoting the particle v e l o c i t y by V and the air v e l o c i t y by u, the differ-

ential equations o f particle motion i n two dimensions are:

The trajectory o f a particle approaching a surface may be numerically calculated from

the above set o f equations.

The particle drag coefficient C d i s given for each value o f

the Reynolds number,

(where q is the viscosity o f the air), b y the empirical relation C61 :

Trajectories for sand particles i n an airstream u = 104 m/s directed against a perpendicular and also against an inclined plane are shown i n Fig. 7.

Large particles (d .-60um)

are hardly deflected while 5 pm particles behave nearly l i k e air i n the v i c i n i t y of the
obstacleland pass around the target.

The impact velocities were also calculated for

each position i n the stream, at a 40'

inclination and at a 90'

inclination (Fig. 8).

Similar plots were also computed for a cylindrical target, and the corresponding results
are shown i n Figs. 9 and 10.
90'
Impact

Fig. 7. 5-60 pm particle trajectories

approaching plates inclined at 20and 90'
t o the flow. From T i l l y [51

Fig. 8. Particle trajectories and impact

conditions for flow approaching inclined
plates. From T i l l y [ 5 1

90' Plate

d, particle s i x . p m

8 , rloslt~onof impact, degrees

100

80

60 prn
7Opm
10pm

ff, impact

5 p m flow

Fig. 9. Particle trajectories and impact

conditions for flow approaching a
cylinder. From Tilly C51

angle, degrees

Fig. 10. Influence of particle size and

impact angle on strike efficiencies for
inclined plates and a cylinder. Thestrike
efficiency i s the percentage of particles
striking the target out of the number
originally aimed at it. From T i l l y C51

A simple calculation C71 w i l l show the impact v e l o c i t y v attained by a larger

spherical particle introduced i n the airflow at a distance x from a straight target surface.
From a one-dimensional analysis, Eq. (1 I), the differential equation of particle motion
IS

where k

3C dp d/4P od. Using the initial condition t = 0,

;= V = 0,

we obtain

Another integration with the i n i t i a l condition t =: 0, x = 0 yields

x =

-k1

(kut

- In [ 1 + k u t l

(17)

Considering the dimension d = 250 pm, an airstream velocity u = 200 m/s,

p a = 0.001 14 g/cm3 and air viscosity

0.01 91 centipoise (all at 38

yields Re = (0.025) (20,000)(0.00114)/0.000191

sand, p

,= 1.52 g/cm3,

--

air density
C), Eq. (13)

2984. From (14), Cd = 0.38. For

and we get k = 0.0085 cm-'

To calculate the necessary

particle travel length x during which i t may be accelerated from V = 0 to 100 m/s,
first obtain t = 5.882 rns from Eq. (16), and then Eq, (17) yields x

36 cm.

we

This calculation shows that for larger particle sizes excessive airborne paths may
be needed.

Since small particles are so easily deflected,

i t i s also d i f f i c u l t t o design

erosion tests i n the low size range, u t i l i z i n g airstreams.

3.

SINGLE PARTICLE STUDIES

When small particles travel i n a stream, i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o observe their impact and

the erosion they cause on a target surface.

In order to investigate the geometric par-

ameters of erosion (particle size and shape, conditions of incidence, chip size, fragmentation,

etc.),

i t i s convenient t o study, instead, the effect of larger particles.

Since erosion rates were seen to be nearly independent of the particle size over a saturation range d,<

<

for ductile erosion (Fig. 3),such a substitution appears

permissible.
Let us first consider the impact o f a single particle confining particle geometry
t o spherical shapes.

Since the particle size does not essentially influence the pheno-

menon, i t i s the range o f particle impact velocity that determines the character of the
process.

Three ranges may be distinguished [ 8,9, 101 above the range of elastic

(Hertzian) impacts; these were determined by the parameter

i s the particle mass density and o

In the first,

,,the target's y i e l d stress.

" r i g i d penetrator" range, ( V

V (p a/,,

(pD/oy ) ' I 2

<

, where

)'I7

V (pD/u

,)

<

'I2

pp

2),

the forces and deformations are similar t o those seen i n static hardness tests. Considering ordinary steels, the upper limiting v e l o c i t y i s approximately 500 m/s.
range (2

<

(pp/o

,) 'I2
< 4.5),

In the second

the effects o f strain hardening are significant, and

must also be included i n the analysis.

Above this value

(4.5

inertia effects o f the impacted material are also appreciable.

<V

(pp/o,

)'I7),

the

The analysis of the

cratering associated with the high values o f the nondimensional speed parameter must
account both for i n i t i a l pedetration.of the projectile and for the expansion of the cavi t y which i t occupies deep i n the material.
A l l the erosion tests hitherto referred t o were performed i n the " r i g i d penetrator"
range, characterized by neaily rigid-plastic behavior.

The projectiles were stopped

during indentation at a depth less than their radius, thus no f u l l penetration took place.
To explore the impact phenomenon for individual particles i n this speed range,
Sheldon and Kanhere [ 1 1 1 employed a "gas gun" capable o f shooting steel and glass
spheres o f approximately d = 2.5 mm diameter a t a regulated speed up t o V

500 m/s.

The eroded specimens were made of 6061-TO aluminum, a ductile material (hardness

p = 36 kgf/mm 7); both annealed and work hardened versions of this material were used.
For impact angles,

rw

20 and 90' were used.

I t was found that at cu

20,

the

target material tended t o f l o w from the front t o the side of the proiectile; material loss
would f o l l o w the reaching of excessive strair..
than the amount removed from the crater

- was

A small amount of material

- but

less

p i l e d up i n front of the annealed speci-

mens; for the work-hardened specimens, the material pushed forward tended t o c h i p o f f
sooner.

Figure 1 1 shows photos of indentations made a t

annealed and work hardened aluminum,

rw = 90'

V = 232 m/s

r,

using both steel and glass shot.

- 20,

Impacts at

produced symmetrical f l o w of the material around the impact crater.

took place at excessive strains,

in both

Fracture

leaving even less of a r i d g e than at cu = 20.

Fig. 11. Crater formed by impact of 2.5 mm spherical particles on 6061-TO aluminum
a l l o y surfaces a t a = 20' and V = 232 m/s; magnification 18X. (a) Glass shot, annealed
surface; (b) Steel shot, annealed surface; (c) Glass shot, work-hardened surface;
(d) Steel shot, work-hardened surface. From Sheldon and Kanhere [I1 I

From these experimental results i t c a n be concluded that material was plowed out
b y the incoming particle; the amount o f material removed would be f a i r l y proportional
t o the volume of the crater left behind.
A n analytical derivation of the crater depth
Meyerls law w i l l be given.

C 11 I

based on a statement of

W e write for the contact force:

(1 8)

P.-AD"

A and n being constants for the material, and D being the diameter o f the contact circle.

We equate n L 2,

promoted during impact.

a typical value for work-hardened materials, a condition

N o w the k i n e t i c energy o f the p a r t i c l e at impact is set equal

t o the energy lost during ~ l a s t i cindentation:

where D ( z ) is the diameter of the crater at an intermediate state during impact; z is

the penetration,

and z 0 i s the final value of z.

o f the impact velocit y.

V,

= Vsincu i s the normal component

By the geometry o f indentation (Fig. 12)

and thus Eq. (19) is rewritten:

D,

DO being the f i n a l crater diameter.

Fig. 12.

Geometry of

and plastically deforming impacted surface.

The Meyer hardness number MHN = ~ P / I T D ~ ,and i t w i l l be replaced b y the flow

'? 0.5.

pressure p since Do/d

substituting D = (sin

0) d

Thus, from (l8), A .- vp/4 i s obtained.

and D o

-- (sin

8") d,

Furthermore,

Eq. (21) i s integrated t o the result:

In the meantime, from (20) we obtain

2z0/d

= 1

- cos O0
<

Plotting 2z0/d i n the region of z

d/2 against V (p,/p)1i7

scale, an approximately linear relationship i s obtained.

i n double logarithmic
This was quite w e l l borne out

b y test results both for steel and glass shot, as shown i n Fig. 13.

Th

-I

a , .q,

r r' a p , 3x.o-t

t i r o -u

?O

A ~ ocx i n
'np-:t tc,

a,

...,' .
I.

F.,

in,
-?

_I,

9-

5"i'-

Clo:
-' -.I
Cloq

4' n.n,r

'.- d

,%

A. ,
1
4- d
>
I.<In-"
n

Fig. 13. Comparison o f the hardness penetration theory (Curve

erosion results. From Sheldon and Kanhere [ I 1 1

1) with experimental

I f erosive wear i s proportional t o the maximum penetration cubed, the result so

obtained yields

The velocity exponent c .- 3 resulting from this derivation i s notably higher than the
value 2 obtained i n earlier derivations based on ductile erosive cutting and on combined energy dissipation mechanisms. This i s significant because of the many experimental results already quoted which place c between 2 and 3 for ductile erosion.
In Ref. 11, for work-hardened specimens at

cy

= 20, c = 2. 8 was typically obtained;

for annealed specimens, the corresponding value was around c =

2.4.

The erosion rates

for a single glass part icle against aluminum target were found quite comparable t o pub-

[2, 41

lished multiple erosion data

The mechanism o f material removal b y spherical particles, i n the "rigid penetrat o r " range, was also studied b y Hutchings and Winter

[I21

Shooting d

balls against d u c t i l e targets (aluminum, copper and m i l d steel) at

served plowing t a k i n g place i n the specimen; a
impact velocities.

Interestingly, the

hardened copper than i n annealed copper

produced i n the latter was much greater
=

215 m/s).

-- 18.5',

they ob-

lip was raised at the front, at sufficient

Such l i p formation must be due t o the f r i c t i o n force acting between

the particle and specimen.

3 mm steel

lip was

much higher

(200 pm) i n work-

(100 pm), even though the crater volume

(1.27 mm vs. 0.30 mm3, a t approximately

For the work-hardened specimens, the surface beyond the front l i p was

quite smooth, w h i l e for the annealed specimens, even far beyond the l i p the surface
appeared rippled and distorted.

This i s explained b y the fact that for the annealed

materials "sinking i n " occurs, which disturbs a large volume of the material; i n workhardened materials,

intensive shearing deformations are restricted t o the surface layers

i n the immediate contact area, resulting i n the extrusion of a pronounced lip.

Beyond the impact speeds causing a lip,
moved ( a t

a t a c r i t i c a l speed the l i p would be re-

250 m/s for copper target, c = 18.5').

This removal is either the result of

adhesive forces between the l i p and the spherical particle,

or i t may be due t o the large

strains arising i n the extrusion process.

The d u c t i l e impact of single angular particles was investigated b y Winter and
Hutchings
angle

13

[131. They particularly focused their attention on the role of the rake

and on the rot ation of a particle during impact w i t h the specimen (Fig.

Part of their motivation was a relevant discovery by Graham and Baul [

14).

141 ; i n a study

o f the cutting process the latter had shown that when the cutting tool i s restrained from
rotation, o n l y rake angles larger than

-60

produce chips; at smaller rake angles,

material removal takes place b y plowing i n the directio n o f tool motion.

Since spherical

particles

impact at extremely negative

rake angles

, Graham

and Baul's concept i s verified for the case of the plowi n g erosion caused b y spherical
projectiles, as discussed above.

The terminology "cutting rake angle" for

and "plowing rake angle" for

< - 60'

Ref.

13.

P > - 60'

w i l l b e retained now, as introduced i n

1 44
Impact

Fig. 14. Schematic of the impact of a sand grain and the action of a work tool.
(a) t o (c) progressively diminishing rake angles; (d) cutting, the metal flow bifurcates
the cutting edge of the tool; (e) ~ I o w i n ~i n, which the metal flows continuously past
the cutting edge. From Winter and Hutchings El31

A n experimental apparatus used i n the angular particle experiments [ 131 i s

depicted i n Fig. 15.

The particle (approximately 2-mm-thick hard steel or glass was

used) was stationary, suspended on wires.

A mild-steel specimen was shot against this

particle, w i t h a fixed angle of attack cr

25'.

angle was a variable.

The particle attitude and thus the rake

The particle shape was also varied,

so that the position of the

particle's center of mass would be alternatively ahead, coinciding with or behind the
impacting corner; the latter circumstance influenced the rotation of the particle during

-aw----

impact (Fig. 16).

Polythene Sabot
(31

Steel Proiectile

l,on R'nq

(b)

Fig. 15. Experimental arrangements for single particle erosion tests: (a) acceleration of
a steel projectile for impact on a lead target; (b) deceleration o f a mild-steel specimen
t o strike a particle suspended i n a chosen orientation; (c) cutting rake angle j3 - 20';
this produced the damage shown i n Fig. 170; (d) plowing rake angle j3 = 70 ' ; this
produced smooth craters w i t h a l i p on the opposite side. From Winter and Hutchings [I31

Fig. 16. Impacts of differently shaped angulor tool steel particles on mild steel, a l l at
- -70 and an impact angle CY = 25O. Velocities were: (a) 123 ms-l,
a rake angle
In cases (a) and (b) the particle rotated and second
(b) 128 ms , (c) 200 ms -'
impacts occurred further along the specimen. In case (b) plowing deformation occurred.
From Winter and Hutchings [ 13 I.

Erosion experiments at cutting rake angles

(p

= 5',

-25O,

-45')

failed t o pro-

duce chips, even though severe deformation of the mild steel resulted i n l i p formation,
(Fig. 17a).

At @

5'

and V = 165 m/s,

the particle somewhat rolled into the speci-

men; for greater rake angles, the cutting plane of the particle remained straight.

This

was also confirmed w i t h lead specimens.

A t plowing rake angles the impact greatly depended on the relative position of
the center o f mass of the particle.

When the latter was forward or coincident with the

impacting corner (Fig. 16a, b), much of the kinetic energy was dissipated into rotation
instead of sliding.

Thus no plowing would take place, and the particle merely plastic-

a l l y indented the target.

However, when the center of moss was behind the point of

impact, plowing d i d result at high enough impact energies.

Glass particles were used i n the same type of experiment t o show the effect of
fragmentation; i.e. the glass particles shattered upon impact while the steel particles
d i d not.

The shattering glass particles gave a new insight into the phenomenon of

fragmentation.

The specimen was cut i n a step formation (Fig. 17b), displaying one or

more steps; this could be explained by the parallel breaks forming i n the glass during
impoct (Fig. 18).

The shattered fragments are subsequently quite powerful i n removing

the lips formed b y the primary impact.

This confirmation of Tilly's theory of secondary

particle erosion would suggest that the erosive effect of weaker, fragile particles may
exceed that of strong particles.

Evidence for that was found by Head, Lineback and

Manning [ 151 : fluorite particles (Moh's hardness: 4.0) were significantly more erosive
than alumina particles (Moh's hardness: 9. O), when used against both stainless steel and
6061 -T6 aluminum.

Fig. 17. Photos of craters produced i n mild steel. (a) Etched section of a crater produced by a chromium steel particle at a rake angle p = 45' , u - 2 5 ' , V .- 167 m/~.
Observe the clear boundary between the deformed and undeformed material. (b) Etched
section o f a crater formed by a 7 mm x 7 mm x 2 . t mm glass particle, at P = -25',
V = 169 m/s, From Winter and Hutchings [I31

Fig. 18. Mechanism by which secondary cutting planes may be formed with glass particles. The particle fractures and the bulk o f the particle continues cutting on another
plane. From Winter and Hutchings El31

The erosion caused by large hard spheres was further investigated by Hutchings,
Winter and Field [ 161

I n this case particle fragmentation i s avoided, and particle

shape is easily handled i n mathematical models.

crater and a l i p around i t .

The plowing deformations result i n a

Volumetric erosion was measured by machining down the

impacted plane at its original level,

f i l l i n g i t out w i t h plasticine and weighing the

Mass-wise erosion was measured b y weighing the specimen.

latter,

First, experimental verification was sought that the indenter size can be scaled,
w i t h no effect on predictions o f erosion.

Two basic criteria were found satisfied:

(a) predictability o f the crater size, and (b) the mechanism o f raising lips at the
The crater volume W i s basically proportional t o the incident kinetic

periphery.

energy (seeEq. 3.16),

D2. D2/d,

2
s~thatW'~-m(Vsinc.)

Sincem-pd3ondw=rD

h/8

the dependence between indentation diameter D, particle size d, density

p and flow pressure p should be as follows:

(p v2sin2 a/p)

Satisfactory agreement w i t h this model was found i n experiments w i t h tungsten

carbide, steel and sapphire balls of different sizes.
Experiments were conducted with a d - 9.5 mm hard steel b a l l impacting mild
steel, at various impact angles a and speeds V.

For a given a, a c r i t i c a l speed

could be found, above which the l i p would be removed during impact.

for a - 30,
mass (W',

this speed was V,

175 m/s.

V,

For example,

The nondimensional ratio o f mass loss/ball

Fig. 19a), volume loss W and the energy loss U d per impact at

o?

-- 30' were

fitted extremely well by the following relations:

W'

5 . 8 2 ~ 1 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ; ~U d-- 12- 9 .1 ~0 14 0~v2.?'

. 1~ 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ;

Figure 20 shows the erosion vs. impact angle, at a fixed velocity,

A maximum around a = 30'

V = 270 m/s.

was found for mass-wise erosion; the volumetric erosion was

a monotonically increasing function o f a .

An important conclusion o f this study was that the crater lips constituted most o f
the mass removed; above the c r i t i c a l speed, these would be detached, but under V,
they would not; i n further repeated impacts these loose appendages would easily break
off.

cu

The relationship between l i p volume and crater volume i s shown i n Fig. 19b, at
30'.
High-speed photographs o f these impacts (1 9 ps apart) showed that the spherical

particle underwent a rotation w imparted during the impact.

Equating the rotational

impulse (measured) to d/2 times the tangential impulse pm ( V sin a

+ V,

sin c., ), the

1 48
effective coefficient of friction p was calculated around 0.05.

Such a

small friction

coefficient i s possible at high impact speeds producing plastic deformations; the possi b i l i t y o f very high temperatures and even melting was deduced from the bluish tinge o f
the craters.
Analytical modeling also supported the above experimental findings, see the solid
lines i n Figs. 19a and 20.

The plastic impact problem o f a rigid sphere subjected t o the

flow pressure and frictional tractions along the contact area was numerically solved.

200

500

V, impact velocity, m/s

100

200

300

V, impact velocity, m/s

(0)

(b)

Fig. 19. The influence of impact speed on the erosion caused by a 9.5 mm diameterhard
(a) Mass loss: the slope of the line i s 2.9.
steel b a l l on mild steel, at cr - 30'.
(b) The fraction o f the crater volume which i s formed into a lip. From Hutchings,
Winter and Field [ I 6 1

(a)

u , approach angle, degrees

o, approach angle, degrees

(b)

Fig. 20. The influence of the approach angle on the erosion caused by a 9.5 mm
diameter hard steel b a l l on mild stsel, at V = 270 m/s. The solid line represents
analytical results. (a) Mass loss; note the comparison w i t h Kleis 1171 scaled results
(dashed line) for multiple impacts of round iron shot on mild steel. (b) Crater volume;
the two solid lines represent different flow pressures considered i n the analytical model.
From Hutchings, Winter and Field [ I 6 1

EMPIRICAL APPROACHES FOR FITTING EROSION DATA

4.

There have been many advocates of the empirical approach to erosion problems

I: 171 .

For various elastomers, erosion by fine alumina particles proved quite inde-

pendent of
angle.

C 181 ; and good

anti-erosion behavior was noted at ony impingement

Investigations of the erosion of various targets by natural soil indicated that

rational quantitative models such as Bitter's would not give satisfactory predictions.
Head and Harr [ 191 argued that while the mechanical models are only applicablrd to
homogeneous erosives, for inhomogeneous materials such as soils, the particle descriptors may be inadequate.

They sought to develop a model on the basis of dirrlensional

analysis; a l l the possible physical variables were represented in nondimensional terms,

and a power function was fitted over representative sets of data.
Among

the physical variables, Head and Harr included such "new ones" as round-

ness of the particles and the modulus of toughness of the torget.

The roundness

R in a

given plane was defined by the criterion:

where r i are the radii of N corners protruding from the maximum inscribed circle of
radius I

, (Fig. 21 ).

An instrument called the

analyzer exists for finding

R.

measuring radii of
curvature of corners
Fig. 21. Measurements necessary to determine particle roundness.
Harr C191

From Head and

The modulus of toughness T i s defined by Murphy's criterion:

T= e U ( w y + w u ) / 2
where c r y i s the strength at 2% permanent strain,
ultimate strain.

(26)
0,

the ultimate strength and E,,

the

While erosion i s probably proportional t o the energy lost i n the impact, measurement of the latter i s difficult; the incident effective particle velocity V i s more convenient to work w i t h as an input variable.
The erosion resistance D per unit volume of target material was somewhat orbitrari l y defined as a combined term containing the hardness H

and H, the

of the

hardness of the target, together w i t h the angle of attack cu ( i n radians):

(Ht

- T)

cosa + T

(27)

or alternative1 y,

In either definition, cu .- 0 would require a l l the erosion resistance t o be contributed

b y the target hardness, while at normal impact, the toughness would be responsible
alone for resisting erosion.
The following eight physical variables were represented in the dimensional
analysis; the fundamental units being those o f length (L), time (T) and mass (M):

V
R
cu
H ,H, D Q W

erosion rate (volume r e r n ~ v e d / ~ a r t i c l e

mass)

dim:

L3 M-'

impact velocity

dim:

LT

roundness

dimensionless

angle of attack

dimensionless

hardness of particles

dim:

L-IMT-2

hardness o f target

dim:

L - l MT

erosion resistance/unit volume of target

dim:

volume of target affected

dim:

L~

'

MT-?

I n case o f nonhomogeneous materials, the effective roundness and hardness may be used;
this i s defined as the average quantity, weighed in terms o f the grain size distribution.
Since there are three basic units (L,

M, T) for the eight physical variables,

Buckingham's n-theorem [ 201 requires five nondimensional quantities ( s ,

, IT?, r3,

sr4, r 5 ) t o be chosen such that they satisfy the functional relationship

f ("1,

"2,

"3,

"4,

"5)-

(29)

Two nondimensional *-quantities are obvious:

a,
"7

(30)
(31)

n 5 can be construed so that each contains V,

The three remaining quantities n3, n,,

D and Q, but W,

H and H are represented only i n one of them:

Xi
D V ~

n3-

'1

Evaluating the exponents from dimensionality, e. g.

and thus

-vl -3'1

'

- 1; M

V1 - 1

= 1;

yielding the set of exponents (xl yl,

-x1 - 2v2

- 1

z l) from three simultaneous algebraic equations,

we get the resulting nondimensional n-terms:

=I -

WD/V

(32)

n2

H P/D

(33)

H~/D

(34)

.IT3

--

We note that Q has been eliminated as an irrelevant variable.

functional relationship for n

Finally,

From (29) and (32) a

.- WD/V7 can be written:

solving for W:

The form of (36) sensibly shows the principal dependence of erosion on the impact energy
and the erosion resistance.

This can be altered,

parenthesis b y use o f experimental data.

however, by subsequent f i t t i n g of the

A power relation i s stipulated:

Regression analysis for determining the exponents 6 i s performed on its logarithmic form:
log W = Log C 1

log

V7
D

+ 6;,log

R - 6 3 l o g o +Ei410g

H
D

h510g

H+
D

(38)

The statistical program used a multiple, linear, stepwise regression technique.

choice C

1=

The

1 . 0 gave the most consistent erosion models. The analysis of Ref. 19 used

test results from groups of mostly single-size particles, to avoid particle size-dependent
interactions. Aluminum was used as ductile target, and glass as a brittle one.
S i c angular particles and round glass beads (d

Hard

= 100 pm) were used for erosive agents.

Separate analyses were made for brittle erosion and ductile erosion.
From twelve sets of data on brittle materials, the resulting equation was
21D) 1 53Q2 69

W =

(H, ,ID) 7'08

(H, /D)"'"

The roundness R was dropped from these results because its exponent turned out smaller
than 0.01
From 3 7 sets of data, ductile erosion yielded

Interestingly, R i s represented strongly for ductile erosion.

For both the brittle and ductile models, the square of the correlation coefficient
was very close to 1.0.

However, a shortcoming of the analysis was evident by the

presence of D i n the numerator; t o be sure, its exponents were small.

The results of this analysis fitted the experimental data of ductile erosion well,
except at

90';

greater spread was seen for brittle erosion.

More accuracy was

obtained by a weighted (instead of step-wise) regression analysis program. This gave,

for brittle targets:
W = 0.005345 + 0.000006 V '/D

+ 0.003507 R + 0.009335 sine

- 0.000630 Q n H,/D - 0.004706 cos cu - 0.0031 14 sin2 cu

- 0.010888 R sin e - 0.00381 0 R cos cu + 0.000495 (Qn H ,/D)

cos cu

(43)

and for ductile targets:

W = 0.000233

- 0.000160 R - 0.000238

Rn (Hp/D)

- 0.000210

an (H, /D)

+0,001577 (V'/D)~ +0.00829 sin0 + 0.000034 (2n H JD)'

- 0.000967 (V YD) R +O.O00119

0.0001 456 ( i n H D / ~ ) cos

2

R an (H,/D)

- O.OOl380lin (Ht/D)

cask

(44)

c~

The maximum erosion angle for natural soils at a ductile target was found to be around
45';

75' were quite close to the measured erosion at 90

the analytical results for a

(Fig. 22). Discrepancies seen in brittle target studies were attributed to the rough
definition of erosion resistance; for brittle materials, this concept could possibly be
improved by including considerations of the density and distribution of cracks generated
i n the target surface.

B (Predicted)

B (Observed)
/O

.40
I

1.2

.80
1

f11.6 (rod)
0

30'
60'
90'
cu, particle impingement angle
Fig. 22. Predicted and observe3 erosion rates for two samples of naturol soils, A and B,
on a ductile target. From Head and Harr [I91

There are special applications where targets behave in neither ductile nor brittle
fashion or where particle size introduces an important factor.

An empirical formula

proposed by Williams and Lau [21 I for the erosion of uncoated graphite-epoxy composites by spherical sand particles, postulated the following law:

W = ~d'(Vsin( Q + X ) ) ~
The variables W, dl V and ry are those traditionally used, and the constants Q,
and

(45)

r ,y

were experimentally determined from tests, i n which only one variable was

changed at a time.

W (d), W (V) and W

( N ) were i n d i v i d u a l l y obtained i n a range o f

interest; some of these were f i t t e d b y power functions:

V - 93 m/s:

For N = 90,

0. 19 dU.'

For 88 p <
d

<

<

d: p m )

(46)

125 pm:

W - 2.58 x 1
For l n r m

(W: mg/g,

o - V~

3'4

(V: m/s)

d < 250 p m :

4 . 6 5 ~

3'4

Tests for W ( a )yielded the p l o t o f Fig. 23.

1 .o
20
30
M, w f qht of mpactlri(, p d r t ' c l e , (q)

Fig. 2 3 . Weight loss of graphite-epoxy composite for varying impact angle. (Spherical
sand particles, v e l o c i t y
70 m/s and particle size range = 77-125 pm ). From Williams
and Lau [21 I

The empirical constants were thus determined: Q

r
the

0. 9; y = 3.4; A = 2*/15.

10 " m-(r'Y) s ;

Figure 2 4 shows a comparison o f measured results w i t h

analytical p l o t obtained b y the above curve-fitti ng process.

W, Erosion Rate (mg/g)

Angle,

Experimental

c,

30"
45"
60"
65"
75"
90"

Correlation

3.4
4.0
4.7
5.3
4.3
5.0

ff

2.5
4.1
5.1
-5.2
5.0
3.8

ImDac' a r q l e , degrees

Fig. 24. Comparison of experimental results and correlation equation (45), for the
erosion of graphite-epoxy composite by spherical sand particles. From Williams and
Lou [21 I

5.

INDUSTRIAL USES OF SOLID PARTICLE IMPACTING

Streams of solid particles (sand, glass,

metal, etc.) directed against solid sur-

faces find many useful applications i n industry.

may be one or more of the following:

The function of such operations C221

(a) prestressing (peening) the component by

imparting a thin compressive surface layer t o it; (b) cleaning (shot-blasting); (c) combatting tensile surface cracks; (d) removing stress raisers; (e) surface finishing; (f) forming; (g) providing surface preparation.
Particle size,

material, air-stream intensity,

time of application,

attack are some o f the variables controlling the process.

and angle of

Peening
I n the top layer these

Spherical particles cause tensile radial stresses on impact.

stresses reach the value of the yield stress u
the elastic range.

, but below the surface they are within

O n rebound of the particle, a dimple remains on the surface as a

permanent deformation; the subsurface tensile stresses cannot be relieved,

induce an elastic compressive stress i n the top layer (Fig. 25).

and they

The effect of this pre-

stress can extend over a depth roughly equivalent t o a tenth of the particle size.

The

compressive prestress i s extremely effective i n reducing fatigue hazard when introduced

i n the extreme fiber of a flexural element subject t o unreversed bending.

(a) Indentation

Plastic Tensile
Stress, or
Elastic ~e\nsileStress, or
Fig. 25.

f lastic Tensile

Stress

Compressive radial surface stress developed bypeening.

Shot Biasting
Sand, usua1:l.y of angular grain,
t i o n i s m e w h a t o f a health hazard.

is used for cleaning rusted surfaces; this opera-

Steel shot is used For heavy industrial applicationr,

while glas is used for lighter precision jdx. The common size mnge is 0.1

- 5 mm.

Combatting Tensile S d a c e Cracks

The application of peening induces a compressive radial surface stress i n the
material, tending to close up cracks or prevent them.

This action is also often used t o

prevent stress corrosion.

Removing Stress Raisers

The smoothing of angular surfaces may reduce fatigue hazard in structures.
interesting application i s to weldments which often contain microcracks.

An

By slitting a

weld t o about one-quarter of its depth, and peening into the slit,
i n addition,

smoothing is achieved;

compressive stress then holds the incipient internal crack surfaces together.

Surface Finishing
Small erosive particles are used t o provide smooth finishes.

Large particles of

shot may induce a roughening effect, thereby rendering the surface more susceptible t o
paint.

Forming
Especially i n the aerospace industry, intricate shapes of metal may be achieved
b y peening, avoiding expensive dies and forming processes.
one side of a plate i s induced locally,

Residual compression on

and the member deforms t o establish equilibrium.

Surface Preparation
Both larger strength and the benefits of a protective coating can be achieved b y
depositing glass bead plating on metal powders.

This kind of "dry plating" i s often

superior to electrolytic bath plating which may be conducive t o hydrogen embrittlement.

Same metals that can be glass-bead plated include aluminum, copper, gold,

nickel,

silver,

tungsten and zinc.

The disadvantages of peening include possible contamination of the target surfaces.

At higher environmental temperatures the induced compressive stress may vanish

from the skin, and the beneficial effect of peening i s lost.

REFERENCES
G . P. Tilly, Wear, 23 (1973) 87-96.

G . P. Till y and W. Sage, Wear, 16 (1 970) 447-465.

G. P. T i l l y, Wear, 14 (1 969) 241 -248.
J. H. Ntilson and A. Gilchrist, Wear, 11 (1968) 11 1-122.
G. P. Till y, Wear, 14 (1 969) 63-79.
I. Langmuir and K. Blodgett, U. S. Army-Air Force Tech. Rep. 541 8 (1 946).
I. Finnie, Wear, 3 (1960) 87-103.
J. N . Goodier, Proc. 7th Hypervelocity Impact Symposium, Vol. Ill, Tampa,
Florida, 1965.
R. Kinslow, ed., High-Velocity Impact Phenomena, Academic Press, New York,

1970.
N. C. Byrnside, P. J. Torvik and H. F. Swift, J. Basic Eng.,

94 (1972)394-400.

G . L. Sheldon and A. Kanhere, Wear, 21 (1 972) 195-209.

I. M. Hutchings and R. E. Winter, Wear, 27 (1 974) 121-128.

R. E. Winter and I. M. Hutchings, Wear, 29 (1974) 181-194.

D. Graham and R. M. Baul, Wear, 19 (1972) 301-314.
W. J. Head, L. D. Lineback and C. R. Manning, Wear, 23 (1973) 291-298.

I. M . Hutchings, R. E. Winter and J. E. Field, Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 348

(1 976) 379-392.
I. R. Kleis, Wear, 13 (1969) 199-215.
K, G. Klatt and R. L. Walling, ASME Paper 75-DE-26,

1975.

W. J. Head and M. E. Harr, Wear, 15 (1970) 1-46.

H. L. Langhaar, Dimensional Analysis and Theory of Models, Wiley, New York,
1951.
J. H. Williams, Jr. and E. K. Lau, Wear, 29 (1 974) 21 9-230.
W. E. Hanley, Mach. Des., 47 (4) (March 1975) 74-78.

CHAPTER 6

1.

- EXPERIMENTAL

BACKGROUND OF PERCUSSIVE IMPACT WEAR

INTRODUCTION
Percussive impact wear arises between a pair o f repetitively colliding solid bodies,

w i t h the contact area on at least one o f the bodies kept as the same spot.

I f the adja-

cent contact areas from both o f the bodies are always the same ones, one would expect
a tendency for both sides to wear; this could be the case, e.g.,
teeth o f a gear transmission.
the bodies only

Alternatively,

- examples being the

between the contacting

there may be repeated contact on

one o f

printing by a type character on ever-changing

spots o f paper, or the rolling of an automobile tire on the road surface.

I n the latter

case, a selected area on the t i r e could be observed for wear; the wear of the road surface would be a statistical process, loads not being repeated i n magnitude or location.
Somewhat connected with the above classification regarding repetitivity of loading, we speak o f one-body and two-body wear processes.

In a one-body wear process,

only the damage o f one partner surface i s o f interest - either because the second partner i s continually renewed or because the wear resistance of the second body assures
that significant changes are restricted t o the firsi body, at least for a long period of
their mutual wear l i f e .

Two-body wear study i s justified when both partner surfaces

significantly change, simultaneously.

Mechanical contact between solids may result from three basic modes of relative
motion: sliding,

r o l l i n g and impact.

In each case,

large contact stresses may arise,

but their character, distribution.and variation w i t h time are unique.

Figure 1 shows

the variation o f the maximum shear stress w i t h time at a given point,

i n those three

types o f contact.

I n a slider, the maximum shear stress (on the surface or i n the depth,

depending on the friction coefficient, p ) is constant w i t h time.

In pure rolling, the

maximum shear stress arises from Hertz-type contact, and w i l l rise and f a l l as contact
approaches and recedes w i t h respect t o the observed spot.
i n a similar fashion.

Impact displays this feature

In purely elastic impact, the contact i s often Hertzian, and one

o f the chief differences w i t h respect t o r o l l i n g could be the shorter duration.

approach speed being normal rather than tangential,

changes only its scale on impact, while i n rolling, i t shifts

i n both cases,

The

the state o f stress at the axis

t o the motion;

"bell shaped curves" result for the subsurface shear stress.

Fig. 1. The variation of the maximum shear stress at a point, i n three types of contact:
(a) sliding (the shear stress on the slider i s shown); (b) rolling; (c) impact.
Wear is intimately connected with the shear stresses i n a contact, and this immediately suggests a connection between the wear originated i n any one of these modes
of mechanical contact. True, these are often mixed with one another, i n any given
application.
Compound impact is a term created specifically for the description of a normal
blow combined with relative sliding motion between the two colliding bodies.
relevance i s emphasized throughout this work-

Its

both because this is the way many

practical machine components work, and also since the relative tangential approach
component is apt t o play an active role i n precipitating wear.
The same diversity of wear mechanisms is seen i n percussion as was identified i n
Chapter 1 for sliding.

Changes from one mechanism to another have been noted occa-

sionally during the l i f e of a contact; these occur due to external (e.g. environmental)
or internal (e.g. chemical) reasons. The interaction o f the basic mechanisms (e.g.
fretting wear) i s quite prevalent.

O n e of the maior differences between solid-particle

erosion and percussive-impact wear also lies i n the wear mechanism.

plasticity (with abrasive flow and/or brittle fracture) dominates.

I n the former,

I n percussive wear,

elastic stress states are often cieated but plastic deformations are also common.

Wear

may develop through a fatigue process; oxidative wear and fretting wear are prevalent
between metals.
I n the following chapters on percussive impact wear, the simplified term "impact
wear" w i l l be used, setting i t apart from "erosive impact wear",

i.e. erosion.

In the

present chapter, a background o f the basic experimental processes w i l l be given, together w i t h some qualitative results.

N o completeness of the topics i s intended.

METHODS OF MEASUREMENT FOR IMPACT WEAR PARAMETERS

2.
Wear

Either reduction o f weight or the change o f the wear geometry (depth, curvature,
volume, etc.) can be measured, or both.
microbalance accurate to

For the measurement of weight change, a

g i s necessary.

Geometric wear data are usually more

meaningful as the shape or roughness o f the wear scar may be revealing for the wear
mechanism, wear rate or engineering l i f e expectancy.
Talysurf i s commonly used.
scope.

A profilometric device such as

Other topographic devices include the interference micro-

Photography and especially scanning electron microscopy (SEM) have been

commonly used C1

I ; magnification c f the order of

diffraction methods

C21

lo4-18i s possible.

Micro-

may be used to indicate the severity of wear on a surface.

Some topographic parameters for engineering surfaces are described i n

Appendix

4.

Wear particle studies are most often concerned with chemical composition; x-ray
diffraction analysis and infrared spectroscopy are useful for this purpose.

Transmission

electron microscopy i s useful for finding the distribution of debris size and the particle
shape,

Radioactive tracers may also be applied

C31

O f t e n a replica of the wearing

body is made for identification o f the progress o f wear.

Surface Studies
Microhardness measurements (Appendix 3) are customary on the surface or crosssection o f wear specimens.
etching (e.g, nital),

Some surface layers or contaminants may be removed b y

for study of the underlying substrate.

Impact Force and Pressure

Piezoelectric transducers (e.g. barium titanate crystals) may be interposed for an approximate measurement of the impact force or pressure.

Impact Approach Motion

Electro-optical displacement followers can latch onto a bright mark on the moving
striker,

displaying the motion on an oscilloscope.

High-speed movies are useful.

Repetitive impacting may be observed under strobe light.

Temperature
Infrared measurement and embedded sensors can be used.
indicate specific temperatures b y color change.

Liquid crystals can

These may alter the impact process,

however, acting as a lubricant.

Electrical Conductivity
During the impact, the size o f the real contact area i s proportional t o the electrical conductivity; this may be measured by connecting c o l l i d i n g (metal) bodies into a
circuit.

3.

BALLISTIC IMPACT-WEAR EXPERIMENTS

A ballistic impact-wear testing apparatus [ 4 1 has been designed and b u i l t at the

IBM Endicott Laboratory. Repetitive impacts are achieved on the spherical-head surface
o f cylindrical projectile specimens hurled against a thick disk which rotates a t an angular speed w (Fig. 2).

Three actuator bays are simultaneously operable,

120' apart.

Since the impact point i s a t a distance r from the center of the disk, a relative
tangential speed v = wr i s attained, up t o 8 m/s.

To insure the repetition of impact i n

exactly the same position o f the projectile, a guide surface i s provided i n the actuators.

The projectiles are slightly slotted on one side t o f i t into this guide w i t h a clearance

25 t.lm).

(This eccentricity has a negligible effect on the impact stresses on the

projectile head.) Various shape projectiles have been used (Fig. 3); their typical mass

i s around 1 gram.
One-body wear is ordinarily investigated on the projectiles, and therefore the
target disk i s made o f a hard and negligibly wearing material.

By proper synchroniza-

tion o f projectile firing w i t h the rotational speed of the disk, two-body wear effects can
also be studied i n the ballistic impact wear tester [ 5 1

Because of cleaning problems

associated w i t h the guides, this tester i s used for unlubricated impact wear studies.

Fig. 2. Ballistic impact wear test apparatus: (A) variable DC motor; (8) flywheel
support housing; (C) flywheel; (D) disk-specimen; (E) observing microscope; (F) actuator
assembly (1 of 3).

( a ) Cylindrical
Body
Fig. 3.

( b ) Light-

( c ) Mushroom

Weight with
Cutouts

( d ) Spring Loaded,
Friction Damped

Some projectile specimen designs for the ballistic impact wear apparatus.

The projectiles have an approach distance o f 0.75 mm or less, and a speed up to

V = 5 m/s at a repetition rate of n -- 50 Hz can be achieved. Fine tuning eliminates

double bounces on completing on impact.

The impact time t * ( - 1 0 p ) i s a small

fraction o f the solid-body travel time (-300 p), and the latter isa rather small part
o f the firing cycle time

(120 ms).

The central purpose o f using the wear tester i s t o bring about impacts w i t h predictable and adjustable stress conditions.

Thus, when desired, elastic contact stresses

can be producec', amenable t o Hertz impact analysis.

The wear process historically

observed on the proiectile specimens can then be correlated with the stress parameters,
for given material and surface conditions.

Since major emphasis is placed on the elastic

impact stress range, the proiectiles must be light enough; Fig.

4 shows the peak pres-

sures produced by 1-gram spherical-headed steel projectiles on an infinite steel plane,

i n terms o f the normal impact speed

V and the radius R.

Fig. 4. Maximum peak pressure variation vs. head radius and normal impact speed for
1-gram steel projectiles hitting a steel target, by Hertz theory.

A "test-series" on the ballistic impact wear apparatus involved the measurement

of the one-body wear history for projectiles of the same material and design, with
fixed tangential speeds v applied t o sets o f three proiectiles.
pressure is due t o

V; v influences the conditions o f relative slip on the interface. Sev-

eral test series have been performed on various materials

scribed here.
chapters.

The primary contact

C61 , and some w i l l be de-

Quantitative evaluation and wear models are contained i n the following

Test Series A: Tool Steel Projectiles

O i l hardenable drill-rod tool steel projectiles of m - 0.8 g mass, v-8 surface

finish (6 = 0.5 p n ) and R,
762 cm/s.

43-45 hardness were tested at v

0, 25,

127, 381 and

The head radii were around R -- 14 cm, and V ( = 2 m/s) was selected such

as to make the ratio

o/o v

nearly constant, 0.43,

disk was air-hardening tool steel, R,

= 58-59,

for each projectile.

The target

w i t h a v-16 finish (6 = 1.1 p ) ; i t had

negligible wear,
Under normal impact, hardly any change of the surface topography was noticed
until

lo7

cycles, at which point a roughening and general deterioration o f the surface

was apparent, Fig. 5.

Continuing the impacting up to N = 8 x

l o 7 cycles,

further

breaking up and roughening o f the surface was accompanied by a darkened, oxidized

look.

Some flat,

X-ray diffraction analysis revealed that

circular gulches were seen.

several different iron oxides, with emphasis on F e 3 0 4 , were present.

(a) 13X

(b) 1OOX
7

Fig. 5. Tool steel projectile surface after 10 cycles

- normal

impoct.

25 cm/s),

As a slight sliding speed was superimposed (v

o f wear (equal to the surface finish) appeared near
impact case.

distinguishable amount

10 cycles, similarly t o the normal

The contact area took on a dark, matte look; oxidation appeared oriented

i n the direction of sliding, which is parallel t o the guiding slot on the photos of Fig.
A t the next sliding speed (v =

127 cm/s) wear appeared earlier ( N = lo5); the oxide

layer appeared smoother and brighter dark.

At v =

381 cm/s much o f the oxidation was

brighter red, as i t was mostly composed o f o!Fe 203.

At v
wear first appeared at N =

762 cm/s,

distinguishable

10 4; on further cycles, the contact area assumed a granular,

brighter, uniform look, without striations or any indication o f the sliding direction.

(a) v =

25 cm/s; N = 10

(c) v =

381 cm/s; N

lo5

(b) v

(d) v =

127 cm/s; N

4 x 10

762 cm/s; N = 1 o5

6. Photographs of compound impact wear on tool steel projectiles; 13X.

m = 0.8 g. Note that the oxidation i s turning brighter with increasing
sliding speed component. Impact wear results are shown i n Table 7.2.
Fig.

V =: 2 m/s,

6.

Test Series B; Carbon-Steel Projectiles

Carbon-steel projectiles (C-1018) of m

(6 = 0.5

t.'m) and R

;-

1.2 gram mass, v-8 surface finish

20 hardness were tested for the same range o f sliding speeds v

as the previous tool-steel series.

The spherical projectile head radii were

= 14 cm;

the approach speed was 173 cm/s and the q P Y ratio 0.99.
For normal impact, the first indication of the roughening of the surface appeared
around 10
peared.

cycles.

The surface became progressively rougher, and shallow holes ap-

A t 1.2 x 10' cycles an oxidized, somewhat flaky surface was achieved.

appearance of similar projectiles under somewhat higher impact speed (V

::

The

254 crn/s)

was alike but less oxidized (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7. Scanning electron micrograph of carbon-steel projectile: V = 254 cm/s,

N = 1.2 10'; 2 0 0 ~ .
A t v .- 25 cm/s (V
127 cm/s,

173 cm/s),

a dull, oxidized look resulted.

v = 0,

Raising v to

the oxide cover became more grainy and uniform i n appearance; i t became

progressively brighter towards higher sliding speeds, to v - 381 cm/s.

A t v = 762 cm/s,

the oxides seemed to have been wiped out of the wear scar, which had a bright, matte
look, Wear initiated sooner with the increase of v i n a l l the above cases.

The surface

roughness kept increasing with the number of cycles for normal impact, while for compound impact, maxima were achieved at various points of the wear l i f e (Fig. 8).
Negligible wear of the target disk (alloy-steel 4140,
finish (6

-- 1 tJm)) was noted.

R, = 40-45 with a v-16 surface

Fig. 8.

The change of roughness during the wear l i f e of carbon-steel projectiles.

Test Series C: Aluminum Projectiles

Spherical-headed (R
projectiles (T

-- 4.1

cm, v-16,

6 = 1.1

= 26 kgf/mm2 ) were tested at V

--

0.5-gram aluminum 2024-T4

170 cm/s,

giving rise to q O / u v -

0.82.
For normal impact, roughening-up of the surface initiated between

l o 4 and

5 x 1 0 4 (Fig. 9). Wear initiated progressively earlier with increasing sliding speed.

Fig. 9.

Aluminum projectile surface (normal impacting, N -.-5 x

lo4

; 200X).

A t v = 25 cm/s

and N

1.5 x 10 cycles, a grainy, oxidized, striped surface with

some bright, chisel led points was seen.

A t v - 127 cm/s,

N = 106 cycles, the surface

A t v = 381 cm/s, N = 1 04, the oxide

3
At v = 762 cm/s, N = 10 cycles, a uniform, un-

was divided into various color oxide stripes.

stripes were even more colorful.
striped appearance was nofed.

The overall appearance of the wear scars of steel and

aluminum projectiles showed distinct similarities.

An induction process for wear (re-

sembling fatigue), oxidation and polishing were seen i n various degrees.

4.

PIVOTAL HAMMERING IMPACT- WEAR TESTERS

The main problems w i t h the ballistic impact-wear tester were its i n a b i l i t y t o han-

d l e lubricated contacts, and the sophistication i t required for tuning for specific weight
projectiles.

Some o f these problems can be eliminated i n pivotal hammering type testers.

A basic unit used b y the author i n the IBM Endicott Laboratory was described i n Chapter 3 (Fig. 29) i n connection w i t h repetitive impacting of elastomers.

A hammer i s made

t o impact a stationary target for pure normal impact; reciprocating sliding speed of the
target induces compound impact.

In either case,

lubrication o f the target i s facilitated.

Both cylindrical and spherical hammer striking surfaces have been used.
I n compound impact experiments, one-body wear must be induced on the hammer
surface.

This i s a disadvantage since reference points are harder t o establish on the

hammer than on a target plane.

A second disadvantage of pivotal hammering i s the

flexure arising i n the hammers, leading t o gross fatigue tendencies; a high endurance
l i m i t i s needed for the hammer.

Thirdly, the elastic vibrational modes of the hammer

might complicate its analysis, encumbering the prediction of the stress pulse which i s t o
be correlated w i t h the wear process.

Fourthly, we mention the fact that alignment

problems are more apt t o arise i n pivotal hammers than i n ballistic machines.
often conducive t o small tangential oscillations between hammer and target,

This i s
tending t o

produce surface damage by shear tractions.

A compound impact wear tester is shown i n Fig. 10,

pivotal hammers strike a rotating, thick,

surface speeds up t o v

hard disk.

A variable-speed motor provides

8 m/s at the hammer impact locations. Lubrication ducts lead

t o the target point and a desired rate of flow i s provided.

o i l at the circumference.

C71. Three parallel-mounted

A gutter collects the excess

hammer and continuous lubrication.

Fig. 10. Compound impact wear tester with
(a) Tester - A, Lubrication line; 8, Hammers; C, Rotating target plate. (b) Cylindrical
striking surface (R - 3.5 cm i n vertical plane). (c) Spherical striking surface ( R .- 2.5cm)
of pivotal hammers. Their properties: I,= 1.827 x 10'4g.m2 about the pivot located
at r = 1.83cm; m e q = I , / r 2 - 0 . 5 4 g .
Figure 11 shows impact wear pictures of blued spring s t i z l (A151 C

1095,

R, = 48-51) of v-8 finish (6 .- 0.5 p ) , repetitively impacted by air-hardened toolsteel hammers, R, -- 62-64,
tact.

having a cylindrical surface.

This was a lubricated con-

A t 45,000 cycles, only the sharp edges of the hammer striking surface caused

wear; the rest of the contact area was unworn.

about 100,000 cycles.

Roughening and wear showed up at

The wear scar was quite shiny; i t gradually widened with the

load cycles.
Dry impacting caused roughening-up of the same steel surface somewhat earlier
(10 4cycles).

Oxidation spread from the middle, outward.

The red rust produced

(aFez 0 3 )was due to fretting; the average particle size was 250
contact area was shiny.

i.
Elsewhere,

the

While wear appeared earlier i n the dry case than i n the lu-

bricated case, the later progress o f wear exhibited similar characteristics when plotted
i n a log-log scale (see Chapter 8).
The hammers started wearing later than the softer anvil plates; rust developed on
their striking surface in the dry tests.

A test series was performed to find the effect of repetitive impacting at nominally
elastic impact contact stress upon the hardness of the material i n the contact region.
Spring-steel anvil plates o f 2.18 mm thickness were tempered down to a surface hordness R

,= 35,

and were subsequently impacted b y the standard tool steel hammers

Fig. 1 1 . Photos o f the impact wear of blued spring steel, by cylindrical surface toolsteel hammers, at V - 292 cm/s, v - 0; 50X. (a) Lubricated plate (SAE 5W20 multiviscosity grade motor o i l + 20% polybutylene lubricant); N - 45,000. (b) Plate after
83,000,000 cycles o f dry impact. (c) Hammer after 83,000,000 cycles of dry impact.

of cylindrical striking surface.

After the impacting, the plotes were cross-sectioned

through the longitudinal center plane o f the wear scar, and microhardness measurements
were made across and into the depth.
several scars.

The hardness maps were ob?ained (Fig. 12) for

The maps reveal a softer surface layer, perhaps due t o the tempering

process. The hardness conditions do not significantly vary between

5,000,000

cycles, as indicated by the maps.

= 20,000 and

The gradually receding edges o f the

worn area are also indicated i n the maps; beyond the edges very l i t t l e stress has been
received by the material.
A rotary impact wear tester designed at the University of Stuttgart [81 i s a reciprocating hammering device.

A specimen of a given material can impact a target

specimen at adjustable speeds and impact angles.

This machine was used, along w i t h

others, i n researches into the plastic stress range, and as such, w i l l be discussed i n
Chapter 9.
A novel reciprocating impact wear apparatus has recently been developed by

S. L. Rice [91 a t the University o f Connecticut. The device, shown i n Fig. 13,
features adjustability and measurement of impulses, and provides for the maintenance
o f a constant peak impact force for the duration o f a given experiment.

5.

VIBRATIONAL CONTACTS
In Chapter 1, Section 10, some contact fatigue experiments were described, i n

which oscillations were induced about a preload, without loss o f contact.

Several

popular c y c l i c testing machines exist (e.g. the MTS machine) i n which vibratory loading can be applied; desired shape load pulses can be applied for a half-cycle,

alter-

nating w i t h no contact for the second half of the cycle.

De Gee, Commissaris and Zaat describe an experimental program C l O l i n which
sintered aluminum powder (SAP) hemispheres o f R = 1 cm radius were worn against SAP
planes i n vibrational contact modes.

The powder had excellent qualities as a nuclear

reactor material and would retain its strength at high temperatures; its wear behavior
needed t o be checked out.
torsional oscillations,

or the two together.

a piezoelectric transducer,
10 ms duration.

A tester was b u i l t which was able toapply both normal and

The force during contact was measured b y

The nearly sinusoidal half-pulses were of the order o f

They always contained,

inadvertently, a narrow impact pulse as well;

this had approximately the magnitude o f the peak sinusoidal load, Fig.
load peaks reached 14 kgf.

The repetition rate was kept a t or below 50

14. The highest

Hz.

35. Cylindrical hammers were

Fig, 12. Hardness maps o f tempered spring steel, R,
used i n normal impacting, at n = 50 Hz, V = 177 cm/s.
(a) N -- 20,000,
N o significant
The estimated peak Hertz pressure i s 56 kgf/mm2.
(b) N 2 5,000,000.
change of hardness apparent1y resulted from impacting.

Fig. 13. S.L. Rice's reciprocating impact wear testing machine.

50 Hz, and features adjustability and measurement of impulses.

I t operates up t o

Fig. 14. Simultaneously recorded diagrams:(a) torsion01 amplitude as a function o f time;

(b) normal amplitude as a function o f time; (c) normal load as a function of time. From
De Gee, Commissaris and Zaat C l 01

A fine grey powder was generated as wear debris; x-ray analysis proved this to be
the original SAP.

The wear process was identified as fretting.

The experiments were

conducted both i n a nitrogen gas environment and i n the viscous liquid terphenyl; i n the
latter, the wear rate was twice that o f the former, due to the erosive action o f the
fluid.

The wear rate was

15 times higher at 400C than at 135OC.

The wear was found t o vary exponentially with the normal load (Fig.
torsional, normal and combined vibrations.
pure normal vibration the least.

15)both

for

The latter gave b y far the largest wear;

Since the narrow impoct pulse was of the same approx-

imate magnitude as the vibratory load, no special significance was attributed to i t .

Maximum
Normal Load: Curves a and c
Constant
Normal Load: Curve b

.--.
m
E
E

2
-5

0.1

a,

Normal Vibration
0.01

Vibration

0.001

1
15

5
10
P, normal load, kgf

Fig. 15. Wear of vibrational contact under normal, torsional and combined loading
after 24 hours, From De Gee, Commissaris and Zaot C l O l

The wear of fuel rods, vibrating against grid supports i n l iquid-cooled reactors
was described by Schmugar

El11

Excessive fretting wear tends to strip the cladding

off the fuel rods, exposing them to the coolant.

6.

CHATTERING
Chattering may be defined as the motion o f periodically excited mechanical com-

ponents knocking against a stop.

KO C121 studied the wear arisiilg during the chatter-

ing of heat-exchanger tubes against loose, annular supports.

Both normal and tangential

impact components arise i n the system, due t o external or internal excitations.

Monel 400 tubes of 2.5 cm length vs. 0.62 cm high-carbon steel rings were considered with a diametral clearance up to 0.5 mrn.

(Monel 400 i s a nickel-copper alloy,

comprised of 63-70% Ni and 25-32% Cu, with Fe, Mn, S i and C i n small amounts.)
Excitations of the f = 15-35 Hz range were produced i n a specially b u i l t tester.
tion amplitudes were i n the 0.12

- 0.5

mm range.

The normal component y and the

tangential (circumferential) amplitude x were varied.

air and i n a flow of demineralized water.

Vibra-

Tests were performed both i n dry

Measuring electrical resistance between the tube and ring under dry conditions,

it

was found low during the beginning o f the test but rose w i t h time u n t i l a steady value
(with minor fluctuations) was attained.

This indicated generation o f oxidized debris,

which was broken through occasionally.

Several contacts of 0.7

1 .5 ms duration

were indicated during each vibratory impact cycle.

The wear W was measured by weighing the tube (and ring) specimens on a microThe dependence o f W on the frequency

balance.

number of cycles

f, the y/x ratio, the clearance c, the

N, the excitation amplitude y and f i n a l l y the lubrication were

investigated,
The frequency dependence was found exponentially increasing, and good fits were
obtained according t o the empirical law
W

Kle

K2f

(1 )

For W expressed as a steady-state wear rate, i n mg/cycle,

y/x = 3; the constants were K

2.43 x

mg/cycle,

law was also observed for the wet case; for y/x = 3,

i t was found most severe at

and K 2

0.1541 s.
-i

K1 = 2.11 x 10

The above

mg/cycle and

= 0.0635 s were obtained.

Wear was proportional t o the excitation amp1 itude y; i t was also proportional t o
the clearance c, for constant y ( c

<

y).

This may be explained b y the overall increase

of the impact response with increasing clearance.

the steady-state value.

The i n i t i a l wear rate was larger than

A l l wear curves started with an induction time.

In the wet tests the electrical contact resistance stayed low throughout the test.
Wear rates were similar t o those o f the dry tests, especially at low frequencies.

The

worn surfaces had a shiny and polished appearance while the dry test specimens had a
dull and porous appearance.

KO explained many of the experimental phenomena by the

fretting of the contact.

7.

ROCK DRILLING
Percussive rock drills are widely used i n mining and quarrying, road building,

tunnelling,

w e l l drilling,

etc.

A pneumatically operated piston strikes a d r i l l b i t which

must be quite hard and made to resist repetitive blows o f severe stress.

Montgomery C131

described the impact wear of rock bits which contain tungsten-carbide inserts on their
wear faces; these represent a vast improvement over older, all-sfeel bits.
tions extended both to studies of bits worn i n the field,
tester operated w i t h adjustable parameters.

His investiga-

and t o those i n a laboratory wear

The principal wear mechanism of the r o c k bits was spalling,

fatigue.

The effect o f a superimposed sliding speed o n the wear rate was not large. ( A t

the maximum v/V

v/v=

as a result of surface

ratio,

0.625,

the wear of one b i t material was 20% more than a t

0.21.)
Figure 16a shows a scanning electron micrograph of a worn b i t surface.

shows the cross-section o f a b i t surface,

Figure 16b

through several forming spalls.

Fig. 16. Electron micrographs of a 10% cobalt grade insert from a d r i l l b i t working i n
hard granite rock: (a) Replica of the impact surface; (b) Cross-section o f the impact
surface. From Montgomery 1 131 .

The carbide wear particles had an elongated shape.

The top dimensions of larger

spalls were of the 100 pm range, and their thickness was 20 urn or less.
grades yielded smaller spall size,

Harder carbide

i n general.

In the laboratory tests, the wear was proportional t o the number of impacts.
hardness o f the impacted rock precipitated higher wear rates,

The

Extremely hard carbide

inserts were more sensitive t o repetitive impacting because of their brittleness.

Montgomery used Rozeanu's fatigue wear rate concept [ 141 to establish an anal y t i c a l wear rate, dW/dN.

Q of a spall,
9

He equated the latter t o the product of the average volume

the number C of sites o f possible spall formation and the probability factor

giving the proportion of those sites which receive sufficient energy to produce a spall.

Denoting by U* the effective activation energy for the formation o f a microspall, and

E the average energy at the individual sites of

surface, 9 = exp (-u*/;
), and thus
by

dW
dN

exp

possible spall formation on the carbide

(-"*//;I

Defining X as the fraction o f the blow energy causing stress i n the carbide surface and
U as the blow energy, we may write

r=

U/C,

and there results f i n a l l y for the wear

rate:

Table

1 gives some measured data for three carbide insert materials.

Table 1
Data for three rock d r i l l b i t insert materials

C131

Hardness, Rockwell A
(cm3/blow x 10")

QC

Estimated average spall dimensions lpm)

Estimated spoll volume ipm3 )
N o . o f sites of possible spall formation
per blow per experimental b i t
Average spall area (crn2)
Effective activation energy per cm7
of spall lcm-kgf/cm7)

1
3

25Ox400x 10
10G
0.02

1
I

3x103
0 . 5 ~1 0 '

A large number o f references on rock d r i l l b i t failure studies are found i n Montgomery's

paper

C131

, I n the Soviet Union,

Sorokin has conducted investigations

[I51

REFERENCES
1

D. Scott and H. M. Scott, Proc. Conf. on Lubrication and Wear, Paper N o . 14,
O c t . 1957, Inst. Mech. Eng.,

London.

N , Ohmae and T. Tsukizoe, Wear, 27 (1974) 281-294.

D. Pavelescu and I. Iliuc, Wear, 8 (1 965) 133-142.

R. G. Bayer, P. A. Engel and J. L. Sirico, Wear, 19 (1972) 343-354.

J. L. Sirico and T. H. Lyons, IBM TR 01.1519,

P. A. Engel, J. L. Sirico and T. H. Lyons, Wear, 23 (1973) 185-201.

P. A. Engel and J. L. Sirico, ASLE Trans.,l8 (1975) 279-289.

K. Wellinner and H. Breckel, Wear, 13 (1969) 257-281.

9.

S. L. Rice, Wear, 45 (1977) 85-95.

10

1971.

A. W. J. DeGee, C. P. L. Commissaris and J. H. Zaat, Wear, 7 (1964)

535-559.

11

K. L, Schmugar, ASME Paper 75-WA/TH-79

12

P. L. KO, AECL-4653, Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories, O c t . 1973.

13

R. S, Montgomery, Wear, 12 (1 968) 309-329.

14

L. Rozeanu, Wear, 6 (1963) 337-340,

15

G. M . Sorokin, Zavodskaya Laboratoriya, 37 (2) (1 971) 218-220;

UDC 620.178.167.

(1975).

CHAPTER

1.

7- THE ZERO IMPACT WEAR MODEL

INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter we displayed a rather complex array of wear phenomena

arising i n various types of percussive wear.

explanation i s not yet available,

Since a comprehensive surface physical

modeling must be based on the interpretation o f some

outstanding experimental findings.

A t present, we shall restrict ourselves t o impact

stresses generated under macroscopically elastic (Hertz-type) conditions; the role o f

plasticity w i l l be considered i n Chapter 9.
In the elastic range, an "induction period" for the appearance of significant
roughening or wear was observed i n many tests. With reference t o some ballistic or
pivotal-hammering impact wear tests described i n Sections 6.3 and

6.4, the length o f

the induction period (expressed i n number of cycles N o ) was extremely load-dependent;

the data favored a p3 No = constant-type fit,

P being the peak force of repetitive

impact cycles performed on identical materials, with identical impact geometries.

this early stage of wear life,

For

linear expressions o f the type W - PN d i d not adequately

describe the behavior i n those quoted tests; rather, a similarity w i t h the fatigue endurance of materials (exhibited by the S-N curves) was indicated.
Thus the induction phenomenon has some o f the characteristics of fatigue; i n its
extreme forms pitting, flaking and spalling are induced.
and subsurface crack growth.

These are the results of surface

M i l d e r forms o f fatigue lead t o the roughening o f the sur-

face followed by a continuous process o f oxidation and debris generation.

Consistent

w i t h the type of contact phenomenon, normally impacting surfaces are often similar t o
those subiected to pure rolling C1 I

Repeated liquid impacts are similarly conducive

t o roughening, and subsequently p i t t i n g

process (see Chapter 11).

[21 , as a result of a fatigue-type induction

In purely normal impacting, the breaking up (i.e. roughen-

ing) of the surface layer i s essentially the result of repeated Hertz contact cycles,
periodically stressing the entire contact region.

In compound impact, a tangential

force component i s present, and a large shear traction may result, contributing to the
surface damage.
I n percussion, several wear mechanisms are l i k e l y t o arise as the i n i t i a l induction
process i s about t o be completed.

As a result of the breaking up o f the original surface,

more base material i s exposed to the atmosphere.

oxidation of the base metal i s precipitated.

In the case of steel particularly, the

The oxide layer generally assures an even

transmission of impact load through the gradually widening wear scar, and affords a
mode of protection.

Continued impacting of the oxidized surface results i n the genera-

tion of oxidized debris which itself can act as "rollers"

condition and thus,

indirectly, the wear.

- mediating the further load

On the other hand, the roughened micro-

contacts create new alignment conditions, progressively different from a normal direction,

and introducing more o f a "sliding" component.

These conditions are conducive

t o a fretting-type motion, even where impacting had originally been purely normal to
the surface.

Large sliding components tend t o remove the debris from the contact area,

resulting i n higher wear rates.

A combination of adhesive wear (junction forming),

chemical wear (oxidation), abrasive wear (both plowing and polishing) may result i n the
general case - i n

addition to continuing fatigue tendencies.

I t i s remarked that the

delamination theory of wear closely links fretting wear with surface fatigue
interactions were noted before

[41

In the present chapter the induction period w i l l be modelled.

131, and

I t i s now necessary

to define more closely the geometric condition of the initiation of wear.

I n Fig. 1, the

typical stages of a percussive impact wear process are shown. As a concrete example,
the stages i n the wear l i f e of carbon-steel proiectiles (Section 6.3) are also indicated.
That stage (d), where a general roughening of the impact area i s evident, w i l l be accepted as the end of the induction period, and following the nomenclature used i n the
Bayer-Ku sliding wear theory C51 i t w i l l be called the "zero wear limit".
As a more precise statement of the zero wear limit, i t i s defined as that point i n
the l i f e of a contact when its surface median has been depressed t o half the depth of the
peak-to-valley finish.

This definition, adopted from sliding wear, takes cognizance of

the fact that microscopic, sporadic changes ( i n the asperity dimensions) do occur before
the zero wear limit has been reached; i t i s also practical, regardless the wear mechanism, since i t marks the threshold of distinguishable wear.
The zero wear l i m i t constitutes the i n i t i a l point of the "measurable wear" region
(Fig. 2).

Analytical treatment o f the continuous wear-process i n the measurable wear

region also presupposes knowledge of that i n i t i a l condition, as w i l l be explained i n

Chapter 8. Most mechanical components continue to be functional beyond the zero
wear limit, and their usefulness i s rather connected with the loss of a specific depth of
surface dimension.

For that reason, the measurable wear rate process i s of great interest

to the analyst who tries to arrive at a l i f e prediction for a cyclically impacted part.

Origtnal Surface

Occasional Chips Removed

-.

b)

Occasional Increased Roughness

+u-

c)

Nb N o t Observed

-N.?-1oR

Worn Surface Smoothed

f)

- N

a)

N o t Observed

173 cm/sec

25.4 cm/s-c

rn - 1.2 grams

14cm

Fig. 1. Typical stages o f change o f the surface due t o impact wear (stylized) [11
Note: The data were obtained by ballistic impact of carbon-steel proiectiles (Rc = 20)
o f V8 finish ( 6 = 0.5 tm), against a t h i c k disc made of a l l o y steel 4140: R,= 40-45,
V16 finish ( 6 .- 1 um). (Also see page 167.)
Zero W?ar

--

Measurable Wear

_/_I

5 2

Sliding

h>S

c)

h
I

-No

Cycles,

Fig. 2. Zero wear and measurable wear:

(b) zero wear; (c) measurable wear.

(a) typical log-log plot for wear history;

For extremely sensitive components, the zero wear limit prediction is,
essential to know.

i n itself,

It may also form the rational basis of comparing the durability o f

competing surfaces.
I n what follows,
t i c model.

the compound impact process is fashioned first b y a basic ballis-

This is then u s ~ d
t o derive a rational zero wear l i m i t prediction.

Finally,

the idealizations used i n the compound impact model are reviewed, so that i t can apply
t o a great variety of strikers.

2.

BASIC C O M P O U N D IMPACT MODEL

Let us consider a spherical-headed,

small projectile normally approaching a

tangentially-moving infinite mass of plane surface.

The approaching projectile and

target plate are characterized by their elastic properties (E, v, T,, ); the relative normal and tangential speeds of the two bodies ore denoted by V and v, respectively, as
shown i n Fig. 3.

lP

-0

(Gravity is
Neglected)

Fig. 3. Basic compound-impact model. (a) Projectile approaching moving target plate;
(b) Forces acting on the proiectile during impact.
The object of the ensuing analysis i s to find the conditions governing the variation of the contact forces upon the projectile, during its impact on the target.
the normal contact force component

P tends

While

t o give rise to Hertz contact stresses with

maximal subsurface shear stress, the tangential component F causes shear tractions.
Both the surface and the subsurface stress systems must be accounted for their influence
upon wear.

If the target were stationary, the Hertz analysis alone would describe the impact.
The tangential motion o f the plate, however, imparts ever increasing momentum to the
projectile,

i n the same direction.

through slipping on the interface.

The gradual momentum transfer must take place

During slipping, the shear force may be related t o

the normal force by Coulomb's law

P1

F=pP

(1

where p, the coefficient o f friction,

load and slip velocity.
lubrication,

may now be assumed constant, independent o f

Hydrodynamic lubrication effects are disregarded.

Eq. (1) i s valid.

The influence of the shear force F upon P must now be checked.

analysis

For boundary

From Mindlin's

C61 o f a spherical slider we know that the contact area i s s t i l l a c i r c l e i n quasi-

static compound impact. The shear force component F adds nothing t o the normal
elastic approach.
by Hertz theory,

Thus we conclude that the normal contact event may be calculated

independent o f the superimposed tangential sliding.

F w i l l be calculated by Eq. (1) during slipping o f the proiectile.

I f slipping can

end during impact, giving way t o adherence of the contacting surfaces, F w i l l become
less than

P; i t w i l l be calculated from the condition o f the common tangential speeds,

v, o f the projectile and target.

For greater simplicity,

i n the first analysis o f the compound-impact event, we

shall assume a mathematical point mass m for the proiectile, neglecting its rotation and
possible constraints,

i n the form o f springs, acting on i t .

removed one b y one,

These idealizations w i l l be

later.

We now write the equation o f tangential motion for the proiectile point-mass,
during the contact time t * :
mx = F

(2)

Substituting during the slipping time

7 the Coulomb

force for F, the velocity

(O< x < v)

can be obtained by integration o f Eq. (2):

1P (tl)
t

(0 < t -< T <- t * )

, dt' ;
0
where P (t) is known from Hertz analysis, the geometric,

4=

(p/m)

parameters being defined.

(3)
material and normal impact

As pointed out i n Chapter 2, the Hertz force can at best be

expressed as an integral, and therefore i t w i l l be substituted by a sine curve to simplify

the treatment.

P (t) = P o sin (,t/t*)

This approximation,

illustrated i n Fig.

4a,

retains the peak force Po calculated

from Hertz theory, while raising the rest of the force-time curve from bell-shaped to
sinusoidal. The consequences of this approximation are not at a l l severe, as impact
wear w i l l be seen to depend heavily on the peak force P

,.

We remark at this pojnt that the term "peak" i s used to refer to the time the
impact reaches its height, while the adiective "maximum" takes on a spacial meaning.
Thus one can speak o f a maximum peak pressure, or maximum pressure at various times
or of the peak shear at r = a/2,

(e.g. t = t*/4),

etc.

With the simplifying assumption o f Eq. (4), Eq. (3) yields

x=

(p Pot*/*m)

C1

- cos r t / t * l

(0 < t <-

i)

(5)

Sinusoidal

Po

\
t

Typical
Hertz Variation

(a)

Fig. 4. Concepts used i n the impact model. (a) Sinusoidal approximation for the
Hertz impact force; (b) The slipping t i m e i v s . impact duration, t*.
N o w the slipping time i s obtained by substituting t

t = (t*/r)

cos

-' (1 - ~ m v /Po~ t*)

=
and xi
=v

The negative component of the argument o f the cos"

i n Eq. (5):

(6)
function above i s character-

istic of the slipping properties of a system, and w i l l be a convenient indicator for some
of the expected wear behavior.

We shall call i t the "slip factor" and denote i t

( ~ m v ) / ( ~P o t * )

by f:

(7)

The slip factor can indicate the relative duration o f slipping; i t classifies the impact,
according t o the relative tangential motion, as "normal",
"high sliding speed", as defined i n Table 1.

"moderate sliding speed" or

Table 1
Categorization o f impact according t o the slip faqtor, f = ( ~ m v ) / ( ~ P
t*).
~
Range o f f

Category

f=O
0

< f<

f>
-2

Description

normal impact

Zero relative sliding speed.

&oderate sliding
speed

Slipping gives way t o adherence during the contact

time t*; t i s real valued i n Eq. (6).

high sliding
speed

Slipping persiffs throughout the contact time

(0 < t < t*); t, as calculated from Eq. (6), i s
imaginary. The actual slipping time i s thus equal
f o the contact duration.

A t moderate sliding speeds, the proiectile catches up w i t h the target at t i m e 7

(0

<T<

t*),

and they adhere tangentially for the rest of the impact duration.

This

adherence, o f course, should not be interpreted as any kind o f cold-welding process

between the surfaces.
The adherence condition for the rest of the impact duration i s only v a l i d for a
simple unconstrained projectile; if i t i s anchored by springs, several slip-regions are
possible during the same pulse, as w i l l be discussed i n Section 10.2.
Figure 5 shows nondimensional plots for the tangential proiectile speed during
impact for various values of the slip factor.
vs. t variation,

at t

The model predicts a sharp knee of the

=t,where the ~ r o i e c t i l ei s tangentially

target; this occurs only at moderate sliding speeds, 0

< f<

caught up w i t h the

2.

"Slip Factor"

Fig. 5. Nondimensionol tangential projectile speed during impact for various values of
the slip factor [ l I

3.

THE ZERO IMPACT WEAR EQUATION

Experimental observations indicate that pure normal impacting slowly produces an

i n i t i a l wear phenomenon; the larger the sliding speed component, the faster wear arises
i n a dry contact. This i s particularly true for a fretting wear mechanism,
We shall argue that fhe wear process, which i s strongly dependent on shear
stresses, i s caused by both surface and subsurface damage.
associated w i t h the normal component of the impact.
reaches its maximum

T max

= 0.31 q

The subsurface damage i s

The Hertz-type shear stress

at a depth of z = 0.47a; this location i s somewhat

removed from the worn surface, but not too distant

t o participate i n the generation o f

some wear particles, as w i l l be discussed i n Section 9.2.

The value o f

T~~~

should

anyhow be interpreted as being representative o f the macroscopic subsurface stress

system.
The shear tractions poZ are present whenever a sliding component i s given, since,
even for effective boundary lubrication,

p i s o f a f i n i t e magnitude.

In the absence of

a sliding speed component, the stress state at the projectile apex i s nearly hydrostatic,
allowing\only small shear stresses at the surface.
the sliding speed.

Thus surface damage i s a function o f

The relative magnitude of the surface damage vs. the subsurface

damage should depend on the ratio of the slipping t i m e T to the total contact time t*.
Compound impacts at small slip factors resemble pure normal impact.
slipping throughout the impact duration (f,

2),

In the case of

larger sliding speeds cause longer

sliding paths, precipitating earlier damage.

The basic relation between peak contact force and the number o f loading cycles
for i n i t i a l wear i s sought i n the form
maximum peak shear stresses T,

No p 3 = constant.

and taking a linear combination of these shear stresses

i n the depth and at the surface ( T , and

No(cul
where cu

-r;

By switching from forces P to

,respectively),

we may write:

(8)

+ Q ~ T $ =const
)

and cu2 are the appropriate constants.

Both

and

are multiples of the maximum peak pressure oo during contact.

The "hardness" or shear y i e l d stress

i s related t o the uniaxial tensile y i e l d stress o

by the criterion characterizing ductile materials,

i.e.

data indicate strong dependencies on the stress ratios

T/T

= 0.57 o V

the zero wear criterion

can be stated as:

No(Pl+P2) ( o o / r o v ) g =

Nc

Since the wear

(9

P1

In Eq. (9),

and

P2

are the relative contributions of the subsurface and surface

to the wear damage; the constant y i s a "wear factor"

shear stresses, respectively,

characteristic of the materials, and i t i s to be evaluated from the tests.

Nc may be

adjusted arbitrarily w i t h respect t o y, and thus does not represent an additional constant.

For reasons o f comparison w i t h sliding wear theory, to be discussed further,

w i l l be chosen equal t o 2000, and finally,

Nc

Eq. (9) i s restated i n the form to be referred

t o as the zero wear equation:

N o ( ] + P ) (ao/yo,)9

4.

(10)

PROPOSED CALCULATION OF SURFACE DAMAGE CONTRIBUTION

FACTOR, P
The determination of

basis.

= 2000

from Eq. (10) i s probably best done on a semi-empirical

The following i s one of the possible methods successfully employed C11

The quantity D of "damage" i s introduced as the integral of surface or subsurface

shear stress:
D =

(t)lndt

C$[T

where c i s a dimensional constant; n i s an as-yet undetermined large exponent, emphasizing the stress-dependence of wear contribution w i t h i n a cycle.
the surface and subsurface damages D 2 and

We now define

respectively by the expression

( 1 1).

The surface damage contribution factor i s then the ratio:

P=

D2/D1

(12)

We propose t o calculate the subsurface damage Dl

maximum shear stress,

T~~~

by the use of the subsurface

= 0.31 qmax.While this macroscopic stress quantity appears

as a good choice from both previous arguments and also, from later results, i t i s not an
irreplaceable element o f the zero wear analysis.
posed use of the "asymptotic" shear stress ,T

As an interesting idea, Tallian pro-

that arises under an asperity [7,81

(See Eq. 1.36).

We have, b y the macroscopic subsurface damage criterion, using q = qmax:
D l = c l ( 0 . 3 1 q (t)

" dt

Assuming sinusoidal variation o f the maximum pressure q (t), culminating i n the peak
pressure o

q (t) =

sin ( r t

/ t*)

'

the substrate damage becomes

Ti

D l = (ct* C 0 . 3 1 * 0 ~ n /T)

Jsinn
0

d<

The surface damage D 2 i s computed next; the damage integral i s first evaluated for the
moderate, and then for the high, sliding-speed range.
D

Moderate Sliding Speeds (0 < f

<

2)

The integral (1 1) i s extended bver the slipping time only, as no surface damage is
expected during adherence.
T 2

The surface shear stress i s written from Coulomb's law:

= pq:
T

D, =

J r P q (t)indt
0

By substitution of Eq. (6) f o r 7 we obtain by use o f Eq. (14):

cos-l(l - f)
sin "5 d(
D = (ct* Cp o0 I /v)/

and,

(1 7)

by (15) and (17), the surface damage contribution factor:

High Sliding Speed (f

>

2)

Some experimental evidence shows decreased zero wear l i f e with increasing

sliding speed i n the high sliding speed range.

The definition of surface damage, Eq.(16),

does not allow for the variation o f f over the value 2, since when f,
the upper limit of the integral.

2, t = t * remains

Thus, biasing o f D 2 i s recommended, i n proportion t o

the excess sliding speed over the value

7 iust

corresponding to the threshold of high

sliding speed, f = f = 2.
t*

D,

= c (v/;)/~~q
0

(t)ln dt

where, by the definition of the slip factor (7):

The surface-damage contribution factor i s f i n a l l y written i n simple form,

(19 )

An indiscriminate use of the above biasing procedure for slip factors much higher than 2
i s not recommended since different physical factors may also enter at ultra-high speeds,

potentially with a beneficial effect (e.g. melt lubrication

191 ).

Thus a test for the

prevalent wear mechanism should be repeated at those speeds.

5.

EVALUATION OF Y A N D n FROM BALLISTIC

IMPACT WEAR TESTS
In the previous chapter (Section 6.3),

ballistic impact wear tests on tool-steel

and carbon-steel proiectiles were described, as Test Series A and B, respectively.

In

these tests, observations were made on the zero wear limit, at controlled stress conditions and at various sliding speeds.

2 and 3 show calculculated and measured

Tables

values pertaining to these tests.

Equation (10) was used t o evaluate y , by comparison w i t h the experimental
results [ lI
yielded

. Hertz analysis yielded t*,

and the slip factor f.

P o and a,.

The factor

The compound impact model

depends on the applicable range of

sliding speed (normal, moderate or high); and on the value of n.

Fixing y, various

integers for n were used i n the proposed damage calculation formula, Eq. (16).

Of a l l

integer values up t o 10, n = 9 yielded most consistent results, and was subsequently
retained i n the model.
W i t h n = 9, the surface damage contribution (Eq. 12) has the expression

= !J9

F (f)

(22)
cos-l(l - f )

where, by (18):

F (f) =

"
(0 < f <
0.31'
0.8127

and, by (21):

F (f) =

sing(d[

2)

(23)

f
2 x 0.31'

The dependence o f

on f for P varied between 0.4 and 1.0 i s shown i n Fig. 60.

dry sliding tests o f tool steel at 0.05 cm/s,

P = 0.62 was obtained

In

[7].

Tables 2 and 3 show the results of the calculation o f the factor y , i f the latter i s
solved from Eq.

(lo),

w i t h the experimentally observed zero wear l i m i t No :

(25)

The evaluation o f compound ballistic impact test series on tool-steel and carbonsteel projectiles resulted i n a common value, y = 1 . 1 for the wear constant

[I 1

For

the exponent, n = 9 was adopted, and thus for the impact wear model, the surface
damage contribution,
impact wear limit.
wear l i m i t No

105

p,

can be evaluated by Eqs. (22, 23, 24) and Fig. 6.

This i s a

Fig. 6b shows the effect o f the wear factor Y on the predicted zero

moderate
sliding speed

-7)- S . S .

(a)
Fig. 6. Surface damage contribution B a n d F(f) vs. s l i p factor,
are defined i n Eqs. (22 - 24).
The relations of F(f) and

R ~ V / ~ Jt *P
. ~

A comparison o f theoretical vs. measured zero impact wear points for the toolsteel and carbon-steel projectiles i s shown i n Fig. 7.

Surface finish:

Note ellipt~cityof several projectile heads. whlch are characterized by double radii R and contact ell~psedimensions 'a'.

Results and evaluation o f test series on tool steel specimens.

Table 2

V8

--

tested.
Note: Each line in the table corresponds to 3 project~les

Given
Calculated

Results and evaluation of test series on carbon steel specimens.

Table
Surface finish:

V8

,
By use o f
measurements

6.

UNIVERSAL APPLICABILITY OF THE COMPOUND

IMPACT ZERO WEAR MODEL
Some outstanding features of the model concern the great influence of relative

sliding speed, through

P.

When the sliding speed v and thus f is small,

more than zero, and N i s nearly the same as that for normal impact.
over 0.2,

picks up rapidly under elastic contact stress.

i s not much

But as f grows

In the high sliding speed

range, the influence of v grows at a much slower rate than i n the moderate -v range.
extremely high sliding speeds, this model may of course break down due to unaccountedfor physical phenomena, such as shock waves, melt-lubrication,

etc.

A t this point, comparison o f the impact wear model with the Bayer-Ku zero sliding
wear model [51 i s possible.

The latter i s based on a zero wear limit formula for the

number of passes N (Section 1 -4) :

where one pass means sliding length corresponding to the contact length, under constant
The value of

force.

max i s the maximum shear stress anywhere i n the contact;

yr

is

either 0.2 or 0.54 i n the overwhelming maiority of systems.

If we consider a full sliding pass and apply the damage criteria of the previous
section,

we obtain,

for the subsurface damage i n a slider:

t*

Dl =

cS(0.31 a, )' dt = c t * (0.31 a,)'

0
and for the surface damage
tf

D2= ~ / ( ~ a , ) ' dt=ct*(~o,)'

0
and thus the surface damage contribution factor

Using the compound impact wear formulation (lo), we then get, for ~ / 0 . 3 1

and by the sliding wear formula (26), with

T~~~

= I-' a

,and

T,,

= 0.57 u,

>> 1,

Equating Ni w i t h N,

Thus i f y r =

, IJ.

drops out and we obtain

0.54 i s considered,then y

what lower than the y =

1.0 is obtained this way. This value

i s some-

1 . 1 obtained b y the experiments just described.

The Bayer-Ku theory postulates use of the contact length 20 for pass length S
when the sliding stroke i s smaller than 20,

i.e. for small oscillatory (fretting) motion.

Adapting this to the limiting case of normal impact (where the stroke length i s zero),
once more the result of (27) i s obtained i f we put

T~~~

0.31 u o and

= 0.

The great generality o f the compound impact wear theory i s manifested i n the

p
f.

factor; this includes those crucial impact-parameters which enter into the

s l i p factor,

The next section w i l l show how sensitive f i s t o the translational and rotational

stiffness.

In comparison, Eq. (26) i s invariable w i t h the sliding speed component of

impact as long as v t *

<

20, a condition interpreted as oscillatory motion w i t h S = 20.

I n the experiments tabulated i n Tables 2 and 3, v t *

<

20 holds, and the variation of v

i s decisive for wear.

Normal impact tends t o be related t o fretting where the resulting debris i s retained i n the contact, unlike i n reciprocating sliding motion where the debris i s swept
away.

The concepts o f adherence and slip, the amplitude o f the tangential motion

and the tangential compliance are extremely relevant i n fretting wear; the wear rate
decreases w i t h diminishing amplitudes
these features, and consequently,
engineering materials,

[lo, 1 1 I. The impact wear theory considers

i t should be universally applicable to a class of

for both sliding and compound impact.

It requires the experi-

mental evaluation o f a constant ( y ) for each pair of materials.

7.

EFFECT OF HAMMER ROTATION O N THE COMPOUND

IMPACT C O N D I T I O N S
So far we have considered a spherical-headed projectile impacting a target; the

impacting body was treated as a point-mass having only translational motion.

During

compound impact, the proiectile may actually rotate as well as translate as i t slips, and
later adheres, onto the moving target.
Figure 8 shows the position o f the projectile during impact.

The projectile i s

assumed a x i a l l y symmetrical, so that two rigid-body degrees o f freedom

motion:

describe its

(the tangential translation o f its center o f mass) and 8 its rotation.

tact approach i s again assumed decoupled, independent o f Z a n d

8.

The con-

Fig.

7. Comparison o f measured and calculated cycles to zero wear I1 I .

Target

Position at Instance
of H i t (t = 0)

Position During

(O<t<tX)

Fig. 8.

Rotating and translating projectile during impact.

The equations of motion during slipping of the proiectile are written as follows:
for translation
mx = F = pP (t)

(28)

and, for moderate rotation ( 8 z s i n 8, cos 8

=~ F L0+ P ( L -

= 1),

R ) @ = P C I - I L + ~ ( L -R)]

Equation (29) shows that there are several practical alternatives for the rotational motion, depending on the value i n the outer parentheses.

Particularly

boundary lubrication with a substantial p, the value of (L

for dry contact or

R) alone indicates the ex-

pected type of rotation:

(a)

If L

= R,

we may neglect the second term i n the outer parentheses, and have

I
,
,
@
= pLP(t)
(b)

If R

> L,

(30)

we have a stabilizing effect from P, which w i l l keep 8 small so as to

produce Eq. (30) once more.

(c)

If R

<

L, rotation will tend to be more accentuated. This case leads to the ad-

herence condition more quickly than the alternative cases (a) and (b), since rapid rotation of the proiectile precipitates faster tangential motion of its contact point, so i t may
catch up with the target.
In evaluating the effect of rotation on slipping, we shall once again resort to the
assumption of sinusoidal impact force variation, Eq.
velocity

(4), which

leads to a translational

similar to Eq. (5).

Assuming L

R, and thus the validity o f Eq. (30), based on the above arguments

there results:

We now solve for the instantaneous tangential velocity of the projectile contact point B.
The velocity of a point which i s on a moving platform [ 121 i s described i n vector
notation:

-;
where

= ";tuxf

1i s the origin of the moving system,

w_ its angular velocity, and p_ the position of

the moving point with respect to the moving system. We thus set, by taking the center
of mass of the proiectile as the origin of the moving coordinate system:
*

xB = x+L8

$1

Solving for the slipping time t = t when x B = v,

v =

r'"
~lm

[I-

cos

*
[I ICG/L*

from which:
t

nmv

$-]

P Po t*

P P o t * (I+ ( m ~ 2 ) / I C G )

COS

In the brackets, the slip factor f is seen, divided by the term (1

+ mL2/

EG ).

Com-

paring this result w i t h Eq. (6) for pure translation, we see that the rotation of the
projectile causes the effective slip factor o f the system to be reduced:

This tends to bring about earlier adherence during the impact, terminating slip.
We shall not pursue here the solution o f the practically rarer case o f L

> R;

very

small radii are conducive to large impact stresses, and wave propagation effects tend to
Solution for the translational and rotational motions i s

upset quasi-static conditions.

facilitated by the Runge-Kutta method, i n that more complicated case; i t is remarked,

however, that the larger rotational tendency inherent i n the case of L

>R

leods to faster

adherence, and thus less surface-damage contribution.

The effect o f rotation on the ballistic test results on tool-steel and carbon-steel
w i l l now be shown.

This contribution was hitherto neglected.

For these proiectiles,

L << R can be taken, and Eq. (30) w i l l be applicable.

Tool Steel
For the tool-steel projectiles (Table 2), R = 14 cm, L = 0.3 cm, and L <<R;
2
factor mL /ICG
= 2.5. Thus the effective slip factor
f e f f =-

1 +2.5

the

=- f

3.5

The corresponding corrected

factors are denoted by

Peff

wear estimates w i l l now be revised w i t h this correction.

exponent n = 9 are retained.

I n the following Table

From Table 2, the zero

The wear factor y =

1.1 and

4, comparisons are shown between

corrected and uncorrected values, also indicating the range of sliding speed applicable.

Table 4
Rotational correction of tool-steel ballistic test results (see Table 2).
f
0

(normal) ' 0

0.18 (mod.)
0.89 (mod.)
3.92 (high)
7.88 (high)

measured

Peff

eff

I 0.052 (mod.) 1 0.05 1

0.255 (mod.)

1 . I 2 (mod.)

1.6

1 330 1

I 2.25 (high) / 580 /

1 0'

lo7
lo5
lo5
lo4

Carbon Steel
Table 5 contains the rotational corrections for carbon-steel projectiles based on
Table 3. For these projectiles, once more L << R; mL2 / I CG = 2.67, and f,,,
=f/3.67.
Table 5
Rotational correction of carbon-steel ballistic test results (see Table 3).

Peff
0

8.

(normal)

I measured [ uncorrected I corrected

0.24 (mod.)

0.065 (mod.)

1.19 (mod.)

0.324 (mod .)

3.58 (high)

0.973 (mod. )

7.16 (high)

1.95

(mod.)

SPRING RESTRAINT ON STRIKER

Consider a spring k restroining the projectile (Fig. 9) against translation i n the

x-direction.

N o rotation i s considered a t first, and the target i s assumed massive

(m2= a).
We shall write the equation of motion during slipping; the normal force P (t) i s
assumed known, independent of tangential forces:
m y = p (P(t)

- kx

The initial conditions ore:

t=O:

x=O,ic=O

(34)

Fig. 9.

Spring-restrained ~ r o j e c t i l eimpacting infinite mass moving at speed

For the sinusoidal force -approximation

(4)

- the

V.

exact solution of the inhomo-

geneous ordinary differential equation (34) i s obtained after some manipulation, in the
following form:
IJ Po

x (t)

m (w2-

q2)

[sin p t

-2

sin u t ]

(35)

where we define
w

as the natural circular frequency of motion i n the tangential direction, x, and

Q

(37)

iT/'/t*

as the "impact frequency".

Differentiating
x (t) =

(35), the speed of m, during slipping is:

qIJ Po
m(w2- cp ')

Equating x = v at t =

[ cos q t

we obtain the transcendental equation for

coswt - c o s q T - f ( 1 -w2/q2)
Figure 10 shows the effect of w o n i :
increases.

- cos wtl

=O

T:
(39)

as the spring i s made stiffer (w/q i s increased),t

Thus, slipping through more of the contact time i s l i k e l y to be brought about,

w i t h increased tendency for surface damage wear contribution.

Neglect of this effect i s

therefore unconservative for wear prediction.

Fig. 10.

Slipping time vs. slip factor relationship,

for various spring restraints [71

Now let us combine the effects of rotation and of translational spring restraint (Fig. 11).

Fig.. 11.

Spring-restrained rotating projectile during impact.

We again obtain Eq. (31) for the angular speed, and for the translational speed, by (38):
v
- cos w t - cos q t l
(40)
f(l-w2/92)

"

Stipulating
for

AB

= v at t =

7:

<

Cosd-cOstt

- w2/$,2

and using (31), there results the transcendental equation

L
m

[, -sos$,t]

(41)

I CG

Equation (41) reduces t o (32) i f

i t reduces to (39) i f

ICG = w

k = 0,

and thus w = 0 (no spring),

O n the other hand,

(no rotation).

The calculation o f t is easiest done

by first

finding the effective slip factor

from (33), and then solving (39), using Fig. 10 with this value entered for f .
answer is an imaginary value, then? = t*,
must be reckoned with.

feif

If the

and slipping throughout the contact time

The summary of the calculating procedure outlined at the end

of this chapter lists the necessary steps to be taken i n that case.

9.

OTHER-THAN-SINUSOIDAL

IMPULSE

So far, only the sinusoidol pulse shape (4) has been considered for specific derivations.

This shape often offers mathematical simplifications,

but there i s generally no

difficulty i n working with other pulse shapes more closely approximating the actually
occurring one (assuming that a transducer measurement o f the actual pulse can be made).
I n what follows, a few possible shapes w i l l be specifically treated.

Triangular Pulse
Consider a triangular pulse (Fig. 12) and find.7 on which computation o f D2 rests.

Fig. 12.

Triangular (isosceles) pulse.

There are three possibilities for +: ( i )

; ( i i ) t*/2

< T<

t*; and ( i i i )

= t*

The equation o f motion, m x = p PI subject t o the i n i t i a l conditions t = 0:

x = x = 0, i s solved; now
dition, t = 7:
:=

;= v,
*

therefore f

<

P = (2Po/t*)t,

the slipping time

<t<

tX/2).

By use o f the adherence con-

ii s obtained:
(42)

f = (nmv)/(p Po t*).

Since (i) i s the case when i / t *

< 1/2;

w/4 i s its criterion.

I f a calculation, by (42),

than w/4),

(0

where f i s the slip factor,

(ii)

t*/2

(slip throughout the pulse).

(i)

T<

has yielded a

i m a y f a l l i n the interval t*/2

7 value

< t <t * ,

greater than t*/2 (or f i s larger

Then P (t) must be taken i n two

segments, i n the integration of the equation of motion:

P = 2P0 t/t*
P = 2P, (1

ascending phase (0

- t/t*)

( t ( t*/2),

descending phase (t*/2

and
t

5 t*).

The integration of the equation of motion now yields:

Several other pulse shapes can be treated, and t h e 7 vs. f relationship determined.
This has been done for three more cases (Fig, 13); the results only are given below.

Rectangular Pulse (Fig. 130 and b)

Range of f for adherence:
Characteristic equation:

t/t*

= f/w

< f<

w.

Rectangular Pulse

f
I

Peaked Pulse

c ) Pulse Shape

Cosine Pulse

e) Pulse Shape

d) f vs. t/t*

f ) f vs. i / t *

Fig. 13. Various pulse shapes and the corresponding f vs. t / t * relations: (a, b) rectangular pulse; (c, d) ~ e a k e dpulse; ( e l f) cosine pulse.

Peaked Pulse (Fig. 13c and d)

Region

I:

P = Po

Region II:

Ranges of f for adherence:

(I

< f < 0.57,

0.57< f < 1.14,
0

for -It*
for 0.5

( 0.5;

i/t*<

1.0

Characteristic equation:
f =

*t
t*

f =

*t
t*

- sin

*t
.
t* '

*t
- 2;
t*

0 r,

(Region I)

sin

(Region 11)

Cosine Pulse (Fig. 13e and f)

Range o f f for adherence 0

< f < n/2.

Characteristic equation:

f =

10.

(2n

sin

2wT
Tr)

EQUIVALENT ZERO WEAR LIMIT

For some material combinations,

the zero wear concept may not apply or i t may

be different from that expressed i n Eq. (10).

If, for example, a linear wear mechanism

W = KPN is considered from the original, pre-impact state, we may postulate an equivalent zero wear limit No corresponding to the depth of wear reaching h = b/2.

Suppose

a spherical striker of radius R i s developing a flat during some i n i t i a l cycles No so that

2

the volume of the spherical segment is W = ah R = n 6

including the slip conditions i n a factor

11.

R/4.

Solving for No, and

which i s calculated as earlier, we obtain

SUMMARY OF GENERALIZED COMPOUND IMPACT COMPUTATION

For calculation of the

the moderate range, i.e.

factor, the slipping time

<

t*; otherwise the high v-range formulae apply.

imust be found - i f v

steps of a calculation procedure are as follows:

(1) Find

t from the appropriate characteristic equation,

t/t* vs. f.

i s of
The

Since

~
i s a constant, independent of the support conditions, we can evaluate
f = * m ~ /Pot*

-t,

should i t be a real number. A non-real answer for

t would mean that adherence

never materializes during impact; this continual slipping condition would indicate the
"high sliding speed" region.
In the moderate sliding speed region
complication arises calcula!ing

(7 <

D2/D1

t*),

iyields D2

by Eq

. (16),

and no

(2) Once we are i n the high sliding speed region, we proceed as follows: We
note the slip factor

T at which we would be

corresponding to the given

I/~L'

w/q,

just at the threshold of the high range,

, etc.,

values.

Dividing

f by f, we obtain

the factor by which to multiply the threshold value of the surface damage for our
problem.

Thus we get
t*

D, =

(f/f)
/C

and

T2

(t) I

dt

= D2/D1 follows.

It i s remarked that in spite of the great variety of possible pulse shapes, the use of a
sinusoidai pulse is gener~$lysatisfactory for the calculation of
and the total impulse

P,

provided both Po

P(t)dt are kept constant,

REFERENCES

P. A. Engel, T. H. Lyons and J. L. Sirico, Wear, 23 (1973) 185-201.

G. P. Thomas and J. H. Brunton, Proc. R. Sac. London, Ser. A, 314 (1970)

549-565.
N. P. Suh, Wear, 25 (1973) 1 1 1-124.
R. B. Waterhouse, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng.,

London, 169 (1955) 1157-1 164.

R. G. Bayer, A. T. Shalkey and A. R. Wayson, Machine Design, 41 (1) (1969)

142-151.
R. D. Mindlin, J. Appl. Mech.,

16 (1949) 259-268.

P. A. Engel, J. Lubr. Technol.,

96 (1974) 455-463.

T. E. Tallian and J. I. McCool, Wear, 17 (1971) 447.

E. Rabinowicz, Friction and Wear of Materials, Wiley, New Yark, 1965, 106.
A. R. Wayson, Wear,

7 (1964) 435-450.

N. Ohmae and T. Tsukizoe, Wear, 27 (1974) 281 -294.

H. Goldstein, Classical Mechanics, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1950.

CHAPTER 8 -MEASURABLE

1.

IMPACT WEAR THEORY

INTRODUCTION
Most engineering contacts are still useful after having worn past the "zero wear

limit".

In this chapter, we shall study the wear process i n the measurable wear region,

for repetitively impacted elastic contacts.

The measurable wear process depends on the wear mechanism, i.e. on the p a r t i c i pating materials under given impact and surface conditions.
mechanisms (Chapter 1) are possible.

Virtually a l l the basic wear

Repetitive impacting of some high-strength metals

or b r i t t l e materials produces surface fatigue (Section 6.7).

t o cause abrasive wear on metal type (see Section 10.2).

Printing against paper i s apt

Chemical and thermal impact

wear i n metal vs. plastic combinations have been observed (Section 10.4).

Steel and

aluminum are l i k e l y to develop fretting wear i f tangential motion, however minute, can
take place during impact.
Faced w i t h a multitude of possible wear mechanisms, the concept o f a zero impact
wear l i m i t ( N o ) has nevertheless been found very practical i n most applications.
usually indicates induction periods of wear which are extremely stress-dependent.

It
Even

for an impact wear process not exhibiting an induction period, the cycle number No
a t which wear has reached half the surface finish, merits knowledge.

Since wear rates

(dh/dN) are usually better predicted (by comparison o f past cases) than the actual magnitude o f wear, a point on the wear curve i s helpful.

Wear curves (h vs. N ) are usually

plotted i n a log-log graph, and short o f an "origin", the zero wear point can be serviceable for analytical purposes.
In the measurable wear range, we invariably speak o f rate processes, which may
be regarded as starting at N o (Fig. 7.2).
pared" (e,g.

"wear-in",

N o t only has the contact surface been "pre-

breaking up o f the contact surface, etc.,

having taken place),

but a geometrical process of enlarging the wear scar has been initiated now.

For the

ensuing treatment, we shall keep the choice o f wear mechanism open; i t w i l l be assumed
that some mathematical statement of the wear mechanism i s available.
For the modeling o f impact wear processes accordingly four basic approaches may
be listed:

(a) Empirical wear models:

Experimental curves o f a given wear process can be

plotted, and an empirical wear law fitted, similarly to the erosion studies o f Section5.4.
(b) Linear wear models: Postulating linear wear-dependence an an impact-forcerelated quantity and the number of cycles, a rate equation of the form

may be written (e.g.

Sections 10.2 and 10.3).

The constant

would include the ef-

fect of the sliding component, the surface parameters, and the elastic material parameters.

K S/3p,

, have
Comparing with the linear wear laws of sliding wear (W = K P X / ~ ~ ) we

R=

where S is the sliding stroke length, the total sliding path being x = NS. We

note that, i n normal impact, no sliding distance exists; the presence of microslip may
be argued i n some cases, as i n rolling wear (Section 1.10).
(c) Wear models based on activation energy concepts:
proach have been used.
tion 1.5).

Several forms o f this ap-

The chemical (corrosive) effect led to a linear model (Sec-

The concept of fatigue rate processes inspired a predictive law of micro-

spalling o f impacting rock d r i l l bits (Section 6.7).

(d) Stress-dependent wear formulation:

The above wear models say nothing about

the change of wear scar geometry, only about the volume of wear.

Since i n repetitive

impact the continuous widening of the wear scar influences the impact response, the
worn geometry i s best introduced by including stress dependence (force per area) i n the
wear rate equation.
is the current

This could be expressed b y writing dW/dN

K f (u,

N), where

cs

peak Hertz pressure. We note that wear dependence on stress is equiv-

alent t o its dependence on volumetric strain energy, which has also been found true i n
various erosion processes. This approach w i l l be explored i n this chapter; its connection
w i t h other (e.g.

2.

linear) wear models w i l l also be shown.

THE OPTIMAL WEAR-PATH

When a contact has passed the zero wear limit,

it has an incipient wear scar, the

depth of which exceeds half the original surface finish.

We shall be interested i n the

subsequent growth of that scar, and shall attempt t o relate its growth mathematically
t o the number of cycles sustained.

To this end, we shall adopt the philosphy that by

taking particular geometric shapes i n wearing,

critical stress.

a contact optimally redistributes the

This "optimal wear-path principle" 111 w i l l be explained and formal-

ized later. Elastic contact stress and mild wear processes w i l l be treated.

The incipient wear scar can be of various shapes, depending on the impact
parameters, impacting geometries and the yield (failure) properties of the material,

In

most materials, the Hertz shear stress (which rapidly grows from the surface towards the
depth along the vertical axis), may be taken as a "failure parameter"; thus a central
wear scar, in,the form of a crater,

i s expected to initiate.

Occasionally,

one encoun-

ters materials which are sensitive t o the Hertz tensile stresses arising i n the outer region
of a contact, causing a wear scar not at the center, but toward the edge of contact.
This does not refer t o those cases where stress concentrations due to abrupt line contacts
are responsible for the first appearance of wear (Fig. 1).

(Finite Cylinder)

Hard Striker

TOP VIEW:

v
a) Initial Crater at Center

Initial Wear Scars

i Due t o Stress n

b) Initial Scars a t Edge

of Contact

Fig. 1, Three common types of wear scar formation. These shapes are functions o f the
impact geometry and the yield properties o f the material.
I n the following analytical freatment we shall restrict ourselves t o the wear geometry o f a central scar, alternatively called a crater.
ioned i n terms of the impact cycles received.

The crater growth i s to be fash-

For mathematical treatment i n spherical

geometry, a parabolic crater w i l l be assumed which is described by only two geometric

parameters

- say its meridional radius o f curvature R and its half-diameter,

s (Fig. 2).

Three concepts should be carefully distinguished for ensuing discussions (Fig.

3).

The process of the change of geometric crater parameters (R, s) w i l l be referred

to as wear formation.

Specifically,

one would be interested t o know in what relation

to one another do R and s change i n a given impact configuration.

Note:

Fig. 2.

1.

Ty17Ty2

2.

R i s Negative (Seat)

q hpN
ph

Hard b a l l causing parabolic wear crater in softer half-space.

Measurable

s,=s

ho

I
I

t*
(a) Wear Formation
Fig. 3.

(b) Wear History

(c) Impact History

Concepts i n measurable impact wear.

The wear history on the other hand i s the change of a representative crater dimension (say its depth h) w i t h respect to the number of cycles N applied; its mathematical
(predictive) statement i s a wear law.
The impact history i s the variation of contact quantities (e.g. contact force) with
respect to time during a single impact.

During the wear history, we may talk about the

"current pressure" which would mean the peak pressure arising at the height of contact
during an individual cycle, after N repetitive impacts sustained i n the l i f e of the
contact.
I n order to approach the problem of wear formation, we shall now define the
optimal wear-path.

Consider the n geometric wear scar parameters xi ( i = 1,2,

. ..n)

and a critical stress-related failure parameter Q defining an (n

wear-

Of a l l admissible variations of x i , the optimal wear-path i s the one

state surface.

causing the fastest relief (i.e. steepest descent) of Q.

x i = (s,

+ 1)-dimensional

This i s illustrated i n Fig. 4, for

R).

.I

Q, Failure Parameter

- - - - - - - - - - - - -a (s, R): Geometric Parameters

/'

of the Wear Scar

Wear State Surface)

Fig. 4. The optimal wear-path i n two-dimensional (s, R) space corresponds to the

steepest descent path on the wear-state surface, [21
N o constraints are shown.

The mathematical prescription for the optimal wear-path i s :

minimize Q ( x i )
subject to the constraints for admissible x

and the i n i t i a l condition xi,

The constraints may be arithmetic ones G j (xi ) = 0 (e.g.,

petitive loading), or inequality constraints gk (xi ) > 0,
I f an initial point (x io

, Q,

space of the x

prescribing the re-

, restricting

scar geometry.

) on the wear-state surface i s known, the steepest

descent follows the local gradient.

where AL i s a small length, and

[31

(2)

This may be computed by the gradient method

V p the gradient vector,

C41 :

both i n the n-dimensional

We shall now consider normal impact, with a softer plane surface wearing towards
conformity with a non-wearing hard ball.

For failure parameter Q, the peak pressure o

w i l l be accepted; should the critical stress quantity be a Hertz stress component, i t w i l l be

proportional to

0.

For a microscopic critical stress parameter such as the peak of the

asperity force distribution,

o is also serviceable, since Greenwood and Tripp C51 have

shown the asperity force distribution to be proportional to the Hertz pressure for highly
loaded contacts.
G i v e n a contact l i k e that of Fig. 2, w i t h incipient wear i n the shape o f a para4

bolic crater, let us consider the constraints for the growth of the latter.
the wear scar cannot extend outside the current contact area.

I t i s clear that

This fallows from the

stress dependency of wear, ~ o s t u l a t e dalready i n the zero wear study; we also exclude
the possibility of brittle fracture.

The remaining configurations of a wear scar are:

(a) contact at peak extends over the shoulder of the crater, onto the plane surface; and
(b) contact (at peak) matches the wear crater (Fig. 5).

-K

; @ -

ContactRadius
Radius

a a

Crater
ContactRadius
Radius

Radius
Radius

Fig. 5. Various possibilities for the current wear crater size s, relative to the current
peak contact radius a. Both (a) and (c) may be e l irninated.
For the same impact momentum, i t has been shown [61 that a larger impact stress
results i f contact extends over the shoulder of the crater than i f i t i s confined to a seat;
this eliminates Case (a) from contention,

resulting i n the constraint

(4)

s=a

Thus, after passing the zero wear point, the wear crater tends to coincide with the current contact dimension.

The growth of the wear crater advances w i t h gradual change i n

the magnitude of the seat radius R toward conformance with the shape of the hard indenter R,.

While conformance is increasing, the nondimensional curvature p E R,/R

roaches the value -1

ap-

without ever quite reaching it. This has been experimentally

confirmed i n a great number of cases by profilometric observations.

Figure 6 shows an

example of the gradual conformance of a plane steel surface to a cylindrical hammer

surface.

The variable nature of the radius o f curvature R o f the crater i s i n contrast

with the usual wear formation of sliding wear, where conformity o f the wearing body to
the hard slider is "instantaneous",

beyond the zero wear range

[71

Materials:
Scale:
-

Torget: Blued Spring Steel AISIC1095. R.L = 48-51

Each small vertical division = 0.5 pm
Each small horizontal division = 50 pm

R = I 0 cm

- estimated from trace

Hammer: Corpenter Extra

Air-Hardened Tool Steel.
R, = 62-64; Radius = 3.5 cm

/N

N = 3,500,000

Rz7.5 cm

R=5crn

= 550,000 cycles

/N

f-

= 13,400,000

cycles

cycles

N = 83,000,000 cycles

Fig. 6. The process of changing curvature on f l a t steel target surface impacted by hard
cylindrical hammer C81. A viscous motor o i l boundary lubricant was applied.
From the above, heuristic method of reasoning, we shall now make a sweeping
generalization for the optimal wear-path of normal impact wear and term i t the Princ i p l e of Variable Curvature:

Impact wear proceeds with continuously changing curva-

ture on the softer body, toward conformance w i t h the shape of the harder body; meanwhile,

the current worn area tends t o coincide w i t h the current (peak) contact area.

N o w we can show that the optimal wear-path analysis for a repetitively impacted
Hertz crater (s,

R) reduces t o a simple result.

Using the nondimensional form p

R1/R,

we have
(i

= Kl (1 + p )

315
s

where

K t = 0.1258 (E,!

v2m

R ; ~)

The peak contact radius a = a.

ao=

K~

K2=

1.2411 (E;'

follows:

(1 + p ) - 2 / 5

where
2 115
v 2 m R~ )

Since s

= a,

the growth of the contact can be described i n terms of the change of p

alone,

i.e.

s =K2(1 + p )

-2/5

The optimal wear-path principle w i l l be used later i n this chapter for the solution
of a two-body wear problem.

A t this point, having investigated and found the optimal

wear-path for one-body wear o f Hertzian contacts with constant impact momentum, we
shall proceed t o the formulation of the wear laws governing such contacts.

The simple

prescription, which may be generalized t o sliding and rolling problems as well,

Wear Law = f

3.

C Optimal wear-path; Wear mechanism I

is:

(9)

MEASURABLE IMPACT WEAR FORMULATION

It is common experience that a contact, having passed the zero wear limit, approximately retains its rebound characteristics.
widening Hertz contact (Fig.

2),

For a constant impact momentum and

the peak contact force

Po

increases slightly, and t*

decreases:

Po = 0.407

[ v ~ ~ ~(1 R
+ p)-l
~ E1 ' I:s

Meanwhile, the ~ e a kpressure henceforth t o be denoted by a , decreases according to

Eq. (5).
I n the previous section, the wear formation was discussed. This, together with
the correct wear mechanism, should lead to a predictive formula for given contacts.
A linear mechanism (Eq. 1) may be used when applicable; this i s contrary t o experience
i n many cases of impact wear where the wear rate rather declines, e.g.
formation of an oxide layer.

due t o the

Such contact stress-dependent wear mechanisms yield a

declining wear rate.

A special wear mechanism w i l l be one that carries the same wear

dependence t o the measurable wear range as the one that applied i n the zero wear range:
i.e.

the dependence on the quontity N o

'.

Thus, we shall demonstrate the impact wear

formulation on the model

(1 2 )

Regardless of the wear mechanism, we shall want to allow expression of the wear i n
terms of the change of a physically significant geometric parameter, such as the curvature or depth of the scar. To that end, we establish a differential formulation of wear

W, acknowledging its continuous change with both the number of cycles N and the
contact stress o:

aw
aN

&!=

dN + g

aw
a

do;

g = 0: constant rate,
g = 1 : stress-dependent rate

By Eq. (12), this i s restated:

In Eq. (14), the peak pressure o can be related to the contact geometry by the Hertz
equations.

by the

The volume of wear can also be written i n terms of the contact geometry,

optimum wear-path information,

s = a.

differential equation for the wear geometry,

conditions, the zero wear limit can be used.

This reduces Eq. (14) to an ordinary

i n terms o f the number of cycles.

As initial

The following outline w i l l facilitate solu-

tion of any particular geometric configuration:

1.

Introduce an appropriate nondimensionol curvature parameter

t o char-

acterize the variation o f contact geometry.

2.

Find the peak pressure

of

0,

contact radius a and depth of wear h, a l l i n terms

< os the only variable from Hertz theory.

3. By use of the optimal wear path (s = a), write the wear W i n terms of

5.

4. Substitute into Eq. (14) to obtain an ordinary differential equation between

and N.

5. The zero wear conditions (No,

To ) must be supplied

for a solution of the

differential equation.
Wear of Soft Plane by Hard Ball
Following Fig. 2, we introduce the nondimensional curvature ratio

R,/R,

(0, p

>

-1)

It i s clear that after passing the zero wear limit, R must already be a finite value, with
negative sign according to the corwention; on the other hand, at perfect conformity,

R = - R 1 and so the limits of p are delineated.

For the impact of a mass m at an incident speed V, the Hertz theory yields the
peak pressure u (Eq. 5 ) apd the peak contact radius a (Eq. 7)
nondimensional radius o f curvature p

- all

i n terms of the

By the expression s = a, the wear is simply the volume of the paraboloid defined
by the base "a" and the meridional radius of curvature R, so that

which yields

w = where

Kq

i s defined by Eq. (8).

Performing the differentiations and substitutions required i n Eq. (14), we then

arrive at the ordinary differential equation:

subject to the initial conditions o f the zero wear limit, as specified i n terms of half the
original surface finish:

N = No, h = ho (=6/2)
We calculate po from h,

(1 9 )

by considering h = -a 2/2~, from which

h = - C s p (1 +p)-415

(20)

where C s i s the "stress severity factor" for spherical geometry:

C s = 0.77 [ v 4 m 2 ~ ; 2R - ; I ' / ~
By Eq. (20), p can be computed from known h.
i n i t i a l conditions No= 1, po = -0.01 i s shown i n Fig.
relation i s shown i n Fig. 8.

(21
The solution of Eq. (18) for

7 ("spheres").

The h/C vs. p

This latter one facilitates instant conversion from h to p

and v i c e versa.* Solution techniques, given any particular set (No, p o ) of i n i t i a l

conditions, are discussed i n Section 5.

Note that other nondimensional relations between P (or A) and the wear-geometry are shown in Figs. 9.6
and 9.7.

Fig. 7. Solution for impact wear i n terms o f the nondimensional curvature parameters p and A,
w i t h the following i n i t i a l conditions: No = 1, po = -0.01 or A, = 0.99.

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

" " " " " '

10

-0.8

-1.0

bc'
(a) Hard Sphere or Cylinder

Wearing Down a Soft Plane

lo-* -

h=

c x ~ ' ~ ( ~ - x )h =

(b)
10'~

1.0

Fig. 8.

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

h/C variation vs. X a n d p,

Soft Sphere a Cylinder

Wearing Against Hard Plane

for spherical and cylindrical contacts.

Wear of Soft Ball Against Hard Plane and Hard Ball

Figures 90 and 9b show the wear of a soft b a l l repetitively impacting a hard plane,
and a hard boll, respectively. The derivation proceeds as i n the previous paragraphs.
Table 1 shows the solution.

I"

Fig. 9.

Wear of soft ball: (a) Against hard plane; (b) Against hard ball.

Table 1
Expressions for wear geometry o f a soft ball wearing against a hard plane or a hard ball.
Against Hard Plane
(also see Figs. 7 and 8)
Variable
a
Curvature Ratio

Unworn
Curvature Ratio

(O< A

< w)

cER1/R,

d~ (6A - 7 ) / ~ ( I - A ) = d N / N

Diff. Eq.

4.

R,/R,

Against Hard Ball

(r><>-1)

-d<(7(r-C)+1+<)/((1
= dN/N

+c)(r-0)

MEASURABLE IMPACT WEAR SOLUTIONS FOR CYLINDERS

Cylindrical contacts are not always amenable to Hertz impact analysis, since the

elastic approach between a plane and a cylinder i s indeterminate.

impact history

(t) must be determined approximately.

For this reason, the

This can be achieved by experi-

mental measurement of the impulse or by numerical (finite element) analysis.

I t has been observed i n cylindrical impacts (involving the pivotal hammers described earlier i n Section 3.8 and Section 6.4) that the above methods yield an essent i a l l y purely velocity-dependent impact-force relation,

Po
that is,

(1

+ e)
2tX

regardless of wear:

mV
(22)

the contact time t * is nearly constant during widening of the target geometry.

Accepting the approximation o f Eq. (22), a measurable impact wear analysis for
cylindrical contacts can easily be developed on the basis of the optimal wear-path approach and the applicable wear mechanism, e.g. (12).

I f wear is stress-dependent, the

change of stress i n terms of the change o f contact dimensions b i s readily availcble from
Hertz theory, once the force P i s known.

The application o f the optimal wear-path

principle yields s = b, the current worn area being equal to the contact area; this
facilitates writing the current volume of wear.

The force P w i l l be assumed equally

distributed over the width w of the cylinder, without allowing for stress concentration
effects at the edges. The wear of the edge area must be separately treated, however.

Wear of Soft Plane by Hard Cylinder

Introducing the nondimensional curvature ratio p E R1/R,

we again foliow Fig. 2,

but interpreting i t as the cross-section of a cylinder instead of a sphere. The radius a

i s now the half-contact length b of the cylinder.

The peak contact force per unit width:

P' = P/w

(23)

IJ

= K 3 ( 1 +p)112

= K, (1

(24)

where

and

+ p)-112

where

Putting s = b, we obtain for the wear per width of cylinder:

and the h vs. p relationship,

h

=-C,p

by h =

- b2/2~:

(1 + p ) - l

where the cylindrical stress severity factor i s ,

for mass rn' = m/w:

The differential equation finally resulting, by use of Eq. (14) i s :

The solution for (31) with i n i t i a l conditions No = 1, p o = -0.01 i s given i n Fig. 7.

The h/Cc vs. p relation i s shown i n Fig. 8, along with the corresponding spherical
relation.

Wear of Soft Cylinder Against Hard Plane

The development,

analogous to spherical geometry (Fig. 9a), i s made with the

nondimensional curvature ratio X

a

R l/R.

The partial and end results are:

= K3A1I2

(32)

b = K, ),-'I2
W =(2/3R1)
h = C,(l

K,

(33)
(1 - A ) A " / ~

-A)/A

(35)

For graphic results, see Figs.

5,

(34)

7 and 8 for "cylinders".

SOLUTION PROCEDURES
The differential equations resulting between nondimensional curvature ( 5 ) vari-

ables and N (e.g.

Eqs. (1 8), (31), (36) ) a l l have the common feature of being v a l i d

only i n a region N > No

an exact solution

. They t y p i c a l l y f a l l into one of two categories,

N ( 5 ) exists.

for which

(The case o f two impacting spheres i s a hybrid, but i s

included i n the solution below.) We note that the transformation ?, = 1

+p

i s permis-

sible for the use of Figs. 7 and 8, and i n the differential equation solutions.

Hard Shape vs. Soft Plane

I.C.:

N = N o , p = po

Soft Shape vs. Hard Plane

I.C.:

N = N o , h =Ao

Solution:

Solution:

N = N o

W h i l e the above solutions are exact, they give N as the dependent variable, for any
specified as the independent variable.
the other way around

In usual applications,

- the question most often asked i s what

this should frequently be

i s the amount of wear for

a specified number of load cycles, N. A simple "master curve" construction yields the
answer to that problem owing t o the nature of the differential equations involved.

We first construct the "master curve" solution (Fig.

initial conditions

no= 1, -p o = -0.01

(or h o = 0.99),

lo),

i.e. p ( N ) or h for the

on a log-log graph as i n Fig. 9.

N o w on the some graph-paper we mork the point No, p o (or No, h o ) .

From this point,

a horizontal line is drawn to intersect the master curve at N', p o (or N', h o ). The
master curve i s now shifted o\ver to the right from N' to N ,, and this curve gives the
sought solution, o f p (or A ), for any N.
Thus the wear at N can be found by looking up i n the master curve, the value of

p (or h ) belonging to

N" = N'N

(39)

No

Kf

Log N'

~ o g

Log No

Log N"

Log N

Fig. 10. The master curve shift procedure.

The validity of the master curve shifting procedure can be shown by applying

Eq. (38) repeatedly to express N from No, N' and N" i n (39). Thus, for example,
~ ' = i j [ -( h ~0 ) / ( l

-Y)I~-~/(X,/X)

, etc.

I t i s noted that such solutions are applicable to first-order differential equations

of the type

G (<)d< = ~ N / N

The Impact Wear Slide Rule

We shall summarize the estimation procedure for measurable wear h at a specific
number of cycles N:
1.

The zero wear limit i s found ( N o ) .

2. The wear depth at zero wear i s found ( h o ) - this corresponds to half the
original surface finish.
3.

Find C, the "stress severity factor";

C,

or

spherical or cylindrical geometry i s used.

C, , depending on whether

4. From ho/C and using Fig. 8, find p (or A, ). Note that i f the nondirnensionol curvature vs. the i n i t i a l volume of wear or contact length i s sought,
Figs. 9.6 and 9.7 can be used.

5 . Having found the i n i t i a l conditions, use the shift procedure t o f i n d p (or A )

at

5 for the prediction (Fig.

7).

6. By the aid of Fig. 8, convert p (or h ) into h/C.

7

Find the depth of wear h at cycle number N, b y multiplying the obtained

(h/C) by C; thus h =

(h/C)

C.

The above operations 4-6 can be carried out ideally on a slide rule (Fig. 11).
One side i s a fixed log-log scale, w i t h a slider containing the master curve (Fig. 7).
This i s slid over to the right until the curve intersects the p, (A, ) horizontal.
desired N, p (or A ) i s read off.

For the

O n the reverse side of the slide rule, Fig. 8 i s dis-

played, allowing instant conversion from p (or h ) into h/C and v i c e versa.

Fig. 1 1 . The impact wear slide rule. (a) Master-curve part for sphere and cylinder;
(b) p vs. h conversion.

6.

MEASURABLE WEAR FORMULATION FOR C O M P O U N D IMPACT

I n formulating the optimal wear-path for repetitive normal impact, both a geo-

rn q o )

metric criterion (parabolic wear scar) and a failure stress criterion ( Q = ,,T
were selected.

Parabolically shaped wear scars are most often observed i n compound

impact tests as well,

and this geometry w i l l be retained for the present treatment.

The previous failure stress criterion i s also acceptable for the following reasons.
I n the case of a small friction coefficient

<

(tr

0.31),

the maximum shear stress i s i n

the substrate, and i t stays there, while the contact dimensions grow.

For p

>

0.31,

-rmax tends t o rise t o the surface, while its value i s s t i l l proportional t o the maximum

pressure, as i t was i n the substrate.

During the growth o f the wear crater, these rela-

tions remain valid, even though the Hertz contact stress state must be modified for the
influence o f the superposed state o f shear tractions.
Consequently,
impact alike.

the same optimal wear-path should apply t o compound and normal

Transition of the curvature toward conformance w i l l be gradual; the cur-

rent worn area w i l l be considered equal t o the peak contact area during an impact
cycle, anywhere during the wear history.
Let us also check for any change of the compound impact response, from the
zero wear range t o the measurable wear range.
constant, since the product P o t * i s invariant.
consequently

= D2/D,

The slip factor f = ~ m v / pPo t * remains

This means that F i t * i s constant (Eq. 7.6);

i s unchanged throughout the wear history (Section 7.4).

O w i n g to this, the wear rate may include, at most, a stress-dependent term, besides
the constant term, and Eq. (13) applies once more, dW = (a w/a N ) d N

+ g (a W/a

u)do

Considering continued surface damage i n the measurable wear range, the following reasonable generalized wear mechanism may be stipulated,

similar t o Eq. (12):

W = K (1 + p ) N o n
Since

i s constant, (1

(40)

+ p ) can be included i n K.

By the use of Eqs. (13)and ( a ) ,

wear formulae (wear laws) can now be derived for various contact geometries; Table 2
gives differential equations for the common spherical and cylindrical geometries.

It is

recalled that (g = 0; n = 3) signifies linear, force-dependent wear mechanism (g = 1;

n = 9) connotes a highly stress-dependent wear criterion.
Figure 12a shows a set of master curves for spherical geometry, i.e. solutions w i t h
the boundary condition

N o = 1, Xo = .99 (or p o = -0.01).

corresponding set for cylindrical geometry.

Figure 12b shows the

These sets of curves can be used i n con-

junction w i t h the master curve shifting method, according t o the procedure described
i n the previous section. Plots for g = 2 were added showing the effect of g.

Table 2
Wear laws for various geometric configurations and wear mechanisms; n (Eq. 40);
g (Eq. 13); C, (Eq. 21); C,(Eq. 30).

Contact Configuration

Nondim.
Curvature

Ref.
Fig.

Differential Eq.

Transformation to
Wear Depth

5-3~(1+gn)dp=d!
5P (1 + P )
N

h = - C sp ( l + p r 4 1 5

Hard ball vs. soft plane

p a R,/R

Soft ball vs. hard plane

5A (1

h = C s (1 - A ) x ~ / ~

- A)
-

- dN

- N
Hard cylinder vs. soft
plane

p r R1/R

2 - p ( 1 + g n ) d p = -d N
N
2~ (1 + P )

Soft cylinder vs. hard

plane

ARI/R

9a

(1 +ng)A
(3
2A (1 - A )

ng)

dA

h=

h =

1+P

(1 - A )

c
A

dN
= N

Experimental findings have shown that compound impact wear due t o superimposed
rigid-body sliding speed tends t o progress along the same wear law as normal impact
wear; e.g. n = 9 and g = 1 have been substantiated i n a large number of tested cases
(see the next section).

For this reason, compoud impact wear i s representable by the

normal impact wear curves h (N), shifted to the left i n the log-log wear history diagram
because of the different initial conditions.

This i s because the zero wear points No of

dry compound impact cases may greatly differ from those of the corresponding normally
impacted cases, due to the surface damage contribution factor

P.

This completes an extensive engineering theory for elastic compound impact wear.
Its use i s centered on the master curve shifting process.

The impact, material, geometric

and surface parameters define an i n i t i a l point (the zero wear point) on the wear curve,
and when these parameters are varied,
the left or right.

the curve i s merely shifted parallel to itself t o

N o new constants except for those of the wear mechanism (n and g)

are introduced once the zero wear point has been established, see Fig. 13.

A special case of compound impact wear i s fretting wear accompanying normal

impacting.

This w i l l be discussed later i n Section 8.

Fig. 12. Wear history master curves (No= 1, A. = 0.99 or p = -0.01); (a) Spherical geometry,

(b) Cylindrical

geometry.

Projectiles: Carbon rteel,R, =2O,V8 (6 r 0 . 5 p m )

rn = 1 . 2 7 9
R = 5.5 in (14 cm)
V = 68 i h e c (173 cm/sec)

Target Dirk:

Alloy Steel 4140,Rc= 40-45, V16

No. of Cycler: N

Fig. 13. Compound impact wear o f carbon-steel proiectiles tested i n the ballistic
impact approaches (Section 6.3).

(11

mm)

(pin)

1003

-25,403

10,

lo2

lo3

lo4

lo5

1o6

2,540

254

I o7

Fig. 14. Compound impact wear o f aluminum projectiles tested i n the ballistic impact
approaches (Section 6.3).

7.

SOME EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR DRY, MEASURABLE

C O M P O U N D IMPACT WEAR

The ballistic test series on carbon steel, described i n Section 6.3, yielded wear
7
histories up t o 10 cycles, which quite well f i t the compound wear model o f a soft b a l l
wearing against a hard pldne (Fig. 13).
25, 127, 381 and 762 cm/s),

For the f i v e tangential target speeds (v = 0,

the calculated zero wear limits were the rotationally cor-

rected ones from Table 7.3 (4980, 4980, 880, 21 and 10 cycles, respective! y).

The

stress severity factor C, was (by Eq. 21) found to be 2.87 pm. Thus the i n i t i a l nondimensional curvature p,

corresponding t o h,/CS

= 0.0975,

yielding p,

= -0.085.

The calculated wear histories were based on n = 9 and g = 1; five curves resulted, each
w i t h its distinct i n i t i a l value o f

N ,, but w i t h the common value o f p,

. The curves

were obtained by master curve shifting o f the solution curve (n = 9, g = 1) i n Fig. 12a.
Thus analytical modeling was successful for the total considered measurable wear l i f e of
the proiectiles.

A typical slowly declining rate i s seen for the depth h of wear vs. the

number of cycles

N i n the log-log representation.

BalIisticTest Series on Aluminum Proiectiles

The previous model involving n = 9 and g = 1 was less well followed b y the measured histories for aluminum projectiles, described i n Section 6.3 (Fig. 14).

The data

indicate that, at moderate sliding speeds, a new wear process arose between l o 4 and
5
10 cycles. The presence of much hard oxidized debris suggests that at some v, a great
deal of debris may act as a polishing agent, causing a switch toward a more linear wear
law.

Study of the zero wear limit, by methods identical t o those used for the steel test

series (Tables 7.2 and 7.3) indicated a wear factor y = 1.1,

same as for steel.

Pivotal Hammering Test Series on Tempered M o l d Steel Hammers

The cylindrical hammers were chosen as the softer partner (AISI P5 tempered steel,

R , = 35) impacting against a rotating tool-steel disc, i n the apparatus described i n

Section 6.4.

Experimental wear curves are shown i n Fig. 24; the theoretical predictions

o f Table 2 w i t h n = 9 and g = 1 applied quite w e l l .

THE ROLE OF FRETTING

8.

IN IMPACT WEAR

Even when a normal impact process i s intended by design, a small relative tanWhile i t may be greatly re-

gential motion, i . e . fretting, often occurs i n a contact.

duced ( i f not eliminated) in a properly designed ballistic impact wear apparatus, fretting
motion i s preval&t

i n pivotal hammering applications.

damage" due t o shear tractions, and as such,

I t i s conducive to "surface-

i s a source o f wear.

This type of wear i s

readily identified i n steel by the fine red rust (a Fe2 0 3 ) i t generates (see Section 1 .6).
Should the tendency for surface damage be present right at the beginning o f the wear
history, the zero wear l i m i t would be affected (i,e, No lowered).
fretting may start later i n the wear history,

O n the other hand,

due to circumstances (to be enumerated)

producing relative tangential motions i n the contact.

Fretting wear i s a very compli-

cated phenomenon since i t embodies mixed wear mechanisms. W i t h the protection o f

oxides o r of lubrication i n a progressively conforming contact, a stress-dependent wear
law i s often followed under repetitive impact.

A few specific cases for the generation of fretting motion are as follows:
(a) Self-equilibrating shear tractions (see Section 3.5).

This effect may be ap-

e.g. between metals and

preciable only between materials of different compliance,

polymers.

(b) Looseness between impacted element and its substrate.

This can be caused by

a loose screw i n the v i c i n i t y of the target area, as has been seen i n hammer experiments
on target plates (Fig. 150). The plate i s then locally excited at a high frequency and
rubbing, w i t h however small amp1 itudes, i s caused.
Another source o f looseness is the wear or plastic deformation o f a substrate,
softer than the impacted element i t supports (Fig, 1%).

The small local void under the

target may then allow rapid local oscirlations o f the plate.

Hammer

a) L-

Screw

b) Worn Sublayer

c) Wobbling Hammer in
Cmtact with Deflecting
Torget Beam

Fig. 15.

Some occurrences of fretting motion i n pivotal hammering impact applications.

(c) Elastic vibration o f the target.

Besides the local vibrations o f the target

element mentioned i n point (b) above, flexural, shear and torsional vibration may arise
upon impact.

Such gross vibrations,

especially when combined with hammer wobbling,

may induce shear tractions.

(d) Hammer deformations.

Small eccentricities i n the hammer or the impact

target may be conducive t o wobbling of the hammer, and resulting tangential oscillations (Fig. 15c).
o f Fig. 19.

Tangential oscillations o f pivotal hammers appear i n the wear scars

Flexure o f the hammer during impact may also be responsible for rubbing.

Its amplitude x i s equal t o the rotation of a point on the hammer axis over the impact
point C multiplied by the distance of the point C to the axis (Fig. 2.2).
hammers described i n Sections.3.8 and 6.4,
(e) Debris formation on the target.

For the test

x i s o f the order of 1 pm.

I n some cases, oxides and other wear debris

may act as abrasive agents t o aggravate the contact behavior i n wearing.

Experimental Investigation
Normally impacting pivotal hammers o f the type earlier described (Section 6.4)
were used (Fig. 6 . 1 0 ~ ) ; a spherical striking surface o f radius R = 2.5 cm had been machined from the cylindrical head o f the hammers. The advantage o f a spherical striking
surface i s i n localizing the impact and rendering the stress analysis more reliable.

The

hammer surfaces were carefully hardened after machining t o R, = 60-61; the original
roughness

(V 16, 6 = 1.1 p)was retained i n the process.

The hammers h i t on tempered spring-steel plates (Rc = 30-40), (Fig. 16), which
were screwed t o a steel block (AISI

P5 mold steel), as hard as the hammer surface.

The mating surface between plate and block was polished t o a V4 (6 = 0.2 p)finish,
except i n preliminary tests when this finish was a test parameter.

The block was

screwed t o a stubby, stiff aluminum bracket which was cantilevered from a massive
test stand.

By adjusting the block height, the direction o f impacts was,

i n each case

of plate size, carefully normalized w i t h respect t o the target plate surface.

Stations along the bracket from the fixed towards the free ends were numbered i n
order 3, 2, and 1. The horizontal displacement due t o bending at the station under
dynamic load

(Po

= 50 kgf applied at station

1 ) was estimated as the order of 0.025 pm,

and progressively decreasing toward stations 2 and 3.

Hammer Stations
/
0

/
/

Test
Stand

2 ---

I
I

Target

1
I

-'-

Stiff Aluminum
Bracket

/
I

I
/
4
I ,

5-x
I
#

Fig. 16.

Schematic of cantilevered test bracket.

(Approximately true size.)

Impact speeds of 1.78 m/s were applied, causing a maximum peak pressure of
cr

= 55.6 kgf/mrn

(against steel).

i n the plate of hardness

No= 2 0 0

R,

The zero wear limit, on the basis of one-body wear

= 35, and a Y = 86.5 kgf/mm2,

8 6 . 5 ~1.1

55.6

)g

was computed by Eq. (7.10):

= 250,000 cycles

The following chief parameters were varied in the experimental series:

(1) Target-plate surface finish: V8, V16, V36, V64 (6 = 0.5,

1.1, 2.5,

4.51J.m,

respectively).

(2) Thickness of the target plate: H = 0.762 mm and H = 2.18 mm. These sizes
were bath larger than the calculated contact radius, a 2 0.4 mm, and the contact
stresses were therefore localized i n the target plate.
(3) Location along the target plate, i.e, Station 1, 2 and 3.
(4) Lubrication of the target surface: Three types of lubrication were varied, to
be referred to as Lubricant

#I,

Lubricant

#2, and the dry state. Lubricant # 1 was a

thick motor oil blend, with a viscosity r, = 240 centistokes at room temperature,
ricant

#2 was

temperature.

a lighter SAE 10 petroleum oil, with

11 = 55 centistokes at room

Lub-

N o significant correlation was seen for No with the original surface finish.
2.18 mm plates, the

For

N o values were found (where wear depths h roughly corresponded

to half the original finish) and averaged between the three stations (Fig. 17).

averaged No values were scattered i n the decade of

pendence on the finish.

l o 5 - lo6

These

cycles, without de-

Fig. 17. Influence of target plate surface roughness on wear history. Target plates:
tempered spring-steel (R, = 30-40), H = 2.18 mm; spherical steel hammer (R, = 60).
The results for three stations were averaged.
Wear was approximately the same in the thinner (H = 0.762 mm) plates as in the
2.18 mm thick one, and thus the plate thickness parameter was also discarded for its
influence on wear.
Wear depended greatly, however, on the station location.

At station 1, near the

free end of the cantilever, wear was greatest, and i t became progressively less at station 2 and at station 3.
for

(The order of stations 2 and 3 was reversed in only one case,

V 36 finish). This is shown i n Fig. 18 for the four surface finishes. The mildest

(station 3) curves generally passed their respective zero wear limits near the predicted
250,000 cycles.

At station 1, the zero wear limit would be passed the soonest, for each

finish; the wear curves for various stations were approximately parallel.

A
Fig. 18. Influence of position x along test bracket.
hammer; dry contact.

Station l

H = 2.18 mm plate; spherical

Oxidized wear debris was visible i n the target areas; this was removed and the
surfaces cleaned before inspections.

Figure 19 shows a series o f photos taken o f the

three target areas of 0.762 mm t h i c k plates of V8 finish ( 6 = .55pm) at

cycles.

l o 4 cycles,

At

asperity contact.

lo4 and lo6

there i s no measurable wear, only a smudge shows traces o f

There i s also no discernible difference between the smudges of sta-

t i o n 1 and station 2, a situation that dramatically changes two decades later.

Substantial amount o f rust was observed on the opposite side of the target plate
under the contact o f station 1.

Rusting was also noticeable, but far less so under sta-

t i o n 2, and none was observable at station 3.

Rusting was more prevalent i n the thinner

(0.762 mm) plate than i n the thicker (2.18 mm) one.

It d i d not depend on either finish

o f the bottom of the plate or that of the top of the support block.

Rusting seemed t o

occur, although lessened, even when the plate was glued (by Eastman 910 adhesive) to
the block,

i n addition to being screwed t o i t .

a wear scar.

Although rusted, the area d i d not display

This seems t o indicate that small tangential motions do occur, and some

fretting goes on at those depths, under greatly reduced load conditions compared w i t h
the surface.

(a) Station

1,

lo4 cycles

(b) Station 2,

(c) Station

(d) Stat ion 2,

N = 820,000

cycles

1, N = 820,000

lo4 cycles

cycles

(e) Station 3, N =

820,000

cycles

Fig. 19. Scanning electron micrographs of wear scars under spherical hammer impacts.

50X.

O n application of the heavy lubricant, however, the large wear scan hitherto
seen at station 1 did not show up.

The wear was consistently around

h = 3.5

pm for

N = 10' cycles, on plates of V64 finish (6 = 4.5 p),at both H = 0.762 mm and
H = 2.18 mm. The wear was about half of that value (h = 2 pm) for a V8 plate
(S= .55 pn), at N = 10' cycles, at a l l stations. Some minor rusting still showed on
the bottom side of the lubricated plates, at station 1.

The less viscous lubricant was

also effective in reducing the wear seen in the dry cases.

We now consider the analytical estimation of the contribution of fretting to impact
wear.

The zero wear limit, for dry contacts, i s reduced with respect to the lubricated

ones. The effectively boundary lubricated contacts have less surface damage associated
with them than do dry contacts. The dry contacts, which undergo appreciable relative
tangential sliding motions during impact, develop significant surface damage, besides
subsurface damage.

The results discussed above indicate that the surface damage con-

tribution factor due to fretting can be i n the range 1 <

P<

10, from boundary-

lubricated toward dry states.

Boundary-lubricated contacts, under normal impacting, passed into the measurable
wear range with the characteristics n = 9, g = 1 (Table 2).
as long as boundary lubrication i s in force.
formation of a wear scar, full

The wear curves rise gently

I t may happen, however, that due to the

EHL film i s facilitated under the hammer, and wear prac-

tical ly stops then.

It has been seen that, i n dry contacts, a strong fretting tendency (due to intensive
tangential motion) may give rise to a steep wear rate, corresponding to a linear wear
mechanism.

a W/a

This justifies the use of n = 3, and since the stress dependence i s zero,

u = 0, or g = 0 in the equations of Table 2.

In Fig. 20, the plate wear for the

V64 (6 = 4 , 5 pn) specimen at station 1 i s shown i n solid line. The analytical prediction of the combination (n =
well.

3; g = 0) appears to model this extreme fretting wear quite

Fig. 20. Impact wear in annealed spring-steel plate : g = 0, n = 3 gives good results
for intensive fretting motion at Station 1.

9.

IMPACT WEAR OF LUBRICATED CONTACTS

Normal lmwact
The hydrodynamic role of a lubricant in the impact process can be very signifi-

*, *

cant in its effect on the pulse shape (Fig. 21), the resulting state of contact stress, and
The viscosity of the oil yields this influence; it i s

the asperity contact conditions.

important to know for impact analyses. The drastic change i n a plastic indentation for
dry and lubricated contacts was discussed i n Section 3.7.
p,

(0)

, I lbl
50

100
50

Ib

Dry

p,

(b) Water Lubricated

100

25

50

P'

kgf

( c ) Light

Oil (112)

P,

Ib

(d) Viscous Oil ( f l )

1 kgf

Fig. 21. Impact pulses measured for various lubricants, due to striking of the test
hammers (Section 6.4) on the steel top of a transducer.

In repetitive impact applications, i t i s probable that asperity contact will be frequent, except for combinations of light pressures, high-viscosity oils and small surface
roughness. When the contact i s merely boundary lubricated, the contact stresses are
not materially reduced. This implies that in a normal repetitive impact mode, the subsurface shear stresses do not greatly differ from the corresponding dry impact application.
Thus a boundary-lubricated contact i s quasi-dry from the point of view of normal impact.
The zero impact wear formula may not distinguish between the dry and boundarylubricated case, except i f a change of the wear factor seems indicated by experimental
observation.
The cylindrically shaped tool-steel hammers earlier described i n Section 3.8
were tested C81 i n normal impact against blued spring-steel plates (Section 6.4.).
The viscous lubricant (No. 1 of the previous section) was used.
of

V = 2.92 m/s,

At an impact velocity

the approximate cylindrical analysis, Eq. (22) yielded

77 kgf/mm2

for the peak pressure. The hammer edges had started an early wear scar i n the plate at

45,000 due to the sharp stress concentration (Fig. 6.1 la). This edge wear did not

appear to influence, however, the central regions of the contact area, where the zero

wear limit was reached around 10 cycles.

In the measurable wear region, the central

wear scar gradually grew, changing its curvature towards that of the hard hammer,
while retaining a parabolic appearance (Fig. 6).

In a corresponding dry test series,

the zero wear limit was passed about an order of magnitude earlier (Fig. 22), but the
dry and lubricated measurable wear curves were parallel.

The f a l l of the zero wear

limit in the dry case was attributed to fretting wear due to surface damage, which was
greatly reduced i n the lubricated case.

An additional lubricated series at a somewhat

higher impact speed (V = 3.43 m/s) resulted i n a lower zero wear limit, and parallel
wear cuves, quite well obeying the (n = 9, g = 1) measurable wear model of Table 2.
The measurable wear curves are nearly parallel, since the stress severity factor

C,

= 2P1/E,

rises proportional to P' by only approximately 17%, the proportion of

impact velocities.
Performing experiments on a softer, carbon-steel plate (Rc = 18-20),

V = 1.45 m/s,both

at

the lubricated and dry contact produced grooves at the edge of the

contact (Fig. 23), by 10,000 cycles of impact. These grooves did not further deepen,
6

however (up to even 37 x 10 cycles),due to what was interpreted as elastohydrodynamic action i n the lubricated contact.

The dry contact, while being worn in the

middle, retained the grooves at the edges.

Experimental Wear Measurements:

V = 2.92 d s e c , lub.
V = 3 . 4 3 d s e c , lub.

V = 2.92 m/rec,

dry

Fig. 22. Comparison of experimental and analytical wear depths of normally impacted
spring steel plates ( o v = 102 kgf/mrn2). From Engel and Sirico 181.

(a) Lubricated and Dry Wear Scar

(l@,WO Cycles)
Fig. 23.

( b) Dry Wear Scar at a Later Stage

Progress of wear in a carbon steel plate

181

It should be noted that i n the previous two test series involving spring-steel and
carbon-steel,
(Fig. 6.3).

the hammer surfaces started wearing long after the plates exhibited wear
The tendency for the leveling-off o f the measurable impact wear curves

noted for the hammers

[81 i s

attributable t o the progressively conforming geometry,

induced by the beneficial effect o f two-body wear.

compou'nd Impact
I n a lubricated contact, due to the tendency to f u l l film formation,
imposed sliding speed is conducive t o less wear (see Eq. 1.34).

a super-

This is i n contrast w i t h

dry impact, where the increased sliding speed magnifies the surface damage.

In fact,

the lubrication tends to reduce the sliding friction, so that, even i f a full film does not
form, the surface damage i s greatly diminished i n comparison with the corresponding
dry. case.
The formation of a full elastohydrodynamic film depends on the viscosity of the
lubricant, the impact and sliding speed, the macroscopic and asperity geometries, and
the elastic properties of the solids.

I n particular,

it would be of great interest to know

at what values of the above parameters an EHL condition is expected to set in; this
problem has not yet been solved.
I n an experimental study, the sliding and impact speeds and the lubricant viscosity were varied for qualitative observation o f their effect upon wear.

The pivotal-

hammering compound impact wear machine (Section 6.4) was used, with cylindrical
hammers of AlSl Type P5 mold steel tempered to

R,

= 35 as wearing members, against a

hard tool-steel disc (R, = 60-61).

The sliding speed was varied at v = 0.25,

1 - 2 7 and 3.81 m/s.

were used: the "high" value was 3.43 m/s and the "low" 2.16 m/s.

Two impact speeds

Two types of lub-

ricant were used: The higher viscosity blend (q = 240 centistokes) and the less viscous
~ e t r o l e u mo i l (q = 55 centistokes),
chapter,

both of which have been described earlier i n this

as No. 1 and No. 2 lubricants, respectively.

Figure 24 shows the test results.

I t i s significant that the highly viscous lubricant

prevented a l l wear involving any sliding speed component at all.

lubricant allowed wear at high impact velocities,
velocity.
(v=O).

The less viscous

but prevented wear at low impact

I n Fig. 24, some normal impact wear results are also shown for comparison
I t i s demonstrated that, for light oils which allow wear i n compound impact

situations, normal impact i s more damaging than compound impact.

.25

1b5

104

10

II

Fig.

24.

lo6

01'

lo7

lb7

..

M
.
I

M.

a.
10'

A
X

Legend:
v =

A: v =

a:

X:

127 cm/s
381 c d s

v =
0 cm/~
0: v = 25.4 cm/s

C8I

lo4
lo5
1 0 6 1 0 7
Light Lube; V = 342 crrl/s

104
lo5
lo6
Light Lube; v = 216 cm/s

Results o f lubricated compound impact wear experiments

Dry; V = 342 cm/s

.25

-- 2.5

.
w

..

hi r m l

-- 2 5

Dry: V = 216 cmls

;04

A
+

2.5

--

25

'-

hlrml

10~
lo5
18
Heavy Lube; V = 342 c d s .

104
lo5
.lo6
Heavy Lube; V = 216 cm/s

--

--

107

10'

a.

h[pinl

240
10.

TWO-BODY WEAR ANALYSIS

The simultaneous wear of both surfaces encourages a tendency to conformity, and

thus faster stress relief i n a contact.

A quantitative appraisal of the effect on the

measurable-wear l i f e can be made on the basis of the optimal wear-path concept.

Let us consider the repetitive impact of a ball against a plane, both made of the
same material.
curvature, R

The wear geometries may be characterized by two variable radii of

and R 2 (Fig. 25) The constraint s = a (Eq.

3) must apply again, from the

arguments of Section 2.

Fig.

25. Two-body wear of ball vs. plane.

Introducing the nondimensional curvature parameters

P1 =

Rlo/R,

P 2 = RlO/R 2
the Hertz theory yields for the condition of peak contact:
0

= K l ( l +P,/P,

)3'5

a = K2(1 + p 2 / ~ 1 ) - 2 ' 5
The wear of the ball and of the plane

is denoted by W, and W2 respectively, and the

total wear W = W1 + W2 i s obtained from geometry:

We now determine the optimal wear-path as the steepest descent of the mutual nondimensional failure stress quantity =;
The constraints are: p
of p

= p

and p

o /K 1, with respect to the variables p

> ( p I (since R < - R2);

> 0 and p2< 0.

and p2

Initial values

= p 2c are selected as the respective zero wear dimensions.

U t i l i z i n g the gradient method, the optimal wear-path turns out to be a c i r c l e i n

(P 1 r P 2 ) space (Fig. 2 6 ) :

p:+p:=r2
where
r2=

(46)

Fig. 26. Optimal wear-paths for two-body wear o f ball vs. plane, repetitive impact a t
constant momentum. From Engel [21

I t i s now possible t o find the ratio

9 o f the wear rates of the ball and the plane:

The wear equation can be derived by considering E

~ (13)
~ .

(45), and equating the

two expressions:

The result i s the lengthy ordinary, separable differential equation

where

- (r 2 -

(49)
p :)112can be substituted for p 2 , by Eq. (46).

A master-curve solution of Eq. (49) for the i n i t i a l conditions N = 1, p, = 0.99,

p

= -0.01

i s shown i n Fig. 27.

More gradual wear of the individual members i s

indicated than i n the one-body case.

For these i n i t i a l conditions, greater volume o f

wear results from the plane ( W 2 ) than from the ball (W1 ).

Fig. 27. Master-curve solution (N = 1; p

of ball vs. plane [ 2 ] .

= 0.99; p 2 = -0.01) for two-body wear

REFERENCES
P. A. Engel, Proc. IUTAM Symp. on the Mechanics of Contact Between Deformable Bodies, Delft Univ. Press (1975) 239-253.
P. A. Engel, ASME-ASLE Joint Lubr. Conf.,

Boston (1976).

G. Hadley, Nonlinear and Dynamic Programming, Addison-Wesley,

Mass.,

Reading,

1964.

T. L. Saaty and J. Brom, Nonlinear Mathematics, McGraw-Hill, N e w York

(1 964) 70-76.
J. A. Greenwood and J. H. Tripp, J. Appl. Mech., 34 ( 1 967) 153-1 59.
P. A. Engel and R. G . Bayer, J. Lubr. Technol.,

96 (1974) 595-604.

R. G . Bayer, Wear, 11 (1968) 319-332.

P. A. Engel and J. L. Sirico, Trans. ASLE, 18 (1975) 279-289.

CHAPTER 9 -

1.

IMPACT WEAR IN THE PLASTIC STRESS RANGE

INTRODUCTION
O u r percussive impact wear study hitherto concentrated on contacts i n which the

macroscopic stress during repetitive impact stayed i n the elastic range.

be the general case i n industry; i n nature, certainly,
some plastic deformation.

This need not

impact most commonly involves

The emphasis placed on elasticity was justified,

for several reasons besides the elastic applications.

however,

It allowed use o f a compact stress

analysis, such as the Hertz theory, to connect the changing dimensions of the wearing
contact geometry w i t h the state o f stress.

The optimal wear-path taken by the wearing

system coincided w i t h the wear formation allowing fastest relief o f the contact stress
intensity.
Erosion studies of single particles (Chapter 5) dealt with essentially abrasive-type
wear, for the plastic deformations i n f l i c t e d upon the impacted specimens.

This type o f

wear would also be expected i n repetitively impacted contacts i n the plastic stress range.
I t i s quite common, however, for a contact, starting out i n the plastic stress range at
the outset o f the wear history, t o conform sufficiently for i t eventually t o sustain impacts
i n the elastic range.
tions.

Further wear i s then governed b y the previous elastic considera-

This fits the central idea o f this book, according t o which wear i s a change o f

contact geometry through stress.

An experimental study completed i n 1968 b y Wellinger and Breckel

[ l I , at

the

University of Stuttgart, produced interesting data; their experiments concentrated on

the plastic stress range, but used various sized specimens,
w i l l first describe and interpret this work.

The treatment of this chapter

Next, the measurable impact wear theory i s

shown t o be extendable t o the plastic range, w i t h ready interpretation of the above results.

Following this, a ballistic impact wear series on zinc-alloy projectiles i s

described.

2.

THE STUTTGART EXPERIMENTAL WORK

Three impact testing machines were used by Breckel i n his doctoral studies

These w i l l be referred t o as the "repetitive impact tester",

[21

"drop tester" and "rotary

impact tester".

In the repetitive impact tester, the round-headed specimen i s attached

t o a falling hammer weighing 3 t o 6 kgf.

After rebound from the target, the hammer i s

caught by a cam and raised to a height of 15 t o 50 mm for the next drop.

This apparatus

was used for wear study i n the high plastic stress range.
The drop tester allows a variable weight t o f a l l a single time.
eters are adjustable,

The impact param-

and the impact response i s measured by appropriate strain gauges,

the response measurement being the primary purpose o f the machine.

Both o f the ma-

chines so far discussed use the dropping o f a weight t o produce normal impact, and can
be termed "ballistic impact machines".
The rotary tester (Fig. 1) is a reciprocating impact machine, which uses a smaller
effective mass (85 grams) at adjustable speeds and impact angles.

Thus repetitive com-

pound impact can be produced and the progress o f wear investigated.

Wear was mea-

sured by weighing the test specimens before and after the repeated impact cycles, both
i n the repetitive impact tester and i n the rotary impact tester.

Anvil

Impacting

Bbdy

t l o k e r Dirk

Fig. 1 Rotary impact machine used for research at the University of Stuttgart.
Wellinger and Breckel [ l I

From

In the studies, the striker vs. anvil material combinations corresponded t o one o f
two types:

hard against soft, and hard against hard.

studied i n the repetitive impact tester.

Hard vs. soft combinations were

For these soft specimens, the energy balance

showed a typical variation i n terms of the number of accumulated blows, Fig. 2.

At

the first blow, the dissipated energy Ud i s mostly comprised of the energy loss due t o
plastic deformation Udefr which i s defined as U def =
energy U

$ P* ( a ) d o .
t

A small amount o f

i s dissipated for the remainder of loss mechanisms, such as friction on the

contact surface, vibrations throughout the structure,

and chemical energy.

The energy

balance changes drastically w i t h continued impacts; Udef soon declines, and asymp-

Ud remains approximately constant, but U R i s now respon-

t o t i c a l l y approaches zero.
sible for most o f i t .

Parallel to the decrease o f Udef with consecutive blows, the co-

efficient of restitution increases (and thus the peak impact force also increases) i n these
highly plastic impact series.
Impact Energy U0

'O0r--

-----

20

40

T-----

60

Number of cycles,

80
N

100

Fig. 2. Typical balance o f various forms o f energy i n terms of the number of impacts.
Material pairing: hard vs, soft. From Wellinger and Breckel [ 1 1 .
Wellinger and Breckel found good experimental agreement between the logarithmic slopes of two sets of quantities:
fixed number of cycles and

the impact wear W vs. the impact velocity

U d vs. V,

V, at a

where U d may also be summed between the first

and N ' t h cycle (Figs, 3 and 4, respectively).

Fig. 3. Wear vs. impact velocity, N = 500,000; hard vs. soft pairing; measured by
the repetitive impact tester. From Wellinger and Breckel I:1 1

Nomencloture.

Striker
Specimen

specimen

o CUG
n CuK

Fig. 4. Energy dissipation vs. impact velocity for various materials.

and Breckel C 1 I

From Wellinger

u,,

W-

vn

(1 )

The exponent n varied between 1.5 and 2.2,

following wear mechanism was found

depending on the material.

The

C11 for soft materials impacted by a hard striker.

After about a hundred impacts, a dark oxide layer was observed on the slowly
enlarging contact surface.

Through the incessant plastic deformation, cold working o f

the surface layer resulted.

As the d u c t i l i t y of this top layer was gradually lost, scaly

wear debris formed.

The wear particles were shown (by cross-sectioning) t o have, on

the inside, a strongly worked metallic structure, while on the outside they were rather
loosely covered by an oxide layer of approximately 1 prn thickness.
While the discolored deformation zone was observed both i n the soft partner of
hard vs. soft combinations and both partners of hard vs. hard combinations,
tended t o produce mostly small, dust-speck-like wear debris.

the latter

Cross-sections through

the contact showed the deformation zone t o extend to 3/80 on the surface, and 1/20 t o
the depth,

"a" being the contact radius.

The color of this zone was due partly t o the

deformation and partly to the absorption of corrosive gases by the highly activated target surface [3,41

Inside the zone, dark particles were observed, which were found

t o have gotten inside the material by flow of,the latter from the surface.
To study the phenomenon o f flow from the outside toward the depth, small steel
particles were placed on the impacted surface o f copper specimens, and the latter impacted by a hard striker (X82WMoV65H [Table

11

V = 0.54 m/s,

m = 6 kg, R = 5 mm).

Subsequent cross-sectioning proved that the material flows inward and downward from
the surface; then, on the axis, at a depth o f 1/2a,

i t turns outward and then upward.

Besides the steel particles, oxide inclusions were observed t o move the same way (Fig. 5).
For the process o f material flow,

the necessary energy must come from that dis-

sipated i n the impact process. With the advanced state of plastic deformation, the
"deformational energy",
the dissipated energy

U ,j,r

, decreases t o a small value,

and i t i s the remainder of

UR that must account for the flow (Fig. 2 ) .

The hammering of oxide particles into the surface was observed.

The removal o f

wear particles is pictured as the result o f their presence, combined with the material
flow.

While the potential wear body i s squeezed between the rest o f the base material

and the oxide particle, the latter keeps acting as a separating layer, until the whole
wear particle finally emerges on the surface and i s removed.

Fig. 5. Cross-section through the contact surface of a repetitively impacted copper

specimen showing material flow and separation of a wear particle, From Wellinger
and Breckel L 1 1

The above mechanism was highly accentuated i n soft partners of hard vs, soft
combinations,

but was also found i n traces i n the hard vs. hard combinations,

at the

high loads used i n the repetitive impact tester.

Some metallurgical changes of the top layer of impacted steel and titanium were
investigated by Pashkov and Pol yakova

[51

EXTENSION OF THE MEASURABLE IMPACT WEAR ANALYSIS

3.

When a contact plastically deforms during the i n i t i a l impacts, an accurate prediction o f the change i n contact geometry is hardly feasible,
ical techniques (Section 3.2).

even by powerful numer-

There i s a great deal of plastic deformation, possibly

coupled w i t h wear, which changes the shape of the area of impact on both partner
bodies.
The i n i t i a l changes i n contact geometry are conducive, however, t o stress reduction for the subsequent impacts.

Thus, the contact follows some "wear-path",

i n the

broader sense, including plastic deformations, which may lead t o a point i n the wear
history w i t h different impact stress distributions.

Due t o an advanced state of conformity

between striker and anvil, the stress states become elastic at that point; for any further
blows, the Hertz theory may be used for impact stress analysis

[61

From this point on,

wear o f these contacts i s apt t o follow the route o f contacts, elastically impacted right
from the outset.

Further stress relief, b y increasing wear through various wear mech-

anisms, i s l i k e l y t o follow an optimal elastic wear-path.

W i t h this i n mind, application o f the measurable wear theory was attempted for
contacts stressed i n i t i a l l y i n the plastic stress range.
point,
-

For the analysis, an i n i t i a l wear

N , , must be found beyond which further impacting i s i n the elastic range. This

point i s by no means equivalent t o the zero wear point No which was characterized by
wear h o amounting to half the original surface finish.
already greatly exceed h o.

A t N , , the deformation h, may

Neverfheless, the i n i t i a l condition t o the differential wear

equations can be adequately given by specifying N I

, h,.

For the appropriate striker-

anvil geometry, the connection between the i n i t i a l crater depth h, and the value o f
the nondimensional curvature parameter
see Sections 8.3 and

8.4.

(<'

R,/R) i s available from earlier results,

I n fact, should the i n i t i a l volume o f wear W , or the i n i t i a l

contact dimension a I be specified instead of h

from these quantities t o

and CCli,c

, , Figs.

6 and 7 can be used t o convert

are stress severity factors for spheres and

cylinders, connecting the wear W w i t h the nondimensional curvature parameter; their

definitions are given i n Figs. 6 and 7.)

Fig. 6. Nondimensional relations between the volume of wear and the variable
curvature.

Fig.

7. Nondimensional relations between contact length and the variable curvature.

Application of this procedure to experimentally collected data has proved quite

successful.

Therefore, the computation o f plastically impacted contacts beyond the

i n i t i a l wear point can also be regarded as an achievable task, greatly extending the
potency and field of interest of the methods set forth i n the previous chapters.
I n what follows,

measurable wear analysis of Wellinger and Breckel's data [ I , 21

w i l l be given, both to demonstrate the technique and t o check its accuracy.

We shall consider data produced by using the rotary impact machine, involving
target and striker pairs made of the same material.
caused two-body wear.
i n i t i a l l y plane.

The impact process thus actually

The strikers had a spherical surface, and the targets were

The ball vs. plane configuration was used i n the analysis, and a one-

body 'wear mode was assumed for simplicity.

The impact and geometrical parameters

were the following, i n tests o f the steel alloy C67H, first t o be described: m = 0.085kg;
v = 0 (normal impact); and R = 5 mm.

The impact speed V was varied between 3.1 m/s,

6.3 m/s and 12.7 m/s; this

order of V w i l l be retained for the following calculations.

The hardness p o f the mate-

rial was divided by 3 to give a u y value o f 24.0 kgf/mm2.

Both this and other mate-

rials are described with their properties i n Table 1.

Figure 8 shows three histories of the total amount of wear for striker and anvil,
measured up t o 20,000 cycles; the corresponding individual amounts of wear are similar.
Accepting Ni = 8000 as the initial wear point, and calculating the nondimensionai
curvqture ratio A

from the i n i t i a l amount o f wear W i a t N = 8000, the rest o f the

wear history is calculated by the methods o f Table 8.2 (n = 9, g = 1):

with initial conditions Ni = 8000 and Wi = 0.068,

tively, for the three impact speeds 3.1,

0.114, and 0.266 mm3, respecTo calculate X i

6.3 and 12.7 m/s.

from Wi

the appropriate expression o f Table 8.1 was used (see Fig. 6):

W = C i ( 1 - A ) h-%I5

(2)

where
CIS = 1.8634 [ v 8 m 4 ~ i 4R

(3

yielding, for m, E r and R, fixed b y V left as a variable:

C' = 6.1 x

loT3V

815

(in units o f mm3 ).

By use o f Fig. 6, the initial nondirnensional curvatures were obtained:

0.580 and 0.635 respectively, for the three values of V.

i =

0.463,

By the master-curve shift

method, the rest of the impact wear history A ( N ) was then computed.

This was finally

converted back t o a W (N) history shown i n Fig. 8; the agreement with the measured
history i s good, especially on the lower impact speeds, V = 3.1 and 6.3 m/s.
Next, some o f Wellinger and Breckel's impact wear measurements on various
other alloys w i l l be considered by the measurable impact wear theory.
iety of input parameters included the following :

The wide var-

Material
Table 1
Characterization of materials used i n impact wear testing
around 0.3; a,, = p/3 is assumed.

Designation

E (kgf/mm2)

a y (kgf/mm2 )

[l I;

v is assumed to be

Specific
Weight

Legend:

Experimental [ 1

Analytical

N i = 8000 used

Number of cycles, N
Fig. 8. Experimental and analytical values of impact wear for steel-on-steel
ments in the rotary tester.

experi-

Geometry
The striker probe had a spherical head of radius R = 5 mm or 25 mm,

The target

specimen was flat.

Impact Parameters
In the rotary tester, m = 85 g was used, and for normal impact speed,
varied at 3.1,

For compound impact between the specimens,

6.3 or 12.7 m/s.

v = V (45" blow) was used.

V was

Impact was unlubricated.

For checking the wear data taken at N = 20,000 cycles, the C67H material w i t h
parameters R = 5 mm,

V = 3.1 m/s,

v = 0, Ni = 8000, wear factor y = 1.1 was adopted.

Its wear at N = 8000 cycles was 0.068 mm

The analysis consisted o f two parts: (1) obtaining equivalent i n i t i a l wear data;
and (2) obtaining measurable wear estimate at N = 20,000.

Eauivalent Initial Wear Data

By requiring equivalence o f a "zero wear" type term, we obtain the i n i t i a l wear
cycle number, based on Eq. (7.10):

where the subscript "0" refers to the basis o f comparison, the C67H test with V = 3.1,
6.3,

12.7 m/s.

The maximum stress o itself depends on several other input parameters,

by the Hertz theory:

o cc R
yielding,

-315

415 v 2 / 5

115

finally,

Measurable Wear Estimates

I f the C ' stress severity factor for the standard case (C67H, V = 3.1 m/s,
3
R = 5 mm, N = 8000, W = 0.068 mm i s denoted by C b , the corresponding constant
for the case t o be examined i s obtained b y Eq. (3),

This allows calculation o f the theoretical wear a t N = 20,000 due to i n i t i a l conditions

N = Ni
W = W i = 0.068 mm3
and by use o f the standard master-curve procedure of Section 8.5,
Using y = y

w i t h n = 9 and g = 1

( = 1.1) for C15, X5CrNi189, C67H and X82WMoV65H, the analytical

results were then plotted i n Fig. 9 against the experimental measurements o f impact
wear.

The result compares quite w e l l with the experimental data.

For those three materials (AICuMgI,

TiA16V4 and G30) which are not alloys o f

steel, the agreement was not so good, indicating that the wear constant y should be
different than 1.1 for these materials.

Experiment01 W w r
lmm3 I

Fig. 9. Comparison o f theoretical and experimental impact wear data, based on

Wellinger and Breckel's results C1 I

4.

BALLISTIC IMPACT WEAR EXPERIMENTS ON Z l N C A N D

POWDER-REINFORCED Z l N C PROJECTILES
Zinc i s a typically "soft" metal, with a y i e l d stress csy

4.9

- 9.1

kgf/mm

'.

estimated between

Using zinc i n the "semi-mushroom" projectile shape (Fig. 6 . 3 ~ )

w i t h a 0.7 g weight and R = 5 cm meridional head radius, i t was possible t o study both
the i n i t i a l plastic deformations and the continuing wear process arising i n ballistic
repetitive impact testing.

The standard ballistic compound impact apparatus (Section

6.3) was used i n two dry test series involving: (a) AG40 zinc a l l o y (4% Al, 0.04% Mg,
Trade name: Zamak 3) die casting, t o be referred t o as "zinc a l l o y u for brevity; and
(b) the above, containing also 8.9 weight percent of N i A12 O5 powder, t o be referred
t o as "composite".

The objectives included the investigation of possible improvements

i n impact wear resistance, due t o addition o f the hardening agent.

During impact against the hard-steel target disc (air-hardening tool steel,

R,=

58-59,

V16 finish,

6 = 1 . l pm), only the proiectile deformed; subsequent one-

body wear of the latter was noted.

a Talysurf profilometer.

The deformations of the surface were measured w i t h

A t the beginning o f the test, a great deal o f plastic deforma-

t i o n was noted, not only on the asperities but also i n a macroscopic sense, depressing
the surface; i n the wear plots h vs. N, this was marked at h, t o ~ b t a i na f u l l history.
Later on, as the contact had widened and impacts progressed into the elastic range, a
form o f fretting wear became the wear

mechanism; the measurable wear theory would

then be applied.
The elastic properties of zinc are not precisely known.

The ASM Metals Hand-

[71

lists its sound velocity c and its mass density p, and by the formula E= c2 p,
3
Poisson's ratio i s v = 0.3.
the Young's modulus i s obtained as E = 9.8 x 10 kgf/mm2
book

As the powder addition was unordered and the proportion o f powder was relatively
small, the bulk elastic properties may be considered the same for both the "zinc a l l o y "
and the "composite" version.
The peak-to-peak roughness o f the specimens was approximately 1 pm i n i t i a l l y .
N i n e specimens o f each kind were tested.

Tests were normally conducted at a 50 Hz

cycle rate and the results were averaged among three specimens impacted simultaneous-

ly.

The change o f wear depth, scar diameter, curvature and finish were observed by

Talysurf recordings i n t w o perpendicular directions,

~ a r a l l e and
l
~er~endicula
tor the

guiding slot i n the ballistic impact wear machine actuators (see Section 6.3).

The impact parameters

(V and v) for the six test series are tabulated i n Table 2.

It i s remarked that i n tests # 2 and #3, the impact parameters V and v were the same
but i n #3, the cycle rates were different i n each o f the three bays: they were 5, 20
and

50 Hz, respectively. In addition, wear i n this series was closely followed from

the very first cycle, using the manual loading switch.

Table 2
Impact parameters for zinc alloy and zinc composite tests.
Test
No.

Sliding Speed,

Impact Speed,
Material

v (m/s)

Zinc Alloy

1.19

Z i n c Composite

1.19

I,

v (m/s)

Cycle Rate
n (Hz)

50

1.07
3.48

Elastic contact stress analysis for V = 1.19 m/s gave a peak pressure o f

- 3uV.
since a,,

o o = 22.6 kgf/mm2,

and thus plastic deformation i n the i n i t i a l contact was obvious

This was also checked experimentally; after the first impact, 0.5 pm

permanent deformation was seen on zinc-alloy specimens.

Using the impact-duration formula (Eq. 3 . 8 ) for a flattened spherical cap, we
get t * = 6 ps; here o V = 7 kgf/mm

and p = 3 a y were taken into account.

Assuming

square force pulse with e = 0, gives a value for P equal to mV/t* = 14.15 kgf.
definition o f the flow pressure, the contact radius i s then a =
2

sp

and the plastic approach defbrmation.of the cap i s a /2R = 2.1 pm.

By

= 0.46 mm,

Since this i s four

times more than the deformation measured, we conclude that the contact i s not f u l l y
plastic, even at the first,

i n i t i a l blow.

The explanation lies i n the fact that for this

soft metal, the dynamic yield stress exceeds the static one, as discussed earlier i n connection w i t h dynamic hardness tests (Section 3 . 2 ) .
quent impacts i s expected t o decrease further,

The plastic deformation i n subse-

and the gradual closer conformance of

the contacting surfaces w i l l f i n a l l y create the condition of perfectly elastic impacts.

Figure 10 shows wear histories o f the zinc-alloy specimens, and i n Fig. 11, the
wear histories for the composite material are displayed.
between the wear behavior of the two materials.

N o essential difference is seen

As impact wear behavior is deemed

strongly connected w i t h the macroscopic contact stress and yield stress, the above observation i s understandable; the presence o f the small amount of unordered powder
was insufficient for taking on more load, altering the contact stress.
The three wear curves o f Fig. 11 demonstrate that wear increases when a component o f sliding speed v i s applied on top o f approximately equal normal impact speed
Wear again increases when,

leaving the sliding speed v constant, V i s tripled.

V.

The

respective increases are not drastic, and the wear curves are approximately parallel,
exhibiting typical gently declining slopes, similar to the curves seen i n previously discussed measurable elastic impact wear series.
The rate of impacting d i d not affect the wear at all, demonstrating once again
that at the fast rates o f heat conduction i n metals, thermal effects ore often negligible
i n repetitive impacting.
There was a slight tendency for ~ i l i n g - u pat the edge of the wear scars. Wear
was always measured w i t h respect t o some undeformed region i n the surface, located on

the Talysurf traces.

(6

W i t h advancing load cycles, the original surface roughness

1 pm) tended t o be reduced t o a quarter of this value, and the profiles were usually

quite clean (Fig. 12).

Microhardness tests under 50-gram load were performed i n the contact region and
at various depths, after cross-sectioning a zinc-al loy specimen of series

#I.

The Knoop

hardness numbers were i n the following ranges: at the impacted end of the proiectile,
302-468; at the center, 385-467; at the opposite end, 344-445.

Thus, the hardness

remained nearly constant i n spite o f repetitive impacting, as expected, since zinc does
not work harden appreciably.

The Rockwell hardness was R

= 28-30 at 15-T.

The composite material was appreciably harder, yielding R b = 36-53; this was,
of course, independent o f the location relative to the impact area.
the contact area stayed constant during impacting.

The hardness i n

1
2
3

Number o f cycle,,

No. of

47
47
47

119
119
119

0
M
M

0
127
127

Fig. 10. Measured wear histories for zinc alloy projectile specimens (Ballistic impact
wear testing machines, 0 . 7 g projectiles.)

No. of
4
5
6

0
A

47
42
137

119
107
348

0
M
M

0
127
127

Fig. 1 1 . Measured wear histories for zinc composite projectile specimens.

impact wear testing machine, 0.7 g projectiles.)

(Ballistic

Hor~zontalD~vis~ons: 7 .':5 cm
Vertical L ivisions:
'.5 p m
Fig. 12. Talysurf trace of zinc-alloy specimen (Table 2, Series #3) after 500,000
cycles.

5.

MEASURABLE WEAR CALCULATIONS O N Z I N C COMPOSITE

PROJECTILE WEAR
For purposes of the analysis, the elastic modulus of the material i s needed for the

stress severity factor C,.

For the slight proportion of powder i n the zinc composite

material, we shall consider the latter having the same modulus as the zinc alloy, the
two thus being comparable. We adopt, as standard, the lightest load projectile, of
series # 4 (Fig. 1I), characterized by the following parameters: m = 0.7 g,

, = 23,200

kgf/mm 2, R = 50,8 mm, and V

[v4rn2E

a stress severity factor C s = 0.77

1 .19 m/s.

; ~ R:

This, by Eq. (8.21 ), yields

1 ' I 5 = 2.52 pm.

Adopting for an i n i t i a l wear point, the set of values N i = 5000; hi = 2.5 pm,
from Fig. 11 we can now calculate the rest of the wear curve.
dimensional wear-depth we have h i/Cs
i s obtained.

N=

This, by Fig. 8.7,

l o 6 cycles.

.r

2.50/2.52

yields N' = 14,000.

--

For the i n i t i a l non-

0.992; from Fig. 8.8, X i - 0.463

Let us now calculate the wear of

By the master-curve shifting procedure (Eq. 8.39),

the wear at N" = N N 1 / N i

this corresponds to
6
i.e. ( l o 6 ) (1.4 x 10~)/5000 - 2.8 x 10 cycles. The

latter value corresponds to h = 0.22 i n Fig. 8.7; further resulting i n h/C,

2.6 and

finally h - (2.52)(2.6) = 6.55 pm, i n good agreement with the experimental values.
(See Fig. 11 for the experimental data.)
Added Sliding Speed, v

1.27 m/s

The analysis of series # 5 (Fig. 11) w i l l now proceed by extrapolation from

series # 4 . The small difference i n normal impact speeds i s neglected. The initial

wear-point shift, with respect to the previous curve, i s achieved by calculating

N = Ni/l

+p

(8)

The rotational l y corrected effective slip factor (Eq. 7.33) i s approximately 0.4 and

p = 10,

from Eq. (7.18) and Fig. 7.6.

Thus the effect of a v

= 1 m/s superimposed

sliding speed causes a b i t more than 1 decade of shift t o the left. This appears to be
i n good agreement with the experimental results of series # 2 and B5, as shown in
Figs. 10 and 11, respectively.
Increased Impact Speed (V

3.48 m/s) Plus Sliding Speed (v

However, the wear curve of ( V = 1 .19 m/s,

7.27 m/s)

v = 1.37 rn/s) cannot be simply

shifted parallel to itself; because o f the increased value of V, the stress severity factor
C S i s also affected by Eq. (8.21).

With V/VO

3.48/1.19

2.92,

we obtain

With this changed stress-severity factor, the shifting procedure i s applicable now.
= 2.50/5.93

We have h,/C,

= 0.42,

resulting i n h ,

0.685, and by Fig. 8.7,

N' = 500.

We may now estimate the wear at N

gives N"

2x

l o 5 cycles.

The shift formula (8.39)

l o 7 cycles. This yields A - 0.19,

N = 2 x l o 5 cycles i s thus estimated at

N N1/NI = (2 x 10~)(500)/10 -

which h/C,

3.0.

The wear depth at

(5.93)(3.0) = 17.79 pm,

from

vs. 10 pm.as experimentally measured (Fig. 11).

The experience derived from the application of measurable wear theory to init i a l l y plastically deforming bodies thus supports this procedure. The procedure itself i s
summarized below:

1.

Determine, experimentally, an initial wear c y c l e N

, at

which the contact

has already deformed enough to develop elastic contact stresses at additional blows.
(NI of the previous examples was i n the 1000-10,000 cycle range.)
2. Calculate the stress severity factor C as usual, from the (original) values m,
V, R, E

, etc.

3. Using the value h, of the i n i t i a l wear depth and the value of C, determine
the initial nondimehsional curvature

by use o f the curves of Fig. 8.8.

4. Using the proper master-curve, shift i t (by Eq. (8.39) to the position corresponding t o the i n i t i a l condition (N

); now predictions for any

(N) can be made.

N o t e that i f i t i s necessary t o shift the master-curve t o the left, the farthest i t can be
shifted i s the position N = 1, which i s the smallest u n i t of load cycles possible.
I f the wear history for a certain normal impact configuration

(V,,

R,

m,,

etc.)

i s known ( i t has been measured), and wear predictions are desired for slightly modified

parameters ( i . e. changed

V, R, m, etc.), then:

1. Select Ni on the known wear history and call i t Nio

2. Calculate the equivalent N , of the modified configuration by Eq. (6).
3. Calculate the appropriate stress severity factor C (for wear depth) or C' (for
wear volume, Fig. 6 ) or C" (for wear crater radius, Fig. 7), on the standard case.
C a l l i t C o.

4. Calculate the equivalent stress severity factor C for the modified case. For
spherical volume (C'), this was shown i n Eq.

7 . The transposition o f C for spheres is

accomplished by writing:

and for cylinders:

REFERENCES

K. We1linger and H. Breckel, Wear, 13 (1969) 257-281.

H. Breckel, Dr. Ing. Dissertation, Stuttgart Univ.,

P. A. Thiessen, Z. Chem., 5 (1965) 162.

G. Heinicke, R. Riedel and H. Harenz, Z. Phys. Chem. (Leipzig), 227

1968.

( 1 964) 62-80.
5

P. 0 .

Pashkov and I. I. Polyakova, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR,

332-334.
6

D. Tabor, The Hardness o f Metals, Oxford Univ. Press, 1951,

ASM Metals Handbook, 8th edn.,

Vol. 1, 1961, p. 1169.

204 (1972)

CHAPTER 10-

I.

IMPACT WEAR THROUGH FLEXIBLE MEDIA

INTRODUCTION
So for the percussive impact wear study emphasized metallic partners.

In the

present chapter we consider cases i n which the character of impact i s changed by the
interposition of a medium, possibly orders of magnitude more flexible than the metal
striker.

This may be done for several reasons.

O n one hand, the very purpose of an

industrial impacting process may be the repeated contact of metal against a soft solid
layer; an example of this i s printing C11 on paper or ribbon stock,

Most frequently,

the interposition o f a soft, t h i n layer between colliding metal surfaces aims at a protection o f the latter against wear.

Occasionally,

the layer serves the purpose of pro-

viding a tolerance, an "air-gap'' i n a magnetic circuit,

lubrication, or some other

function.

2.

WEAR OF A TYPE CHARACTER PRINTING ON PAPER

I n the printing process, various configurations exist for the contact o f a striker

against paper (or inked ribbon).

The presence of ink i n the contact often crucially

affects the wear o f the striker.

In the present chapter the wear o f two types of print

heads w i l l be discussed: (a) those representing the large surface area o f a letter character, and (b) wire printers.

Their common feature i s the wearing of the harder body

subjected t o consecutive impacts against a constantly renewed soft surface; we have a

one-body wear process here for the harder material partner. ( Refer t o Figs. 1.6 and 4.1.)
We may consider, for a model o f the print-head,

a spring-restrained projectile

impacting against a soft but massive target; the latter represents the assembly of the
paper and the massive ' p l a t e n " supporting i t (Fig. 1).

Printing "on-the-fly" (with a

tangential approach speed) i s considered; the relative tangential speed between the
print-head and the paper i s denoted by v, as usual.

In the impact, the mass of the

paper is negligible while that o f the platen i s commonly much larger than the hammer
mass,

The paper may be considered adhering t o the platen.

The wear mechanism observed for the print-head is abrasion at a usually slow

rate C3-51

In the experimental work,

clean, polished metal surfaces were noted.

Platen (Infinite Mass)

Fig. 1.

Impact model for a print-head striking on paper.

The rate of sliding has an important effect on the wear mechanism.

Normal impact and

a harder substrate (or one containing hard fibers) could give rise t o a surface fatigue
wear mechanism i n the print-head.

A compound impact analysis w i l l presenfly be

performed.
The abraded volume, W, w i t h respect t o the slipping distance, X, of the striker
relative t o the paper, i s expressed i n a differential form:

where K i s the constant o f abrasion for the striker,

p, its hardness, and P, the contact

Since P varies w i t h time during impact, this variation must be known i n order t o

force.

apply Eq. ( I ) .

Writing X i n terms o f x, the total travel of the striker i s possible since,

b y definition,

X -vt-x

(2)

Neglecting the spring restraint, the equation o f motion i s

Assuming P(t),

(0 < t

<

t*) available as a sinusoidal approximation, P(t)=: Posin nt/t*,

the slipping time i s found by Eq. 7.6; for moderate sliding speeds (0 < f

t = (t*/iT) cos-.' (1

- f)

where f is the slip factor, defined as i n Chapter 7,

2):

(4)
f

nmv/p Po t *

The differential slipping distance is expressed from Eq. (2):

dx

- (V

- 4)dt = v

(1

+)

(0 < t

dt;

< T)

(5)

so that the volume o f wear per cycle becomes

P(t) dX (t) =
where

KvtXPO

-C (f)
"P

~ m v

2~ P

4f

(7)

2 '

For the high sliding speed range (f

2), integration of the differential Eq. (1) yields a

similar result, w i t h a different function C (f) i n this range.

where

As a continuous function, C (f) asymptotically converges to 2 as f

-d ri,":Te
Sliding

-c

co (Fig. 2).

High Sliding Speed

Fig. 2. The function C (f) relating abrasive impact wear to the slip factor. From
Engel and Bayer [21.

Once the "unit wear" AW (wear volume per cycle) has been determined,

the

total wear expected after N cycles can be predicted from the linear rate equation:

WXN.AW

(10)

When the spring restraint and striker rotation are also taken into consideration (as was
done i n Sections 7.7-8),

the differential equations o f striker motion may become too

complicated for exact solution.

Setting up a numerical solution has further advantages,

including the treatment of the friction coefficient p as a variable i n terms o f load and
possibly sliding speed, variables which often materially affect p .

The numerical anal-

ysis i s also able t o detect and account for the occurrence of double or multiple slippage
during a cycle of impact, which i s quite common due to the spring restraint.
In the analytical and experimental study o f a pivotal hammering type o f printer,
the influence of load P upon p was considered, between steel print character and paper.
This relation had earlier been found a monotonically decreasing function p (P) i n some

[61

sliding friction tests

I n the present analysis, an opposite tendency was also c a l -

culated (p increasing w i t h P).

IJ = 1 and p = 0.6.

In addition,

t w o cases o f constant

were also taken:

The following differential equation was used for the i n i t i a l motion

characterized by slipping:
mi

(P)

P (t) - kx (t)

(1 1)

subjected to the boundary conditions t = 0: x = x = 0.

ducer record of the force variation.
o f Po

P(t) was available from a trans-

This force pulse was nearly sinusoidal, w i t h a peak

6.81 kgf and duration o f t *

p = 1 (at speeds o f v = 1 cm/s,

46 ps. The other data were:

25 g load)

m = 0.16 g
v

7.62 m/s

For p = 1, the slip factor was f = 1.27, f a l l i n g into the moderate sliding speed range.
The abrasive constant K and the hardness p of the print-head surface were considered variables i n the wear solutions for

AW p/K.

A sequential computer program

was u t i l i z e d which computed the impact motion at smal l intervals o f time, for a specified
p (P) relation.

The Runge-Kutta procedure was used t o integrate the equation of motion.

A check for the end of slipping would be made on completing each time interval:

;<

(12)

When this condition was violated,

i t signalled setting-in o f the condition o f adherence

o f the contact surfaces, and subsequently F = p P was no longer applicable.

From then

on, the equation o f motion reduced to

mi

- kx (t) = 0

(13)

since

(14)

x = v

A check at the end of each interval was now made t o determine whether the adherence
condition s t i l l held:
(1 5 )

F <CIP
where F = k x (t).

Upon violation o f this condition, slipping would necessarily be

resumed.
The numerical analysis would thus continue until t = t * had been reached. During
each time interval d t of sequential computation, pdW/K

XI v i a Eq. (2). The accumulated amounts o f dW for the total c y c l e o f

version from x t o

o f impact f i n a l l y yielded AW.

four types o f
shown;

= PdX was evaluated by con-

p(P)

Figure 3 shows the results of the numerical analysis far

relations considered.

A family of four curves pAW/K vs. w/q

9 , the impact frequency, i s defined as

t i o n introduced i n Chapter 7.

r n/t*,

while w =

are

a cowen-

The results show that an asymptote t o the wear (from

above) exists for an i n f i n i t e l y stiff striker

efficient, which no longer enters.

(w/q

-. a),regardless o f the friction co-

A l l four curves converge to the value

where, for a sinusoidal pulse, the average force PdV = 2P0 / w e

In our example, on the

right-hand side of Eq. (16) the quantity i s (2)(6,81)(762)(46x 1 0-6 )/r

0.152 kgf-cm.

A t the other end of the frequency spectrum, i.e. at w/q = 0, the value of p does
make considerable difference for wear.

A large value of p causes adherence sooner

than a smaller one, terminating the slipping process; thus wear i s inversely proportional
to the friction coefficient.

For p = 1 and p = 0.6 we obtain pAW/K

0.0474 and

0.0784 kgf-cm, respectively. The variable p(P) cases run mostly between the two
curves defined by the constant p values.
I n the experimental version,

w/q was small (estimated at 0.2), and this would

allow approximation by the case o f an unrestrained ~ r o j e c t i l e , according to Fig. 3.

Experimentally,
Carpenter,

K = 7.93 x 10

-7

and p = 660 kg/rnm2 were obtained for aspecimen o f

Samson Extra steel, 0.150-0.250

mm case,

R,

58-62.

(For measuring

the necessary experimental constants, see the next section.) This ~ i e l d e dfor p = 1,

For the other cases, AW was also computed:

AW = 9.20 x 10~10mm3/cycle (p
AW = 9.02 x 10~10mm3/cycle (
d W = 7.28 x 10
AW

Fig. 3.

-- 18.70 x

-10

10

-10

rnrn3/cycle

0.6)

@ variable p )
@ variable p)

mm3/cycle (asymptotic case, for a/$

Impact wear vs. spring stiffness

[21

The print-head was o f a trapezoidal cross-section,

length of L

0.254 mm and width c

= co).

with 45" rise angles, top

2.54 rnrn (Fig. 4). The volume worn from this

shape, assuming uniform abrasion of the top, i s

Fig.

4. Wear of a trapezoidal type character.

The resulting wear curves between h and N are not linear since W

under the radical.

N 6 W occurs

However, the doubly logarithmic wear histories are linear (Fig. 5).

Experimental measurements indicated that p

-=

0.6 or a variable p condition were closest

t o the wear curves; the wear i s safely under the asymptotic curve corresponding t o inf i n i t e stiffness of the print arm (w/$
the rigid spring assumption

a). This demonstrated the conservativeness of

(k = a).Several

analyzed b y the above procedure

Fig. 5.

[21

other test cases were also satisfactorily

Theoretical and experimental wear histories for print-head.

Experimental Determination o f Constants

Experimental measurement must determine the abrasive constant K, the friction
coefficient p and the hardness p

of the wearing hard body.

The friction coefficient

between the contacting materials can be rather routinely determined (e.g. by the
Bowden-Leben apparatus) at the desired loads and speeds.

[71 found:

Friction coefficient measurements between steel and paper

(i)

t~ definitely

(ii)

p very slightly increasing w i t h contact stress (max. pressure)

(iii)

very slightly decreasing w i t h contact force.

increasing w i t h b a l l surface roughness

The latter two points applied t o a single layer of paper or card stock.
The hardness o f the type may be determined by microhardness methods.
For obtaining the abrasive wear constant, sliding wear tests may be u t i l i z e d .
Roshon has devised a revolving drum apparatus [ 8 1 on which paper or ribbon i s wrapped
tightly.

A cantilever-mounted sphere made of the abraded material

i s pressed against

the 120 cm diameter paper-covered drum, and the latter i s rotated at constant speed.
Thus, friction i s caused and the worn volume o f the sphere i s measured from time t o time
(Fig, 6).

To make the soft surface nearly unused for each slide, a low-speed motion i s

given to the cantilever base, perpendicular t o the wheel's plane.

7Paper or rlibbon
f Vlrapped Tightly
\'!heel w i t h
Cutouts

holing e
sphere
against wheel.
rfixture slowly moving
perpendicular t o the paper)

b) Test

a) Drum

Fig. 6.

Schematic of Roshon's abrasive wear tester,

[2, 8 1

$here

After a fixed number n o f wheel revolutions, the wear W on the sphere i s noted.
Since the wear caused by sliding gives conformance to the flat surface of the wheel
against which the b a l l i s rubbed, we have:

Knowing the hardness of the sphere and the contact force

squeezing i t to the wheel,

we obtain the abrasive constant K, by Eq. (1):

Repetition o f the wheel test w i t h the boll surface smeared with various inks often demonstrates the significance of various surface conditions to the abrasive constant.

The

abrasive constant can also vary w i t h some environmental conditions, such as humidity
and sliding speed; at large values of the latter, tendencies for melt-lubrication arise [91

3.

WEAR OF PRINT-WIRES
In "matrix printing",

characters are made up o f printed dots, each being the result

of the impression o f a wire on paper or inked ribbon (Fig. 7 ) . The wires are set i n a row,
inside a print-head or guide, and they are propelled against the target i n the proper
arrangement, w i t h appropriate timing.

b) " 2 " ; 7 x 6 Matrix

a) "R";

16 x 14 Matrix

Fig. 7.

M a t r i x printing of various characters.

Some advantages o f this printing method include the great speeds of printing made
possible due t o the small inertia o f the print wires.

A t the same time,

increased de-

mand i s placed on the useful l i f e of each wire, and thus wear performance estimation
becomes important.

Figure 8 shows the arrangement o f a print-wire tester used i n the IBM Endicott
Laboratoiy El01

Seven wires are housed parallel i n a guide, w i t h their outlets under

one anothei i n a row. Wire impact i s made on inked ribbon behind which narrow paper
tape (9.5 mm wide, 0.075 mm thick) runs at a speed o f 0.17 m/s.

The ribbon ( 1 2.7 mm

wide) i s under variable tension, and i t i s wound through several spools.

Its continuous

motion i s either i n a constant direction or reversible, i n order t o protect i t from shredding and t o allow time for the ink t o flow into the printing track.

A hard polyurethane-

rubber support platen was placed behind the ribbon-paper assembly.

,Print W i r c

Fig. 8.

Wire Guide

Schematic of wire printer [ I 0 1

Print wires made o f tungsten

3% rhenium were studied for wear. Their free

length i n the guide was 6.35 cm and their diameter 0.217 mm.
the ribbon at V

1.27 ms
,'.

They impacted against

The wire impact was observed w i t h a piezoelectric trans-

ducer, and a peak force of 3 kgf was measured over a contact time of 150 ps, i n a
nearly sinusoidal pulse.
During the wear tests the crucial influence of the target medium became obvious.
Printing on paper tape without interposing the inked ribbon resulted i n negligible wear
8

(< 1 pm) o f the wire tips over a span o f 10 cycles. This number o f cycles caused substantial wear with the inked ribbon, as seen i n the experimental curves of Fig. 9.
uninked ribbon likewise caused very l i t t l e wear.

Dry,

To decide whether the role o f the ink

i n the wearing process i s that o f supplying abrasive agents or being a lubricant, the dry
ribbon fibers were then saturated with oleic acid resembling the ink used, but not containing the abrasive agents used i n ink. N e g l i g i b l e wear was observed again i n tests up
6
t o 50 x 10 cycles. I t was thus concluded that the abrasive process between hard ink
particles and the tungsten wire is the main cause of the wear.

T 2.20 Fi,
T = 2.20 N.
T = 0.69 N;
0 T ' 0.69 N,

R =rrlstraight platen)
R 25.4 m m icylindrcal pldtenl
R -n
R = 25 4 rnm

Fig. 9.

250

Upper L ~ m i t
Pred~ction
ltr, 7 1 '

Wire wear results

[lo] .

The general wear pattern for wires repetitively impacting against inked ribbon
displayed pointed wire tips, with the peak sometimes t o one side (Fig.

10).

The abra-

sive impact wear phenomenon can be attributed to the wrapping of the ribbon around the
wire t i p while the t i p punches against i t

[I11 .

At the beginning of repetitive impact-

ing, the wire t i p edges wear first; this could be a result both of rotational tendencies
due t o ribbon speed and t o the large pressure arising at the edge o f a flat indenter
(Section 2.2).

The i n i t i a l slope is then further developed duiing subsequent cycles of

penetration. We may model this process by considering the differential equation o f

abrasion, Eq.

(1);now,

however,

i s replaced by

Z, denoting slipping of the wire i n

the normal direction, against the ribbon which i t squeezes against the paper and the
platen: dW/dZ

= K P (t)/p.

I t i s plausible that the penetration speed follows a cosine-variation, 6-Vcosrrt/t*,

(0<

<

t*); we now assume that the slip

Z is approximately equal

itself u n t i l slip gives way to adherence at time

r during the cycle:

to the penetration

(a) Convex worn assembly

(b) Concave worn assembly

Fig. 10. Worn wire tips.
From physical intuition,
effect",

l o 8 cycles

N - 1.5 x

i t follows that only during approach w i l l there be a "wrapping

so that after the peak o f impact t = t*/2,

ing dW between t

ClOl

0 and 7 (where 7

5 t*/2),

no more wear occurs.

w h i l e using the sinusoidol

Thus integratimpulse op-

proximation o f Eq. 7.4, we obtain

The maximum value of AW i s obtained when the wire t i p continually slips, and no adherence takes place, i.e.
AW

KPo
-

t/t*

1/2.

Then

Vt*

*TP

a n upper l i m i t for the wear rate.

again for the total wear.

Since the wear mechanism is linear, Eq. (10) applies

The depth h o f wear can be obtained approximately by dividing

V! b y the cross-sectional area of the wire.

I n a n experimental program for inked ribbon medium [ l 0 1

sion and the platen radius were varied,
ribbon tension were

224 g and 7 0 g.

2.54 cm and R

platen radius: R

a l l else being constant.

co

were observed for t h e i r wear history.

, both

the ribbon ten-

Two values of the

These were used w i t h t w o combinations o f the

I n each o f the test series, seven wires

(flat).

The averaged wear histories are shown i n Fig. 9.

The four sets o f test values correlated q u i t e w e l l .

ribbon tension seemed t o a f f e c t the wear results.

N e i t h e r the p l a t e n curvature nor the

From tests i n v o l v i n g w i r e materials

other than the tungsten a l l o y used i n the above series,

i t had been confirmed that the

hardness enters according t o the abrasive wear law stipulated; from microhardness tests,
p - 640 kgf/mm

was obtained f o i tungsten

3% rhenium bar specimens.

a 0.635 cm b a l l was made; i n Roshon's wheel test [ 8 1

, this was

ribbon material the same as was used i n the w i r e wear tests.

was found,

1.1 x

at 10% r e l a t i v e humidity and 27OC,

a t the same temperature.

From these,

pressed against inked

The abrasive constant K

and 1.6 x 10

a t 50% RH,

I n the wheel test, the appearance o f the worn surface was

similar t o that obtained i n the w i r e printer,

i n d i c a t i n g similar wear mechanisms (Fig. 11).

(a) Impact wear of 0.277 mm diameter w i r e

i n the area o f the t i p perimeter; 1000X

(b) Sliding wear o f 6.2 mm diameter b a l l

subjected t o v - 1.25 m/s sliding speed
and P = 1000 g load i n t h e wheel tester;
500X

Fig. 11. Electron-micrographs of tungsten-rhenium surfaces worn against the same

inked ribbon material [ l o 1

The upper l i m i t wear p r e d i c t i o n o f Eq. (21) is q u i t e satisfactory for the test results
shown i n Fig,

9. The slope of the test values is generally f l a t t e r than t h e 45' l i n e g i v e n

b y the present model.

A n analysis b y K u [ I11 for wires impacting on a stationary poly-

mer, gave a r e l a t i o n for the dept of wear,

h = A'N''~,

where A is a constant.

I t is

expected that printing on a constantly renewed inked ribbon surface should result i n
more abrasion, w h i l e p r i n t i n g against a polymer may induce stress-dependent wear tendencies,

4.

resulting i n slower wear rates on the w i r e t i p .

METAL SURFACE PROTECTED BY T H I N POLYMER F I L M

A l l experience w i t h impacting m e t a l l i c bodies points t o the resulting very high

contact stresses.
tensity,

As wear o f the surfaces is i n t i m a t e l y connected w i t h contact stress i n -

a reduction o f the latter should promote wear protection,

Interposition o f a

f l e x i b l e f i l m c a n achieve this obiective; consequently the metal surfaces may b e able

to escape wear even a f t e r a n operational l i f e t i m e .
film,

however,

To insure the serviceability o f the

the structural i n t e g r i t y and wear o f the latter must be investigated.

The protective r o l e of a t h i n polymer f i l m starts b y reducing the impact force,

w h i l e stretching the pulse length, t * .

A t t h e same time,

the force of impact is distrib-

uted over a larger area between round c o n t a c t i n g surfaces,

decrease i n contact stress.

accomplishing the needed

This d e v i c e o f changing the state o f contact stress is remin-

iscent of hydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n o f the surfaces [ I 2 1

b e n e f i c i a l for the wear protection o f metals.

, another

method extremely

The relevant analysis for checking the

response o f the f i l m is concerned w i t h its behavior under the resulting state o f contact
stress, and also the temperatures generated i n the contact.

The latter have been found

t o have a strong influence on the behavior o f polymers under mechanical loading.

Stress Analysis
The results o f Marsh
(where E/uy
impact,

[I31

for contact stress distributions i n glosses and polymers

133) were discussed i n Section 3.2.

From these, we surmise that,

t h e dynamic f l o w pressure is l i k e l y t o arise throughout the contact area.

during
This

f l o w pressure p w i l l be profoundly affected b y the impact frequency and the temperature,

according t o the implications o f Eq. (3.6).
Thus for a stress analysis of the impact, the static,

l i n e a r l y elastic description

must b e expanded t o specify the viscoelastic behavior of the medium as w e l l .

Once

this i s done, the maximum size o f the contact area i s found by stipulating A.
from the uniform pressure distribution.

/p

The Hertz analysis i s bypassed; the force pulse

P (t) i s a function o f the viscoelastic (or visco-plastic) properties o f the materiol. M e o surement of the pulse by a suitable transducer i s now particularly advantageous.
The impact response o f two polymer films was experimentally observed i n the
author's laboratory.

These were a polyurethane film (Mobay Texin type 480A) and o

Fairprene f i l m (Dupont Fairprene type UNOOOl polyurethane-impregnated nylon fabric)

i n 0.050 mm and 0.062 mm thicknesses, respectively.

Fairprene has a weave of t h i n

nylon strands stiffening i t somewhat; this weave i s enclosed i n a polyurethane matrix.

Subjecting these films t o normal pivotal-hammer blows i n the robot described
earlier i n Section 6.4 (cylindrical headed hammers, w i t h R = 3.50 cm were used), the
pulses were measured with a piezoelectric transducer; the pulse traces were photographed
at various impact speeds, and after various numbers o f impact cycles.
the force-pulse i n polyurethane, a t V = 4.22 m/s.

Figure 120 shows

The peak force was Po = 31.8 kgf,

half of what was obtained hitting on the bare steel surface of the transducer at the same
impact speed.

For polyurethane, the pulse length was approximately 23 ps, roughly

double that observed for the metallic impact.

Reducing the impact speed t o 2.54 m/s,

the decrease of Po was rough1y propor-

tional t o that of V, both i n the polyurethane layer and i n the steel-to-steel

impact; the

contact durations t * remained approximately constant (Fig. 12b), considering first blows
at those two impact speeds respectively. The relationship between

Po

and V was thus

empirically established as Po"15 V, where Po i s i n units of kgf and V i s i n m/s.

corresponds to a coefficient of restitution o f approximately 0.70,
e = -J
mV

This

by the formula

- 1

(22)
t*

J being the total impulse,

$ Pdt.

Under repeated blows the peak force Po rose slightly, and a small increase i n e
was observable.

Figure 12c shows the pulse at

1, 2 and 20 cycles.

Further asymp-

t o t i c a l l y diminishing small changes can be expected i n the wake o f subsequent cycles.

The Fairprene film (Fig. 12 d - f ) behaved similarly, but its peak-force response
was higher than that of the polyurethane film.
i c o l l y found, w i t h e = 0.63.

P o z 17.5 V (kgf vs. m/s) was empir-

The latter increased by 6 percent after 20 blows.

Response After
Reoeated
~mbactson
Polyurethane

2nd lmpact

lmpact on Steel

lmpact on
Pol yvrethane

lmpact an Steel

lmpoct on
Pol yvrethane

~ m p o c ton Steel

@)

Response After
Repeated Impacts
on Fairprene

20th lmpact

2nd lmpact

1 st lmpoct

lmpoct on Foirprene

= 2 . 5 4 m/sec

lmpact on Steel

lmpact on Fairprene

V = 4 . 2 2 m/wc

Fig. 12. lmpact response of 0.05 mm thick polyurethane film (a-c) and 0.062 mm thick Fairprene film (d-f);
(a) and (d): V = 4.22 m/s; (b) and (e): V = 2.54 m/s; (c) and (f): V = 4.22 m/s, after 1, 2, and 20 cycles.

(c)

12.5 kgf

Near the lowest impact speed achievable by the given robot mechanism

V = 0.89 m/s

- i.e.

at

the contact length i n Fairprene was approximately 2b = 0.75 mm.

Since the hammer width was w = 0.91 mm, the average (flow) pressure was found:

For some change of the impact velocity,

above value,

up t o about two-and-a-half times the

the contact area increased proportionally w i t h speed, indicating that

pressures p remained constant since the contact time t * remained the same.

However,

since the hammkr was only 2 mm long (Fig. 13), the contact area was no longer sufficient to develop the above flow pressure above V = (2)(0.89)/0.75

= 2.38 m/s.

Polymer Film

I
/ /

\ \ \

/ \ \ \

/'/

\ \

-I

I / / \ \ \ / / / \ \ \ / / /

Steel Substrate
Fig. 13.

Contact deformations of an impacted polymer film, under cylindrical hammer,

Temperature Rise i n Repetitive Impact

We shall now estimate, b y the methods o f Section 3.8,

the temperature rise on

the surface o f polymer Pilms, supported on a steel foundation and repetitively impacted
by pivotal hammers of cylindrical surface.
The viscous energy dissipation results i n a volumetric heating rate q.

The simple

model of heat transfer i n a one-dimensional medium can be used for the calculation o f
temperature.

Perfect insulation above and a perfect heat sink on the bottom were as-

sumed i n arriving at Eq. 3.62,

AT
,,

= qH /2K,

for the maximum temperature rise on the top of the layer:

where H i s the thickness o f the polymer film and K, its thermal con-

duction coefficient.

We shall calculate the temperature rise for Fairprene, from the

assumption (exaggerated) that a l l energy dissipation i s contributed to the heating rate.

For V = 0.89 m/s,

we have

Using K = 4.5 x

on the surface.

OC, and the conversion 1 erg = 2.388 x 10

cal/cm-s

-8

call

This small temperature rise i s unable to cause charring.

The thermal analysis can be refined by including other effects: TO) the variation
o f the complex modulus E* with the temperature, as the sample is progressively heated
during the repetitive excitation process; (b) heat dissipation due t o stress hysteresis;
(c) consideration of the finite heat conduction capacity of the steel substrate

- iu.st t o

mention a few major mechanisms.

complex modulus with temperature directly affects q through

The variation of the

the relation 1

-e

= n tan6,

Eq. 3.30.

I f tan 6 keeps rising w i t h the temperature

generated by repeated impacting, then an unstable condition i s achieved, with everincreasing temperatures.

If, on the other hand, the dissipation factor tan b decreases

with increasing temperature,

the thermal condition w i l l be stable, and the equilibrium

temperature is soon reached i n the repetitive impact process.

d(tanb)/dT

For Fairprene, the slope

(also called the temperature coefficient) was negative above

80C (Fig. 14)

and thus this temperature would be the stable operating equilibrium temperature for the
material.
The contribution of stress hysteresis can be appraised by calculating the area of
the "loop" present i n the stress-strain diagram o f elastomers.
polymer films studied.

I t was found slight i n the

Neglect of finite thermal conductivity i n the steel substrate,

and also conduction and convection to the surrounding medium and air, are expected to
counteract each other -without

a great contribution to the temperature rise.

The con-

tribution of a partial slip mechanism (Section 3.5) is also negligible.

It is apparent that a major temperature rise (other than that o f an asperity peak)
occurs only when either excessive stress (near the rupture stress) or a sliding frictional
mechanism (such as fretting motion) i s also present.

0.2

-'
;

tan 6

Polyvinyl
Fluoride

20

40

"C

60

80

Fig. 14.. Dissipation factor plots at 11 Hz i n the temperature range

Characterization o f Wear Phenomena

[a) overstress.

I n the earlier paragraph on stress analysis, i t was stated that the

polymer films had a tendency t o develop a certain constant flow pressure, p = P/A.
Thus A would stay proportional t o P (and consequently t o
available hammer surface area t o contact.

V) as long as there was enough

When no more hammer area i s available t o

develop p, a condition we shall refer t o as "overstress" has been reached.

Both the

polyurethane and the Fairprene films were studied for the effect o f impact speed, steel
sublayer finish, striking angle o f the hammer, and environmental temperature upon the
overstress condition.

The flow pressure was determined approximately by measuring the

contact smudge during early impacts: for polyurethane, p = 19 kgf/mm2

prene, p = 22 kgf/mm

was obtained, on the basis of the transducer values o f the con-

tact force discussed earlier.

used.

At

V = 2.67 m/s,

and for Fair-

Three speeds,

V = 0.89 m/s,

1.78 m/s and 2.67 m/s were

both materials were overstressed, since the available hammer

length (2b = 2 mm) was not sufficient t o develop the peak force Po = 15
for polyurethane and Fairprene, respective1y.

V and 17.5 V

At the first two impact speeds, wear scars of the order of 1 pm depth developed,
by N =

l o 7 cycles, i n both materials (Fig. 15). Nevertheless, the contact was s t i l l i n

good condition, giving wear protection to the steel supporting surface.

zero-wear formula (Eq.

7.10) with a0

p, y -- 1.1,

Checking the

( 10, the zero-wear limits i n

steel i s indeed much higher than any expected test duration.

Figures 16a and b show the profile traces of the wear-scars of both a polyurethane
(N =

5 x lo6) and a Fairprene ( N = 12 x lo6) sample; the impact speed was V = 1.78m/s

i n both cases.

Figures

17 a and b show the respective contacts.

A t the impact speed o f V z 2.67 m/s,

drastic changes in the impact-wear behavior

were noted very early. The contact smudge extended the entire length o f the hammer.
3
By about 10 cycles, deep (15 pm) wear-scars were noted, and the material would
Rips then started b y

bulge up i n the contact region.

steel sublayer t h r o ~ ~ gfissures

h
of the surface.

l o 4 cycles,

which exposed the

The contacts soon disintegrated.

The

conclusion from this experience i s that the material was driven t o work beyond its yield
stress and near the rupture stress at this impact speed; this started the early and rapidly
advancing wear process called "overstress".
Changing the original steel substrate from a V-2 t o a V-18 finish ( 6 =
and

0.1 pm

1 , 3 pm respectively) d i d not result i n any appreciable change in the wear results.

Considering the average asperity slope o f 0 =

0.04 and far the average spacing, 5OPm,

the terrain does not appear rough enough t o couse extensive bouncing and chafing for
the given dimensions of the film.

The thickness o f the latter i s quite substantial i n

comparison w i t h the asperity height.

The effect o f some stress concentrotion i s induced b y hammers hitting somewhat
cocked w i t h respect t o their normal.

More wear, and that at an earlier cycle number,

was seen; nevertheless, due to the plasticity exhibited by the polymer films, no drastic
6

failures (rips) were seen, at least up to 3.7 x 10 cycles for Fairprene and
cycles i n polyurethane, far

15 x 106

1.78 m/s.

For a study o f the influence o f environmental temperature, the test apparatus was
placed i n a thermally controllable oven at 6 0 ' ~ . A t the lower impact energy of

V - 0.89 m/s,

the polymer films withstood more than 8 x

10 cycles without excessive

wear or visible damage, apart from shallow wear smudges.

The contact was longer,

however, than i n the room-temperature version o f the test, because the material became more flexible (p was lowered) at the higher temperature. Of course, for that reason the impact force was also diminished.

Fig. 15. Wear data for polyurethane and Fairprene films.

striking surface (Fig. 6.10) were used.

a) Trace of Polyurethane Weor Scar; N =

5,000,000,

b) Troce of Foirprene Wear Scor; N = 12,000,000,

Pivotal hammers of cylindrical

V = 1.78 r n / ~

V - 1.78 rn/r

Fig. 16. Wear-scar traces i n polyurethane and Fairprene films.

50 ,m/div; vertical scale: 1.25 pm/div.

Horizontal scale:

Doubling the impact speed

r i p through both types of film,

however at 60C,

produced wear and a complete

after 1 0 ~ c y c l e s(V = 1.78 m/s).

This appears to be due

t o t h e i n a b i l i t y o f the softened material t o carry t h e impact loads over t h e a v a i l a b l e

contact surface; the increase o f environmental temperature reduced the a v a i l a b l e f l o w
I t is clear that,

pressure o f the material.

g i v e n the great temperature sensitivity o f

polymers, the environmental temperature c a n be a c r u c i a l factor i n r e p e t i t i v e impact

processes where the mechanical loading i t s e l f is not conducive t o appreciable heat
build-up.
When overstiess was not the mode of failure,

other slower wear mechanisms would

have t o be considered; the eventual gross fatiguing of the contact would occur beyond
1 0 " cycles, and for some materials,
(b) Charring.

i n t o t h e decade of l o 8

10' cycles.

Polycarbonate films (Buyer M a k r o f o l type KG) i n 0.062 rnm t h i c k -

ness were subjected t o repeated impact, and showed excessive charring over
without overstress E l 4 1

lo5

cycles,

The high temperatures were due t o f r e t t i n g motions of t h e

hammer perpendicular t o its plane; treating the surface w i t h a l o w - f r i c t i o n coating,

the

17 c, d). Polycarbonate also possesses a d y -

charring was s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduced (Fig.

namic dissipation factor peak above 150' C, and the possibility o f generating higher
temperatures through the positive temperature c o e f f i c i e n t exists.
(c) Laminar wear.

i.e. polyimide (0.125 mm DuPont Kapton

Two materials,

type H film) and polyvinyl fluoride (0.05 mm t h i c k (DuPont Tedlar type

tested [ I 4 1 below the overstress l e v e l .

SG40TR) were

These materials d i d not show charring,

e x h i b i t e d laminatian i n t o t h i n i - 4 p m ) layers after 10

cycles (Fig. 17 elf).

but
The

loosened layers were easily removed from t h e contact area,

i d ) Hammer weor against polymers.

W h i l e polymer films e f f e c t i v e l y protect one

metal surface, the striking metal surface may also b e subiect t o wear.
seen on t4e tool-steel p i v o t a l hammers used for the above studies.

This has been

Some corrosion, but

l i t t l e wear depth, was seen on the hammers i n the polyurethane f i l m tests, Spalling o f
5
the hammeis occurred after 10 cycles when they were tested against layers o f 30/0
glass-filled n y l o n

6/6; this

is attributed t o the hard fibers o f glass causing intensive

l o c a l stress i n the steel surface.

(e) Chemical wear of polymers.

Localized heating due t o r e p e t i t i v e impacting

led to dehydrohalogenation i n p o l y v i n y l f l u o r i d e ,

The infrared absorption spectra of

this material taken before and after impacting showed the chemical change [ I 4 1

(a) Polyurethane; N = 5 x 10

, 45X

(c) P ~ l ~ c a r b o n a t eN
; = 3.3 x 1 05; 40X; [ I 4 1

(e) Kapton; N = 2 x 10';

(b) Fairprene; N = 12 x 1 06, 45X

(d) Polycarbonate with low-friction

coating; N : -4 . 5 ~lo5; 40X; [ I 4 1

130X; [ I 4 1

Fig. 17. Scanning electron micrographs for repetitively impacted polymer films.
Pivotal hammers with cylindrical surface (Fig. 6.10) were used at moderate energies
(V=2 m/s), not causing overstress.

5,

IMPACT WEAR OF ELASTOMER SLABS

Elastomer slabs may be used as impact dampers.

The name "slab" indicates (a)that

there is firm support beneath the elastomer layer t o which i t is either or not bonded; and
(b) the contact dimension a or b i s comparable to the thickness

H, unlike i n "films".

The dramatic effect of the thickness and o f the repetition rate n (and thus the temperature) upon impact force were demonstrated
ber,

[I51

i n repetitive impact tests on butyl rub-

Fig. 18.

100
IN'

Fig. 18. Effect of thickness on the peak impact force, at various repetition rates, for
butyl rubber slabs subjected to standard cylindrical hammer blows (Fig. 6.10) at a
normal impact speed V 4.27 m/s 1151

The peak impact force Po is nearly proportional t o the impact velocity V,

both H and n kept constant.

elastomers w i t h respect t o impact load (W vs.

the cycle rate (W vs. n).

for

It i s also desirable t o know the wear relations o f various

V), the number o f cycles (W vs. N) and

Several test series by the standard pivotal hammering robot (Section 6.4) were
performed i n the author's laboratory.

The elastomer slabs were ground t o a 1 mm t h i c k -

ness; the molded smoother surface was impacted w h i l e the ground,

supported on a sandblasted steel block.

rougher surface was

Hammers w i t h spherical striking surfaces were

utilized, and due t o the great f l e x i b i l i t y o f the elastomers, the entire rectangular outl i n e (2.0 mm by 1.4 mm, Fig. 6.1 Oc) o f the b a l l surface (R = 2.5 cm) was usually i n
contact at the peak o f impact for the usual range o f impact parameters.
In the test range, the influence o f n on W was found surprisingly small, probably
because the stress is inversely proportional t o n, w h i l e the temperature rise AT is proThe inflyence of V was often linear and, as such, more

portional t o i t (Section 3.8).

significant than that o f N; V is the indicator o f temperature, and N, of fatigue.

Fretting motion was not evident from the appearance o f the wear scars.
the principal wear mechanisms local charring,
the contact area were seen.

Among

flaking and minor tearing a t the edges of

The latter i s caused by fatigue due t o repeated radial ten-

sile stress accompanying the large deformations i n the contact area.

A more profound

fatigue phenomenon was seen i n a p ~ [ ~ t e t r o m e t h ~ l eelastomer

ne
slab; having performed

satisfactorily for 10 5cycles under V = 2.79 m/s and also

= 3.81 m/s,

cracks developed through the center o f the contact region around

large radial

l o 6 cycles,

and com-

plete disintegration followed,

Figure 19 shows the impact wear o f several polyester urethanes after N
cycles,

at n

50 Hz and under varying impact velocities.

2.7 x

lo6

The slab specimens were

1.2 cm wide and 2.5 cm long; they were bonded along one long edge t o a steel foundat i o n and three hammers were simultaneously impacting at V = 1.78 m/s,
3.81 m/s,

-?.79 m/s and

respectively.

O n e polyester urethane (Pellethane) was studied for its wear history at n = 50 Hz

and at three speeds, V

1.78,

slabs were investigated.

I n the unbonded configuration, the material showed some ten-

dency of bowing up.

2.79 and 3.81 mys' (Fig. 20).

Both bonded and unbonded

When i t was bonded on the bottom, the phenomenon o f "sinking-

i n " was often observed.

A t V - 1.78 m/s,

wear was hardly noticeable even after

N = 10 cycles. A t higher numbers of load cycles (N =

lo6,

l o 7 ) , the contact region

apparently underwent some swell ing, causing 'negative wear" a t times.

and slight flaking occurred i n this material,

M i n o r charring

especially i n the high V - high N combin-

ations.
Differences between the wearing o f t h i n polymer films and rubber slabs can exisi
because of reduced f retting due t o greater compliance i n the latter.

I
2
3
4
5
6

1.25

Adiprene (DuPont) Shore A93

Texin (Mobay) Shore A80
Texin Shore D55
Texin Shore A90
Pellethone (CPR o f Upjohn Co.) Shore A90

Pellethone Shore D55

2.5
V, impact velocity, m / i

3.75

Fig. 19, Impact wear of H = 1 mm polyester urethane slabs by spherical ended hammers,
at n = 50 Hz, after N = 2 . 7 ~
10' cycles.

Fig. 20. Impact wear o f Pellethane 1 mm thick elastomer slabs, bonded to the substrate,
by spherical hammers, at n = 50 Hz, V = 2.79 m/s.
Note i n i t i a l "sinking i n " followed
by swelling and negative wear. Horizontal scale: 5OPm/div.

REFERENCES

F. W. Dauer, ASME Paper N o . 75-DE-16.

P. A. Engel and R. G. Bayer, J. Lubr, Technol. 98 (1976) 330-334
R. G. Bayer, D. L. Baker and T. C. Ku, Wear, 12 (1968) 277-288.
R. C . D. Richardson, Wear, 14 (1969) 423-430.

G. F. Cole, Wear, 22 (1972) 141-154.

R. G. Bayer and J. L. Sirico, Wear, 17 (1971) 269-277.
R. G, Bayer and J . L. Sirico, Wear, 1 1 ( 1 968) 78-83.
D. D. Roshon, Wear, 30 (1 974) 93-1 03,

E. Rabinowicz, Friction and Wear of Materials, Wiley, New York, 1965.

P. A. Engel, J. L. Sirico, 5 . E . Nemier, and R. G . Bayer, Wear, 36 (1976)
373-378.

T. C . Ku, G A M l Intl. Conf. on Wear, Paris, 1970.

L. H. Butler, J. Inst. Pet. London, 46 (1960) 63-73.
D.

M. Marsh, Proc. R. Soc. London, Series A, 279 (1964) 420-435.

R. G. Bayer, P. A. Engel and E. Sacher, Wear, 32 (1975).181-194.

P. A.

Engel and

R.

C. Lasky, SESA Spring Conf.,

Chicago,

1975.

CHAPTER 1 1 -

1.

LIQUID EROSION

INTRODUCTION
The subject matter o f this chapter i s the deformation and wear of solids subjected

to single or repeated impacts by liquids.

O f several important industrial problems,

perhaps two depend the most on the understanding of l i q u i d erosion: the passing of aircraft through drops of rain, and the erosion o f steam-turbine blades.
relative speeds (> 100 m/s).

Both occur at high

In the ensuing treatment we shall show that very high

stresses may arise during l i q u i d impact, so that even on single impact, various failure
modes such as fracture, pitting, or scouring are possible.
magnified b y repeated impacts; furthermore,

These effects are usually

fatigue phenomena often arise, so that

failure can be expected at an order of magnitude lower stress level than the one causing
comparable one-shot damage.

The key t o combatting these problems i s the application

o f erosion-resistant materials.
A related subiect i s cavitation erosion, which arises due to the tensile stresses
caused by the collapse of bubbles contained i n the liquid.

While acknowledging i n

some cases the possibility of parallel cavitation erosion, the present treatment w i l l be
restricted t o the effects of the mechanical impact of liquids.

A further common feature

of cavitation-erosion and impact-erosion studies lies i n the fact that, i n both cases, the
resistance o f the material is a function of its a b i l i t y to absorb energy.
Liquid erosion was first analyzed by Cook

[I1

who found i t t o be independent of

chemical effects; he correctly related i t to the pressure q (also called the "water hammer pressure") arising due t o the compressible nature o f the impacting liquid:

q=pcv

(1

where p i s the mass density o f the liquid, c the speed of wave propagation i n i t and

V the impact velocity. An improvement o f this formula by de Holler C21 resulted from
accounting for the acoustic impedance p c
5

of the impacted solid:

The modern development of liquid impact and erosion was initiated during the
1950's.

I n the United States, 0. G. Engel conducted extensive experimental and

analytical studies.

In Britain, the Cambridge team of Bowden, Brunton and Field and

their colleagues categorized the multifaceted erosion phenomena.

While basic work

has been w e l l established, the subject i s very much alive, as seen from the periodically
convened International Conferences on Rain Erosion and Related Phenomena

2.

[3,4, 51

LIQUID IMPACT ANALYSIS

High-speed liquid impacts have two central features: (a) the pressure which arises

instantaneously on the liquid-solid interface, and (b) the radial flow o f liquid over the
target plane, away from the impact area.

Many similarities exist between liquid and

solid impacts [61 ; thus the hyper-velocity impact o f a soft projectile on a hard material
may cause the former to disintegrate l i k e a liquid drop while the latter i s dented.

At

even higher energies, the target may also disintegrate locally, developing a cavity
larger than the size of the projectile.
drop on a liquid surface [71

This phenomenon i s similar to the collision of o

To a very limited extent, the sideways flow following

direct impact exists i n the mushrooming o f a soft, ductile projectile (e.g. lead) on h i t t i n g a hard target at high speed

L81

The types of damage derived from these pheno-

meno w i l l be discussed i n Section 3.

Test Arrangements
The occurrence of industrially c r i t i c a l liquid impacts i s mostly i n the form of
spherical drops.

Various experimental methods have been introduced for laboratory tests

so that either single or multiple (repetitive) impacts can be produced w i t h drops of

various shapes or jets.

As w i l l be discussed further,

the stress distributions caused by

such diverse-type liquid impacts may be related t o each other, and thus the choice of
impact arrangement can be dictated by convenience i n practice.
Relative approach i n the impact tests may be attained either by the motion o f
liquid against the solid specimen or b y moving the solid surface against o liquid jet or
drop.

As an example o f the former, Fig. 1 shows the schematic o f the water gun test

apparatus o f Bowden and Brunton [9,101

Water i s sealed off i n a chamber by a Neo-

prene plug; a bullet fired against the latter forces a jet of water out o f a narrow orifice,
against the target specimen.

Figure 2 shows a sequence of events followed by high-

speed photography; at 0.8 ps intervals, the photos show the impact of a d= 2 mm d i ameter jet against Plexiglas, at V = 680 m / ~ , They show the deformation o f the jet and
its radial wash, as well as the damage wrought i n the target.

The shaping of the water

Fig.

1 . Schematic o f a water gun used for producing high-velocity liquid jets.

A, target; B, chamber; C, liquid, D, neoprene disc.

Fig. 2.

680 m/s.

From Bowden and Brunton

El01

Series of photos taken o f a 2-mm-diameter water jet shot against Plexiglas a t

From Bowden and Brunton [ 101

jet leaving the o r i f i c e depends a great deal on the water surface inside the chamber
prior t o shooting.

I f the chamber i s l e f t partially empty, then "mushrooming1' of the iet

i n the air is greatly reduced. A concave liquid-air interface i n the chamber i s apt t o
produce a thin precursor micro-jet (Munroe jet) which i s much faster than the parent
jet C11 I and i s apt t o d r i l l a hole i n the target.

Jet speeds of u p t o 2000 m/s have

been achieved by the water-bullet method.

In the opposite arrangement, Jenkins

[I21

suspended drops o f water (and mercury)

on a very fine web; a flat-nose solid proiectile specimen would be shot against the drop,
taking care that the imprint o f the drop on the surface was not damaged subsequently.
Following the impact, the shoulder of the specimen would be arrested.

Examination o f

the impact face of the specimen yielded information on erosion damage.

The above methods are hardly suitable for investigations o f repetitive impact; for
that purpose, variants of Honegger's wheel and jet apparatus C131 may be used t o
advantage, Fig. 3.

A cylindrical jet o f liquid i s impacted by a f l a t surface revolving

at high speed; impact speeds up t o 225 m/s and repetition rates o f the order of 5 Hz
have been reported

C141 .

I n the whirling-arm arrangement, rotating specimens impact against a r t i f i c i a l

raindrops. The intensity o f the rain is reflected i n the drop size and rate o f flow
(crn/hours)

[81

Specimen

Rotating Disc

Fig. 3.

>-ly,,-~et

The wheel and jet test apparatus.

Liquid Impingement

A description o f the liquid impact process was given by Bowden and Field [15]
accounting for compressible behavior during the i n i t i a l phase.

I t i s simplest t o consider

a ~ e r f e c t l yflat cylinder of water, of radius r, approaching a r i g i d

lane, Fig. 4.

Fig. 4. Approach and impact of cylindrical water jet against a plane.

and Field C151

From Bowden

The pressure on the contact surface would instantly rise t o the water-hammer pressure
q = pcV, and at the edge o f the jet a tangential flow would initiate.

This outward

flow, becouse of the small height o f the liquid, would be two t o three times faster than
the incident velocity, and would be potentially highly erosive.

Meanwhile, the com-

pressed liquid trapped under the cylinder i s unable t o escape toward the perimeter u n t i l

"release waves" from the perimeter arrive,

t

at a speed c.

I t would thus take a time

r/c t o start the central liquid flowing outward, at about the speed of incidence, V.

A t that point, the pressure suddenly drops to the value o f the stagnation pressure o f the
2

incompressible (Bernoulli) flow, p V /2.

The duration o f the high-pressure pulse for a

1.5 rnm radius water cylinder i s calculated from the speed of sound, c = 1500 m/s i n
water.

Thus t = 0.0015/1500r

s (1 ps) i s obtained, regardless o f the length of the

cylinder, which may thus be replaced b y a "iet".

6
1 . 5 ~ 1 0 V i n S . 1 . units, i.e. forV=1OOOm/s,

- a very substantial

The impact pressure i s roughly

itis1500~~m~~(-150k~f/mm~)

pressure.

For the impact of a curved liquid surface against o solid plane, the release waves
may originate from any intermediate point of the liquid-solid boundary line.

Figure 5

shows the cross-section of a spherical or cylindrical body of water, approached by a

plane surface ot speed V.

As the approach deepens at a speed V, the point P o f the

boundary moves to the right at speed

have x = d (rsinQ)/dt = (rcos 0)0,
-

(rsin@)Q. ~ h u ;(
s =

k.

Using the angular position g at point P, we

The approoch speed i s written

v cot Q results.

V = -d (rcosQ)/dt

Plane

/ / / / W T Y p / / / / / /

"

Fig. 5.
drop.

Geometrical scheme of the impact of a plane against a spherical or cylindrical

The duration of the compressible flow is determined by the interval i n which

c.

As soon as x = c, the release waves can immediately reach into newly generated

areas of contact between liquid and solid.

pressure is defined by x
cot 0

= cosec
xo

Q 0 = r/x

at which x

,,so that

c,

Thus the cential half-contact length of high

i.e. V cos Q0 = c.

rV/c

For small angles,

(3)

Since tangential flow from this central circle or band toward the periphery is inhibited,
l i t t l e scouring damage i s caused here.

It i s noted that Eq. (3) has been found to under-

estimate the central area C161 ; this was attributed to neglect of the role o f viscosity
i n the analysis.
The impact of flat-ended cylindrical water jets against convex, concave and flat
inclined surfaces (Fig. 6) was studied b y Vickers

[I71

Fig. 6. Schematic diagram o f jet impact on (a) convex surface, (b) concave surface,
(c) flat-inclined surface, From Vickers El71

By an analysis similar to the case of a curved water surface impacting a flat plane,
the impact of a flat jet hitting a convex surface (Fig. 6a) gives the same result, Eq.

(3),

for x o.
For a concave solid (Fig. 6b), both the outward and inward radial flow must be
considered separately.
= r (1

- cos 0)/V.

The concave surface fills with liquid i n time t = y/V

I f the radial liquid velocity outward from the circle d i s v, then the

diameter of the entrapped liquid is 2 x o = d

+ 2vt

[ 2r (1 - cos 9 ) v I /V.

O n the

basis of experiments, v = 6 V was found an acceptable value.

If the impact at the edge of the jet can initiate a wave reaching the axis of the
jet before i t hits the bottom of the concavity, a Munroe jet may form ahead of the main
jet, causing concentrated damage at the center of the target.

The condition for this to

occur i s
d
2c

r (1

<

-vcos 0) , or

I n the impact of a flat jet with a flat-inclined surface, compression waves start
out from the initial impact point A, as shown i n Fig. 6c.

The position of the release

wave i s also shown; this i s a tension wave reflected from the wall of the iet delineating
a zone 6 where the flat bottom of the jet w i l l be disrupted and broken up, even before
impact.

Equating the sum of the travel times (a) of the compressive wave from A to C

and (b) the time of the tensile release wave traveling from C to B, with the approach
time of the liquid surface from B to D, theie results
t =

d i 6 -

(d - 6 ) tancu'

6 =

d (1

- [ V cot a']/c)

f (V cot cul)/c

The length o f the high-pressure region i s

2x0 =

d - 6
cos cu'

Normal impact w i l l result a l l across the jet i f the speed of contact V/cot rut between the
jet and the sloping surface i s equal t o or greater than the speed of the compression wave,
which means 6

0 or 0 5

cu'

< cot

(c/V).

However, i f a ' > cot

-'(c/V),

then a part

8 o f the iet surface w i l l break up prior to its impact, and on this projection o f the
inclined surface only incompressible flow w i l l occur at the mild stagnation pressure.
Deriving the impact pressure for a spherical water-drop h i t b y a solid plate
traveling at speed V,

0 .G. Engel considered a different approach C181

She argued

that compressional waves, initiated at the i n i t i a l impact point A (Fig. 7), are reinforced
by waves generated at points o f the surface (e.g.
contact.

point B) subsequently drawn into the

As a result o f contact w i t h the solid surface, the average particle velocity

inside the region reached b y compressional waves i s P V .

A thin cylinder of radial flow

exists above the solid surface up t o the "A -planeH, according t o this model; its thickness i s

H = 4R ( 1

- P ) C V/cI2.

The pressure obtained from momentum balance of the

liquid mass subject t o the compression wave is q =

P2

factor dependent on V; at large values of the latter,

p Vc.

In this expression

is a

was deemed t o approach unity.

A:cclerot;d
Wote Mor.

Fig. 7.

Impact model of a spherical water-drop with a solid.

From O.G. Engel C181

Liauid Pressure
The approaches to liquid impact analysis previously described were based on the
water-hammer equation, Eqs, (1) or (2).
tions.

These idealized treatments had some limita-

The spatial and temporal variations o f the pressure were reduced t o a suddenly

applied (and later removed) constant-intensity pulse over the impacted region.

The

viscosity o f the liquid, the variation of this and of the density w i t h the pressure and
the temperature were neglected; shock-wave propagation at high impact speeds was
unaccounted for, as were the problems o f the interface behavior between the l i q u i d and
solid (slip or no-slip) and between the liquid and the air; the effect o f strength of both
solid and liquid (fracture during impact) was disregarded.
numerical treatment can explicit analysis be effected.

I t i s clear that only by

Huang C191 developed a

computational scheme called a compressible cell-and-marker solution,

using marker

particles located along the interface t o keep track of the deformation of the liquid
boundary; the pressure and velocity within the liquid boundary were then computed by
a finite difference technique.

This procedure was employed by Huang, Hammitt and

Yang C20, 21 1 t o find spatial and temporal pressure variations for the impact of cylindrical and spherical drops.
Figure 8 shows the pressure-time history for an i n i t i a l l y cylindrical droplet, with
a length-to-diameter ratio L/d = 1, impacting at Mach 0.2; free-slip boundary condition between liquid and solid was assumed.
results.

The analysis showed several interesting

The pressure rose quickly and was maximum at the center with a distribution

reminding one of the Hertz pressure.

Its peak was reached a t time 0.25 d/c,

and the

peak pressure was slightly larger (by some 20%) than the water-hammer pressure q :pcV.
The pressures then rapidly declined, with the maximum gradually shifting towards the
periphery.
at time d/c,

The pressure at the stagnation point (r = 0, z - 0) actually became negative

after which oscillations set i n about the stagnation pressure, p v 7 / 2 .

The time variation was affected by V; the effective wave speed c

C22,231

c O+ 2V was used

Further analysis showed that neither the viscosity nor the slip conditions at

the liquid-solid interface are crucial quantities for the pressure history.

A more stocky

cylindrical drop shape (small L/d ratio) was found to cause more conformance to the
water-hammer type impact; L/d

1/4 was nearly ideal.

The role of compressibility and

radial flow checked out well with respect to the general liquid impact theories C10,151.
Similar analysis was carried out for spherical droplets,

Fig. 9.

Since the liquid

surface i s free to deform, the pressure build-up i s affected by the radial release flow
right after first contact.

As the compression and rarefaction effects are superposed, the

maximum pressure generated i n a spherical drop i s lower than that i n a finite cylindrical
jet of the same radius.

The maximum radial-pressure gradient i n the impact surface i s

greater for the spherical drop than for the finite cylindrical one, and this, causing
greater radial velocities,

would be likely to lead to more erosion for this geometry.

Smith and Kinslow [241 investigated the spatial distribution o f water-jet impact
pressure by setting up a transducer measurement at variable points of the target area.
They used a water gun l i k e that depicted i n Fig. 1; the iet velocity was 640 m/s and
the iet core diameter 2.4 mm; the diameter of the jet head was 6.6 mm.

A hardened

pressure pin was inserted flush w i t h the rest of the hardened tool-steel target; this small
diameter (1 mm) p i n transmitted the pressure from the impact surface to the pressure

Free-Slip

Fig. 8. Pressure-time history at liquid-solid interface (z = 0) o f an i n i t i a l l y cylindrical

droplet of L/d = 1, for impact Mach number o f 0.2 and for free-slip boundary condition.
From Huang, Hammitt and Yang C 201

-----

Mach

0.2

Mach

0.5

Fig. 9. Pressure-time history at liquid-solid interface (z = 0) o f an i n i t i a l l y spherical

droplet for impact Mach numbers o f 0.2 and 0.5. Non-slip boundary condition.
From Huang, Hammitt and Yang E211.

transducer located behind the surface.

A n oscilloscope was set u p for the measurement

o f the impulse exerted on the pin; since i t was triggered by the transducer output,

i t was

not possible t o obtain a spatial variation o f the pressure for f i x e d times from impact
i n i t i a t i o n for anything but a f l a t jet front.

It was possible, however, to obtain the

peak pressures throughout the impact area.

A n example for the experimental pressure

distribution is shown i n Fig.

10;the

iet corresponded t o a cylinder w i t h a curved front,

Pin N o .

0.15

0.10 0.05

0.05

0.10 0.15

Distance from Center (inches)

Fig. 10. Transducer measurement of pressure distribution for cylindrical jet w i t h a
curved front. From Smith and Kinslow C241

I n Fig. 10, a great deal of scatter is seen, the average o f which,

q u i t e w e l l w i t h Huang's pressure distribution.
obtained (863 M N ~ . ? ) .

For the peak pressure, q

however, agrees
-

0.91 p Vc

was

A pulse rise time o f 3 ps was measured and the decay time was

6 ps; these values indicated somewhat slower impact response than thot obtained b y
theory.

This study d i d not f i n d a peripheral ring o f high pressure, the existence o f

w h i c h was indicated by Johnson and Vickers [251 for a t h i c k jet

much lower velocities, V
contact area.

46 m/s.

(50mm diameter)

Ring craters were seen a t the periphery o f the

at

FAILURE MECHANISMS DUE TO LIQUID IMPACT

3.

Circumferential Surface Fractures

While the central area of the jet i s under compression, at its edge large radial
tensile stresses arise during the few microseconds o f the high-pressure pulse of impact.
In b r i t t l e materials such as Plexiglas, fractures result at the periphery o f the jet; the
depth of these depends on the impact velocity.

At velocities below 450 m/s,

C261 found a mere annular depression made by a 3 mm jet.

Some layer fractures lay

beneath it, cutting the surface t o form small hairline cracks.

Increasing

V toward

1000 m/s achieved progressively larger circumferential fractures (Figs. 11,

1000 m/s,

Brunton

12).

Over

the ring fracture was replaced by a surface p i t of the same diameter.

The area outside the ring crack (extending to about 1 cm or several times the iet
diameter) has a fringe pattern of sharp circumferential crazing features, about 0.01 mm
deep.

These offer resistance t o the radial wash o f the impact.

Other polymers (e.g.

polyvinyl chloride) w i t h essentially b r i t t l e impact response, behave similarly.

Glass

displays short circumferential cracks, which comprise the main ring crack (Fig. 13) on
the periphery o f the jet.

The length o f the cracks i s consistent w i t h the speed o f frac-

ture during the short duration o f the pressure pulse; these would form around faults.

Subsurface Flow and Fracture

Figure 12 shows subsurface cracks i n Plexiglas along the traiectories o f maximum
shear.

This type o f failure is essentially similar to the Hertzian shear-stress failure.

It

is not apt t o form i n ordinary glass, which seldom has subsurface faults.

Permanent (Central) Depression due t o Plastic Deformation or Fracture

Metals tend t o form a central depression due to high surface pressures of the order
of p

:
:

3 u y - analogous t o solid-body contact. A central p i t

cases i n the middle o f the depressed surface (Fig. 14).

i s also found i n some

Soft polymers and rubbers often

display a deep but narrow central penetration which i s due to tensile failure of the
material under the very large central deformations.

Fig. 11. Ring deformation i n Plexiglas due to the impact o f a water jet at 950 m/s.
The mean diameter of the ring deformation i s 3 mm. From Brunton [261.

Fig. 12. Cross-section through the 3.5 mm-thick Plexiglas plate of Fig. 1 1 . Fractures
at A are shear fractures and l i e along shear trajectories. Fractures at B are caused by the
tangential tensile stresses across the front o f the expanding dilatational wave. Fractures
at C and D are the result of the reflection and interference of the initial com~ression
wave. Note that the scabbing fractures at D are more extensive than the rin$ fractures
on the impact surface. From Brunton [261

Fig. 13. Fractures produced i n p l a t e glass by a 3 mm-diameter l i q u i d jet impacting at

650 m/s. From F i e l d l-271.

Fig. 14. Deformation o f aluminum caused by a 3 mm-diameter water jet a t 750 m/s .
The wavy deformation around the rim o f the depression is caused by tbhe shearing act i o n
o f the high-speed tangential f l o w . From Bowden and Brunton El01 .

Shear Deformation Around the P e r i ~ h e r vo f the lmoact Zone

The radial wash accompanying normal impact of a jet exerts scouring action
against any surface discontinuity, whether i t pre-existed i n the form o f scratches, pits
and other damage or was represented b y cracks, slip-lines and elevated grain boundaries
caused by the impact itself.

Smooth surfaces which remain smooth during impact are not

affected by this erosive mechanism.

Soft polymers are very susceptible to it; even i n

harder pol ymers ( e . g. unplasticized PVC) a sheared ring could be found, concentrically
w i t h i n a ring fracture produced by radial tension [261

Stress Wave Effects

I n a plate made o f b r i t t l e material (e.g.

glass), the compression of an impact i s

transmitted through the thickness by dilatational waves which are subsequently reflected
from the opposite side as tension.

Scabbing or spalling o f the opposite side may result

as shown i n Fig. 12 in Plexiglas,

Besides dilatational and distortional stress waves (cl and c 2 respectively), surface
waves (Rayleigh waves) 1281 also arise on impact (Fig. 15a).
than the dilatational waves, c

a lower speed c

,.

These are propagated at

Bowden and Field [151 showed

that a circumferential band of fractures may originate i n glass plates due t o the constructive interference o f Rayleigh waves w i t h reflected tensile dilatational waves.
Figures 15b and c show the principle o f the interference phenomenon; the speeds are
c

,-

5750 m/s,

= 3370 m/s and c ,

3100 m/s i n glass.

Further bands can also form

by the interference o f surface waves with reflected distortional waves.

Figure 16 shows

a band o f fractures i n glass, caused by interference of stress waves originated over the
central area Ay.
H

"1

LI

Fig. 15. Reflection and reinforcement of stress waves i n a late. (a) Three types of
stress waves; (b) Interference of two waves originating at a point on the surface;
(c) Load applied over area Ay. From Bowden and Field [15] ,

16. Fractures i n a 1.27 cm t h i c k glass p l a t e due t o a 3 mm jet impacting at

1200 m/s. The intensity of circumferential cracking decreases outside the loaded area.

Fig.

The band marked b y arrows is due to stress wave interference due t o impact over area
Ay. From Bowden and F i e l d [ i 5 1

4.

EROSION BY REPETITIVE L I Q U I D IMPACT

The jet and wheel tester (Fig.

general erosion study o f materials.

3) was used b y Hancox and Brunton El61 for a

I n order t o characterize early damage, they com-

pared the r e f l e c t i v i t y o f an attacked surface w i t h that o f the o r i g i n a l l y polished surface;

the reflection c o e f f i c i e n t
stage o f erosion,

was the r a t i o o f these r e f l e c t i v i t i e s . A t a more advanced

a Tal ysurf profilometer was used.

diameter jet at V - 68 m/s (q = 94 M N m ? ) after

Erosion o f Plexiglas

a t 150 m/s,

17); this was similar i n

by a single impact w i t h a Imm diameter jet

o f mercury

(N, V and d )

i s shown i n

Fig. 18.

The erosion o f Plexiglas w i t h respect t o three variables

Fig.

a 1.3 mm

N = 3500 cycles produced two bands

o f f i n e fractures on t w o sides o f a central undamaged area (Fig.

appearance t o Plexiglas eroded

by

19. Weight loss appeared appreciable only under

= 0.75.

A n incubation period

o f the erosion history was found, which proved t y p i c a l for v i r t u a l l y a l l materials.

cracking,

then p i t t i n g occurred.

The velocity-dependence was roughly

First

x - v ~.. ~

307

Fig. 17. Fractures in a Plexiglas specimen after 3500 impacts at 68 m/s.

fracture l i e parallel to the iet axis. From Hancox and Brunton [161.

The bands of

Fig. 18. Deformation of a Plexiglas specimen which has been shot through a l-mmThe radius of the iet i s shown by the arrow. The
diameter iet of mercury at 150 m/s.
photograph was taken w i t h reflected light. From Hancaxand Brunton [161.

cracking
pitting

d = 1.35 m m

0.6
0.4

Fig. 19. The erosion o f Plexiglas i n terms of three variables: N, V and d.

Hancox and Brunton [ I 6 1

Under a threshold velocity of V = 24 m/s,

cycles.

From

no damage could be noticed even after

ld

Thicker jets produced more damage, sooner; this i s i n line with the longer

duration o f impact, and thus more tangential scouring. Thin specimens, w i t h a width
5
1/10 that of the iet diameter, were unaffected by 10 impacts.
A study of several ceramic and rigid polymer materials showed similar features of
an incubation period as did Plexiglas.

Critical impact velocities V c r were observed i n

some inorganic single crystals; under Vcr no deformation whatever occurred, but over

Vcr the material would soon fail by tensile cracking. Table 1 shows some examples of
material behavior.

Table 1
Liquid erosion behavior of several materials C161

Soda lime glass

V = 80 m/s

N = 10

First cracking

Plexiglas

N=lO

First cracking

Sintered alumina

Diamond,

Sic

80 m/s

= 90 m/s
95 m/s

Calcite

Vc, - 36 m/s

Apatite, fluorite

Vc, = 40-43 m/s

N = 6 x lo5

N = 5 x 10

First cracking
N o sign of cracking

Erosion tests o f polished copper (less than 0.001% impurity, annealed at 850C)
showed many similar features with the
shown i n Fig. 19.

(N) and

(V) dependence of Plexiglas,

Aluminum also behaved similarly; increasing the grain size would

bring about a marked decrease of the reflection coefficient.

at N = 33,000 for small grain size (0.0045 mm); at N

For

x = 0.7,

pits formed

14,000 for single crystals; and

at N = 10,000 for large grains (0.045 mm).

Marriott and Rowden [291 metallurgically investigated the erosion of stellite,

very hard cobalt-based alloy o f steel, used i n the leading edge of the moving blades
at the exhaust end of large steam turbines.

Specimens were tested under a 0.40 mm

impacting at V = 427 m/s up to N = 200,000 cycles.

diameter jet,

A deep (0.51 mm)

and wide (0.76 mm) groove at 200,000 cycles resembled the pits and cracking shown on
specimens i n service.

An incubation period o f erosion was followed by the appearance

of matrix deformation manifested by slip patterns at 3000 cycles.

carbide-matrix boundaries.

Cracks formed at the

By N = 40,000 impacts, a shallow depression, 4 pm deep,

had formed as the beginning of an erosion track; some work-hardening was noted at this
stage.

Intrusions along slip lines formed.

Finally, with the broadening of slip lines,

gross material loss occurred as a result of the intersection of transgranular cracks.

Thomas and Brunton [ I 4 1 investigated repeated liquid impacts i n three distinct
configurations,

two of which allowed a separation o f the effects of pressure and sideways

flow.

(A) I n their tests with the wheel and jet apparatus (using filtered water i n a
1.5 mm jet at V = 125 m/s),

several materials were tested.

Erosion curves are shown

i n Fig. 20a; their general form (except for that of cobalt) resembles the scheme of
Fig. 20b.

The first stage o f erosion history was the incubation stage, where no weight

loss occurred, but some plastic or brittle deformation was noted i n the impact area.
stage 2, pits formed and grew by removal of material.
the erosion rate fell to a lower value.

In

When the pits emerged i n stage3,

The growth of i n i t i a l l y small depressions (stage 1)

into pits was explained by the stress concentrations that arise at these surface formations.
Accordingly,

even though the average stress is low, local soft spots of the material or

the roughness of the microterrain may account for yielding.

Since these local distur-

bances are very rare at the beginning, the first depressions would appear with some
delay.

Later on, however, with the formation of many depressions, the erosion rate

would rise.

In stage 2, the tangential flow ovei the roughened surface also greatly

contributes to erosion; work-hardening and eventual fracture of the material occurs.

I n stage 3, the rate of erosion declines again since the drop i s broken up b y the roughened surface; also, t he impact is no longer normal t o the whole o f the surface.

- 1200

0 copper

m 1 l 8s t e i l

90c
C

5. 105

number o f impact>,

10"

number of ~ m o a c t ,
0\

a1

Fig. 20. The development of erosion i n a number o f metals and alloys eroded at an
impact v e l o c i t y of 125 m s ' w i t h a water jet diameter 1.5 mm. (a) Experimental results;
(b) Three-stage model for erosion process. From Thomas and Brunton [141

(B)

I n a liquid shock tester, transient normal pressure shock waves (q =22 M N ~ ) . ~

were generated (Fig. 21) by a pneumatic hammer h i t t i n g a piston.

under a static load (1200

The l i q u i d was kept

N), maintained on the piston by a compressed steel spring,

Piston

Fig. 21. Shock wave apparatus. The piston i s struck on its upper surface by a pneumatic hammer so that strong pressure waves are transmitted through the l i q u i d i n the
sealed chamber onto the specimen surface. From Thomas and Brunton r141

This precluded the occurrence o f cavitation i n the liquid; no sideways flow would toke
place either.

These tests showed results similar t o those produced i n the wheel-and-jet

experiments.

N o detectable changes occurred on copper specimens u p t o

but between

50 shocks,

300 and 1000 shocks a roughening o f the surface occurred. This consisted

o f depressions, similar t o those i n the wheel-and-iet tests (Fig. 22).

Similar behavior

i n aluminum and mild-steel specimens showed that erosion starts i n the absence o f
tangential liquid flow, at pressures much lower than the y i e l d pressure of the material.
The l ocal yielding o f the solids i s associated w i t h structural inhomogeneities.

Fig. 22.

Depressions i n polycrystalline copper: (a) i n repeated l i q u i d impact after

3500 impacts at 50 m/s; (b) i n shock wave loading after 750 blows at a peak pressure
o f 22 M N ~ - ' .

From Thomas and Brunton

[I41 .

(C) Thomas and Brunton also investigated the effect o f tangential flow, while
keeping the pressure component small; the g l a ~ c i n gimpact o f a jet at
for

5 minutes, o n polished surfaces o f annealed pure copper. The amount of flow was

equivalent t o the radial wash o f

of

310 m/s was used

V: 100 m/s.

lo8 impacts i n the wheel-and-iet apparatus, at a speed

For a surface finish o f

0.5 urn, no permanent deformation was noticed.

Subsequent erosion tests o f 2-minute duration,

for the same polished surface w i t h step

discontinuities (0.02-0.5 mm), readily produced erosion, mostly downstream from the
steps.

Copper surfaces i n which small depressions had been made i n the shock tube

(they corresponded i n size t o having received

3000 impacts at 50 m/s i n the wheel-and-

jet apparatus) were then subiected t o tangential flow for one minute.

Again,

heavy

erosion resulted, especially on the downstream side of the depressions. Thus i t was
apparent that tangential flow i s effective i n erosion only when the target surface has
rough features.
Many features i n the liquid erosion phenomenon suggest a fatigue mechanism: the
effects of repetitive loading,

stress dependence and stress concentration,

and a chem-

i c a l l y active environment. Comparisons between conventional stress enduronce and

constant erosion damage were successfully made.

Figure 230 shows the S-N curve for

mild steel; Fig. 23b shows experimental plots for the

a fixed amount o f erosion.

V vs. N-dependence for producing

The constant erosion and ordinary fatigue behavior were

found t o be similar i n the aluminum alloy HE15 also; no endurance limit existed in
either stress-endurance or erosion tests, while i n steel an endurance limit i s clearly
exhibited by both types o f curves.

Some similarities have also been shown between

eroded and corrosion-fatigued surfaces.

(a

number o f cycles

number of cycles
(b)

Fig. 23. Stress-endurance and velocity-erosion curves for aluminum a l l o y HE15 and
mild steel: (a) under standard fatigue conditions, and (b) under repeated l i q u i d impact
(- number of impacts needed t o complete the incubation period, and (--) t o increase
the depth o f erosion by 100 pn). From Thomas and Brunton C141 ,

Of

dl physical properties, the toughness (the volumetric strain energy at fracture)

was found most influential for the erosion resistance of ductile materials. This i s demonstrated i n Table 2, where three quantities indicating erosion intensity have been
shown against their toughness.

For a l l but cobalt, which is a non-ductile material,

reasonably smooth relations are obtained.

Annealed materials showed greater erosion

resistance than cold-worked ones.

Table

Erosion indicators and toughness for various metals subjected to repeated liquid
impacts [ I 4 1
-

Material

Increase i n
Mean Depth of
Erosion with
25 x l o 3 Impacts
at Max. Rate, pm

10 6x
Reciprocal
Incubation
Period
133

--

Mean Depth
of Erosion
After 5 x lo5
Impacts, pm

Strain Energy
Per Unit
Volume, M N ~ - ~

Copper

155

1175

80.0

60/40 Brass

105

5.0

800

144

Mild Steel

75

1 1 .O

750

1 98

Stainless Steel

60

3.8

425

41 4

Cobalt

20

4.0

125

12.0

Vickers and W. Johnson [: 30, 31 1 subjected cylindrical specimens of Plexiglas

and cu -brass to repetitive water jets at V = 30-220 m/s.

The specimens were optionally

prestressed i n uniaxial or biaxial compression or uniaxial tension.

The general effect of

the prestress was the increase of erosion rate for the ductile a-brass.

In the brittle

Plexiglas, compressive prestress generally reduced erosion because crack propagation

into the material was inhibited.

Tensile preloads increased the erosion rate.

A study of the erosion of carbon-fiber-reinforced plastic was made by Hancox [321,

using the jet-and-wheel apparatus.

The epoxy resin system was a liquid bisphenol.

The

plastic specimens were placed i n three different positions, with the fibers being perpendicular to the jet of water or parallel t o i t (Fig. 24).
the impact speed was variable up to 90 m/s.
prior t o erosion.

The surfaces were polished to a 1 pm finish

A n incubation period was observed, and a three-stage erosion process

l i k e that shown i n Fig. 20b was typical.

tively undamaged central strip.

The damaged area was on two sides of a rela-

In general, a compression fatigue type phenomenon

governed, crushing the fibers i n a transverse direction,

Figs. 24a and b.

The jet diameter was 1.3 mm and

for the positions shown i n

Damage started by cracking of the fibers, and long sections o f the

fibers were removed, leaving markings i n the surface.

extensive damage to the fibers.

A l l matrix cracking started after

Erosion resistance seemed to depend on the interlaminar

shear stress of the composite, instead of on the amount of the fiber loading.

Much of

the erosion resistance of the matrix was lent to i t by the presence of the fibers.
erosion resistance was obtained from the "head-on" fiber position o f Fig. 24c.

Superior
The

number of impacts to initiate damage generally decreased rapidly with increasing V,

Fibers

Fig. 24. Fiber direction configurations i n the iet-and-wheel apparatus for the fiberreinforced-plastic specimens. From Hancox r321

Several conceptual approaches have been suggested for the characterization of

erosion resistance o f materials.

Thiruvengadam C331 found that i n the region of steady

erosion rate, there was a straight-line correlation between the strain energy t o fracture
and the reciprocal of the rate of volume loss (see, also, Table 2).

Denoting by U,

the energy absorbed by the material eroded; AW, the eroded volume; and defining S,
the erosion strength as the energy-absorbing capacity of the material per unit volume
under the action of the erosive forces,

the equation

(7)

U, = AWS,
results.

Further defining the intensity I of erosion as the power absorbed by the

material per unit area, i.e.

U,/A,t,

i t can be written i n terms of the area Ap of

erosion, the test duration t, and the average depth h of erosion:

For example, the erosion strength of 1020 steel i n distilled water i s found from the
measured quantities h/t = 6.35 ~ m / ~ e aunder
r
intensity I = 0.3 w/m2;
from Eq

S,

. (8),
-

I t/h=0.3/(6.35~

solving for S,

1 0 - ~ / 3 6 5 x 2 4 x 60 x 60) = 148 MN m-2

This value i s about three times the erosion strength of 1020 steel subjected t o erosive
action of a 3% N a C l solution at the same intensity I .

A model of the steady erosion rate (stage 2 of Fig. 20b) was formulated by Busch,
Hoff and Langbein [341

They attempted to connect rain erosion resistance with

common engineering properties of the material.

The new quantity e is introduced as

the increase o f volumetric internal energy by plastic deformation and by the formation
o f new surface during the erosion process, a material constant.

Thus the energy ab-

sorbed by a n eroded layer Ah thick, during a time A t is

U , =AhA,c

(9)

Meanwhile, the incident energy:

U,-

( 1 0)

I.At.A,

introducing the "factor o f absorption":

11 1 )

U,/U2,

and considering the l i m i t process A t

-+

0, there results for the erosion rate:

dh/dt = I b /

(12)

The factor o f absorption must monotonically increase w i t h the applied pressure q, and
therefore w e can w r i t e i t as a function o f
f

(dp),

a f/aq

dp,where p i s the

hardness:

(13)

W r i t i n g the modified water-hammer equation (2) for q, there results f i n a l l y

The constant

is a k i n t o the notch impact strength S o f the material, and an inverse

relationship between h and S has been shown for plastics; e.g. from b r i t t l e plastics
(Plexiglas) t o tough,

high molecular pol yethy lene, h was 100-fold reduced.

For rub-

bers, erosion resistance can be shown to be inversely proportional t o the elastic modulus

E, or, equivalently,

the Shore hardness; for small ES Eq.

where p is constant, and E,

(14) is simplified t o

remains q u i t e low for even high-impact frequencies.

This

behavior may also be argued from the fact that the f l e x i b i l i t y o f elastomers prevents
the build-up o f high pressures.
The hardness o f metals, according t o Eq. (14), promotes erosion resistance.
Erosion tests involving whirling-arm surfaces against a r t i f i c i a l r a i n were performed t o
test the effect o f the impact v e l o c i t y on various materials.

Figure 25 shows the weight

loss i n 12-minute tests, for a water concentration pWiL =

and medium drop

diameter d = 1.2 mm.

If i t were assumed that r a i n erosion AW is proportional t o the

energy flux I,i t would produce a dependence

3.

AW-v3,since

I = 1/2pV

'P~~,~.V,

Figure 25 suggests a much higher exponent than 3, which may be due t o the

sharp increase o f the 6 = f [ q ( ~ ) / p l expression above certain V .

erosion w i t h normal drop incidence starts at a c r i t i c a l velocity

Vcr

For certain materials,

The c r i t i c a l v e l -

o c i t y was found to decrease with the angle of attack rut as shown i n Fig. 26; a good
approximation i s given by the equation:
V(0) = V,

/sin ru

indicating that i t i s practical to incline exposed surfaces to the flight direction for rain
erosion protection.

flight velocity (krn/h)

Fig. 25. Dependence of r a i n erosion o f glasses, ceramics and some polymers on impact
velocity ( p w L = 10 -5; t = 12 min.). Curve 1, Plexiglas; 2, quartz glass (Infmsil);
3, Plexidur T; 4, Makrolon; 5, aluminum; 6, MgO, 7, A I 7 0 3. From Busch, Hoff and
Langbein [341.

90
o

Fig. 26.

70
50
30
approach angle (degrees)

10

Dependence of velocity limit of rain erosion w i t h angle of impingement

( p W L = 10 5 ; t
12 min.). 0, Plexidur T; x, Makrolon; 0 , Herasil; A , Infmsil;
0 , MgO, +, A 1 2 0 3. From Busch, Hoff and Langbein [ 341.
-

For erosion resistance, the effect of material properties such as modified resilience (MU = u t H/2E),

tensile strength (T = o t

acoustic impedance (Z = (E p )

112

), ultimate resilience (U = T 2/2E),

), hardness (H), elastic modulus (E), strain energy (S),

and their combinations were statistically investigated b y Roo, Rao and Rao 1351

. After

the i n i t i a l and development phases o f erosion, the best correlations with a l l available
data were exhibited by the double groupings (U, H),

(TIH),

and t r i p l e groupings (UHE)

and (UHT).

Rain Erosion of Aircraft

For estimating rain erosion exposure on aircraft, one must know the drop size
the approach size speed V and the number of expected encounters.

d,

A raindrop i s usu-

a l l y reduced from a large size t o a fine mist i n f i n i t e time as i t is suddenly subjected

t o the airflow surrounding the approaching aircraft.

This is especially so on approach

at supersonic speeds when the shockwaves are apt to disintegrate the drop.

Jenkins 1361

found an empirical formula for the time tC s l o f disintegration o f a water drop of diameter dCml

, t o a size

no larger than 150 pm, when subiected to an airflow velocity

VCm/sl :
t = 14.3 d / ~
O'''

(17)

which agreed closely w i t h values found b y O . G . Engel 1371 on 1.4 mm water drops.
O n this basis, aerodynamic calculations y i e l d the size o f the drop encountered by an
approaching conical surface 1363

For aircraft erosion tests, the Royal Aircraft

Establishment o f Britain has used a r t i f i c i a l r a i n o f 2.5 cm/hour intensity, w i t h 2 mm

drops and 805 km/hour speed,

i n a whirling arm tester 1381

Steam Turbine Erosion

Christie and Hayward 1391 b u i l t a periscope and f i l m camera t o study the erosion o f droplets formed from condensed steam i n the last low pressure stages of
350-500 M W turbines.

The drops had a maximum diameter of

blade t i p velocity was up t o 450 m/s.

0.45 mm, and the moving

This indicated the level of erosion exposure on

moving blades i n modern turbines; subsequently a steam tunnel was b u i l t for further
investigations.

O f many works treating the special erosion problems of steam turbines,

Refs. 140-431 are noted.

REFERENCES
S. S. Cook, !roc.

R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 1 19 (1928) 481 -488.

P. DeHaller, Schweiz. Bauzg., 101 (1 933) 243, 260.

Proc. 2nd Intn'l Conf. on Rain Erosion, Meersburg, W. Germany, 1967.
Proc. 3rd Intn'l Conf. on Rain Erosion, Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough, UK, 1970.
Proc, 4th Intn't Conf. on Rain Erosion, Meersburg, W. Germany, 1974.

0.G. Engel, Symposium on Erosion and Cavitation, ASTM STP N o . 307 (1 961)
3-16.

0 . G. Engel, J. Appl. Phys., 38 (1967) 3935-3940.

0 . G. Engel, J. Res. N o t . Bur. Stand., 54 (1955) 51-59.
F. P. Bowden and J. H. Brunton, Nature, 181 (1958) 873-875.
F. P. Bowden and J. H, Brunton, Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 263 (1961)
433-450.
F. P, Bowden, Philos. Trans. R, Soc. London, Ser. A, 260 (1 966) 94-95.

D. C . Jenkins, Nature, 176 (1955) 303-304.

E. Honegger, Brown Boveri Rev., 14 (1927) 95.
G. P. Thomas and J. H. Brunton, Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 314 (1970)
549-565.
F. P. Bowden and J. E. Field, Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 282 (1964)
33 1-352.

N. L. Hancox and J. H. Brunton, Philos. Trans. R . Soc. London, Ser. A, 260

(1966) 121-139,

G. W . Vickers, J. Appl. Mech. (1974) 907-91 1.

0.G . Engel, J. Res. N a t . Bur. Stand., 54 (1955) 281-298.

Y. C. Huang, Ph.D. Thesis, U. Mich. 1971.

Y. C . Huang, F. G. Hammitt and W. Yang, U. Mich. 03371-9-T,

Aug. 1971.

Y. C. Huang, F. G. Hammitt and W. Yang, U. Mich. 03371-14-T,

Nov. 1971.
F. J. Heymann, J. Appl. Phys. 40 (1 969) 51 13-5122.

M. A. Cook, R. T. Keyes and W. 0.Ursenbach, J. Appl. Phys., 33 (1962)

3413-3421.

D. G. Smith and R. Kinslow, Exp. Mech.,

18 (1976) 21-25.

W. Johnson and G. W. Vickers, J. Mech. Eng. Sci.,

15 (1973) 302-310.

260 (1966), 79-85.

J. H. Brunton, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A,

J. E. Field, Philos. Trans. R. Soc., London, Ser. A, 260 (1 966) 86-93.

1963.

H. Kolsky, Stress Waves i n Solids, Dover, New York,

J. B. Marriott and G. Rowden, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A,

260

(1966) 144-149.
G. W. Vickers and W. Johnson, Int. J . Mech. Sci.,

14 (1972) 765 -777.

15 (1973) 295-301 ,

G. W. Vickers and W. Johnson, J. Mech. Eng. Sci.,

N . L. Hancox, Wear, 23 (1 973) 71 -81

A. Thiruvengadarn, ASTM STP

408 (1967) 22.

H. Busch, G , Hoff and G. Langbein, Philos. Trans. R. Soc.,

London, Ser. A,

260 (1 966) 168-1 78.

P. V. Rao, B. C. S. Rao and N. S. L. Rao, JTEVA, 4 (I), (1976) 3-14.
D. C . Jenkins, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A,

260 (1966) 153-160.

0 . G. Engel, J. Res. N a t . Bur. Stand., 60 (1958) 245-280.

A. A. Fyall, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 260 (1966) 161-167.

D.

G . Christie and G. W. Hayward, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A,

260 (1966) 183-192.

S. M. decorso and R. E, Kothrnann, ASTM S I P 307 (1961) 32-45.
D.

W.

Ser. A,

C. Baker, K. H. Jolliffe and D. Pearson, Philos. Trans, R. Soc. London,

260 (1966) 193-203.

J. Caldwell,

Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A,

A. Smith, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London,

Ser. A,

260 (1 966) 204-208.

260 (1 966) 209-21 5.

APPENDIX 1-COMPUTER PROGRAMS IN APL PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE

Program 1 - 4th-Order Runge-Kutta Integration

(Ref: A, L. Jones, Proc. IEEE International Computer Group Conf.,
As an illustration,
and 2.6).

1970)

Hertz impact i s calculated for an elastic sphere (Sections 2.5

Three programs are used.

The main program,HERTZ,

contains the i n i t i a l and

final conditions, activates the subroutines, and stores the resulting position o f the
sphere at equal time irncrements.

The auxiliary program, RUNGE, takes care of the

stepping operations prescribed i n Table 2.3.

EQN contains the right-hand sides of the

state equations.

vHERTZ~C~IV

V Z+AT H E R T Z TF

C2 I
13 1

11

L21
L31
~ 4
L5l

X+(Z+L), VxpppT+O
Z+Z, l f Y+T H U N G E X
+2xTF>T+T+AT

VRUNGECOIV
V Z+T R U N G E X ; K l ; K 2 ; K 3 ; K 4
Kl+ATxT E Q N X
K2+ATx(T+0.5xAT) E Q N X t 0 . 5 x K l
K3+-ATx(T+0.5xAT) EQN X t 0 . 5 x K 2
1 K4+ATx(T+AT) EQN XtK3
Z+X+(KltK4+2xK2+K3)+6

VEQNCnlV

.I]

V Z+T EQN X

Z + X [ ~ ~ , - G - ( X [ ~ ~ < O ) ~ ( E R ~ ~ ~ ~ M ) ~ ( ( ~ ~ B E T A ) * O . ~

Program 2-

Hammer Impact on Elastic Medium

(Written by F. Bogaczyk, IBM Endicott Laboratory)

The hammer shown i n Fig. A1 i s divided
into seven elements, each one of size L, B, H
(length, depth, width,

respectively); their

distances from the pivot point are Y1,

. . . Y7.

The displacements and rotations o f these elements

are calculated during impact.
MMATRIX calculates the diagonal matrix
o f masses and inertias.
total stiffness matrix.

KMATRIX assembles the

PMAT i s the vector o f

external forces; P3 i s the hammer impact force,

P11 the p i n reaction and P13 the restoring
force of an end-spring near the pivot.

HIT i s

the main program containing the i n i t i a l and

final conditions, printout and stepping operations.
RUNGE takes care of the stepping operations
and EQ contains the right-hand sides of the state
equations.
ANVILSPRING i s a constant (or a function)
determining the elastic approach between the
striker and anvil surfaces

Fig. A1
hammer.

Finite elements o f o pivotal

VHIT[OIV

V AT HIT TF;Zl;W;J
x+(Y4xF:),w,(Y5xk'),w.o,w,(Y7xw).w+v+Y2
[I]
C21
X+((pL)p(T+J+O)).(YlxW),W,(Y2xW),W,(Y3xW).W.X

r 3 I PMINIT~PMAT
[41
DISPLAY T,X
C 5 1 LL:X+T RUNGE X
C61
T+T+AT
[7]
+LLx t(INTERVALtAT)>J+J+l
C 83
DISPLAY T ,X
[91
J+O
ClOl +LLxTF>T
v

VKMATRIXCUIV

V KMATRIX;I;J;R;KK;Rl;R2;KD;JJ;EVN

C11
~ + L C E V N ~ ~ ~ + L C E V N + ~ ~ I - ~ ~ O . ~ X ~ L ]
[21
~+BCEVN+11+BCEVNI
C31
H+HCEVN+lI+H[EVNI
C41
I+(gxg*3)+12
C5l
J+l
C61
KMAT+(R,(R+2xl+oL) )PO
171 ~ 1 : ~ 1 + ( - 6 + & C ~ 1 * 2 ) , ( - 6 + ~ C ~ 1 * 2 ) , ( 4 + ~ I : ~ 1 ) , ( 6 + & C ~ l * 2 ) , 2 + & ~ ~ 1
[El
~1+1~~1~~~(12+&[~!*3),(-6it_r~1*2),(-12+~[~1*3),~1
C91
R~+(~+&CJ~*~),(-~+L~JI*~),(~~~[JI).(~+&JI*~),~+&
[lo] ~ 2 + 1 [ ~ l x ~ x ( - 1 2 t ~ [ ~ l * 3 ) , ( 6 t & [ : J 1 * 2 ) , ( 1 2 ~ J l * 3 ) , ~ 2
Clll KK+(R,R)pOC121 KKCJJ;JJ+( 1 + 2 x J ) , ( 2 x J ) , ( 1 + 2 x J ) , 2 + 2 x J 1 + ( 4 , 4 ) p R l . R 2
C131 KMATcKKtKMAT

VMMATRIXCUIV

Cl]
C23
C31
C41
C51
C6 3
i71

V MMATRIX;MM;IE ;I0;II;INERTIAS;MASSES

C81

C91

MMcLxBxHxRHO
IE+2xt(pMM)+2
IO+IE-1
MAsSES~MMCIOI+MMCIEI
II+(MMx(4xL*2)+H*2)+12
INERTIAS+IICIO] +IIC IE3
MMAT+(pMM)pO
MMATC I0 ]+MASSES
MMAT[IEI+INERTIAS

APPENDIX 2

2.1

- ELASTIC CONTACT

Spherical Contact

SOLUTIONS

- Normal Pressure by Hertz Theory (Ref.

2.12)

Define:
22-

z+ia

+ r2)

R 2 - (z;

1
-(z-ia)R2+

1
- r 7 k n (R2+z7)

2
1
- - 2 zz3R2
3 R2+ I

ia

-21

z r 2 2 n (R2+ z 2 )

Then the state of stress i s obtained from the imaginary parts o f the expressions:

u v v - - similar t o ox,

, but x and y should be ieversed

-(3P/2=a3)(-K

uZ7

+ z ~ K / ~ z )

O n the z-axis
o x

o,,

pp/2*a3)

(1

AV)

[ z arc tan (a/z)

u LZ = - ( 3 ~ / 2 ~ a ~ ) C a ~ / ( a ~ + z 2 ) 1

O n the surface, inside the contact zone we have:

- a1

1/2 a3/(a7 + z 2 ) /

where

1 (a2-r2)3/2
Go- -

1 a

K~

- (a2-

71112

Outside the contact circle, the tractions are:

2.2

3P/2rra3

[1/3

Spherical Contact

The

a3(1 - 2 ~ ) ( 2 x ' r - ~
-'-')I

- Shear Traction
at z

boundary conditions,

O n l y (Ref, 2.12)

0 are:

= ( - 3 1 - ' ~ / 2 n a 3 ) d Z

s,,

Definitions,

r < a

i n addition to the ones used i n Appendix 2.1:

4ia3z/3

Z R $ ~

+ ia~~,/2 -

z2R2r2/4

- r4~n(~2+z2)/4

The state of stress i s obtained from the imaginary parts o f the expressions:

1 xE

a,/

2rra3

r2

-32 l,
h a 3

E ,. T y z
az
[2G

II

--'

aH

3pp

Z?
+

xyz
3LH
2r4

3
ax

3 2

(xF)

d
r 2

F]

O n the z-axis the only nonvanishing stress component i s

1
= ( 3 p ~ / 2 n a 3 ) [ ~ z a r c t a n ( a / z )- a - - a2 z 2 ( ~ 2 + a 2 ) - ~ ]
O n the surface inside the contact zone,
a

,,

= [ 3v/(4

+ v )I

a,,

= (x/y)

i.e,,

-v

[ 3v/(2

z = 0, r

IT^^

< a,

3
- (3 ~ P / ~ T I )O ~
8

xv

while on the surface outside the zontact zone

ax,

= - ( 3 p P / 2 ~ a ~ ) ( x r - [~2) ( r 2 + ~ ~ ~ ) F ~ + v ( 3 - 4 1x ~ r ~ ~ ) H ~

gYv

= - ( 3 p ~ / 2 a a ~ ) ( v x r)- [~2 x 2 ~ 0
+ (1

T xv

= - ( 3 p ~ / 2 r r a ~ ) ( y r - [~( )r 2 - 2 v x 2 ) Fa + v (1 - 4 x 2 r - ' )

where

2.3

Fo =

- -21

HO =

-1

a ( r 2 - a 2 ) 'I2

a ( r 2 - a2)3i2

r 2 arctan

- 4y2r-')H,

1a

( r 2 - 02)-li2

r 4 arctan [ a ( r 2 - a 2 ) - l R l

Cylindrical Contact W i t h Friction (Refs. 2.4 and 3.39)

For the state o f stress, also see Fig. 2.15.
0

zz

= - -

lrA

I '(

b 2 + 2 z 2 + 2y

$1

2*

-3~92

Hol

- -41

a r 2 ( r 2 - a2)li2

where

APPENDIX 3

- HARDNESS TESTS

(Ref.: H. O ' N e i l l ,

Hardness Measurement of Metals and Alloys, 2nd edn.,

Chapman

and Hal I, London, 1967)

Brinell Test

A hard (tungsten carbide or hardened steel) spherical indenter i s used against the
smooth f l a t surface o f the test specimen (Fig. A2).

The Brinell hardness number (B.H.N.)

i s the load P divided by the curved surface area of plastic contact, expressed i n kgf/mm2.

B.H.N.

ITd (d

-,

2P

(a) Brinell (or Meyer) Test

Fig. A2.

(b) Vickers Indenter

(c) Knoop Indenter

Indenters used i n hardness tests.

The B. H.
(D/d

N. varies with

const), i t i s a constant.

load, but for geometrically similar indentations

Most specifications prescribe a D/d test range for

various materials, along w i t h a test duration; the latter commonly ranges between
10-60 seconds.

Meyer Test
Instead o f dividing by the curved contact area, the projected area i s used for the
Meyer Hardness Number, M. H. N. :
M.H.N.

4P
*D

Meyer has found that i n the relation

A and n are constants for a given material, n being close to 2 for work-hardened and
2.5 for annealed materials. Thus

t o d2, provided the load range i s

is

safely beyond the elastic one.

Vickers Test

A polished diamond square pyramidal indenter (Fig. A2b) i s pressed against the
test specimen.

The Vickers diamond hardness number (V. D.H.) is the ratio o f load t o

the pyramidal area o f indentation, given i n units o f kgf/mm2.

Its relation t o the mean

pressure i s

V.D.H.

= 0.9272~

A great advantage of this test i s its load independence, since geometrically similar
indentations are always produced.

Knoop Test
This test using a pyramidal indenter (Fig. A2c) produces an indentation i n the
shape of a severely skewed rhomboid,

The longer diagonal i s seven times that of the

shorter one, and elastic effects are nearly eliminated along the longer diagonal.

The

load can vary between 1 g t o 3 kg force, and i n the high load range the hardness i s
nearly independent o f the load.

Rockwell Test
The depth o f penetration i s measured for load applied i n two steps. The first load
(10 kgf) already leaves a plastic indentation; now the subsequent larger load (90 or
140 kgf) i s next applied, and then removed, leaving the impression to be measured.
The Rockwell

"0" test uses a spherical indenter, and i n the Rockwell "C"test the hemi-

spherical indenter t i p i s on a cone; the

test for softer ones.

"C"test

i s used for harder materials, the ' B "

The hardness result i s conveniently read on a dial.

Microhardness Tests
Vickers pyramidal tests may be performed at low loads (below 200 gram force)
producing an indentation diagonal i n the range 30-50 pm.

This test i s used i n conjunc-

t i o n w i t h a metallurgical microscope.
Shore Hardness Test
The modulus of elasticity of a rubber sample i s indicated by the penetration o f a
hard metallic indenter under controlled force.

The Shore A Durometer has a truncated

cone point w i t h a 35 deg angle included; the "hardness" i s arbitrarily calibrated on a

numerical scale, between 0 and 100; the recommended force i s 1 kg.

For harder mate-

rials, the Shore D test with a 5 kg force i s recommended; this test uses a conical indenter
w i t h a 30 deg included angle and a

0.1

mm spherical tip.

The creep of the material

causes a decrease o f the hardness value measured after maximum penetration has been
achieved.

The speed of the indentation should be regulated also, for the same reason.

APPENDIX 4-

SURFACE TEXTURE

Table A1 illustrates the definitions of peak-to-valley roughness (S),arithmetic

average (AA) and root-mean square (RMS) o f a surface texture, along a linear surface
dimension.

Several other indicators (Ref.: D.W. Freyberg, Vacuum Technology

((May 1974) 41-51) have been devised, and two-dimensional surface coverage i s often
desirable (such measurements can be obtained,

for example, by a micro-topographer).

The V-finish value, extensively used i n the U.S.,

i s the RMS i n microinches.

Table A1 also shows the approximate finishes achieved by various manufacturing

processes and those of various engineering materials.
Table A1 - Approximate Range of Roughness
(RMS Height of Irregularities)

RMS =

an

4 Xy2/,,
rv/n

AUTHOR INDEX
Abrahamson, E. P., 28
Abramowitz, A., 58
Aleinikov, F.K., 27
Andrews, J. P., 100, 122
Archard, J F., 5, 27, 103
Archer, J.S., 59
Argon, A.S., 100

Baker, D. L., 290

Baker, D.W.C., 319
Barber, J.R., 92, 102
Baronet, C. N 64, 65, 100
Bqrtenev, G . N 19, 28
Baul, R.M., 143, 158
Bayer, R. G., 9, 14, 27, 194, 195, 205,
243, 266, 290
Bidwell, J.B., 103
Bikerman, J. J ., 19, 28
Bisson, E.E., 27
Bitter, J.G.A., 105, 120, 122, 123,
128, 132, 149
Black, P.H., 128
Blodgett, K., 158
Blok, H., 92, 102
Bowden, F. P., 2, 88, 90, 95, 96, 102,
292, 293, 295, 304, 305, 306
Brady, E.F., 24, 28
Bram, J., 243
Breckel, H., 179, 244, 245, 246, 249,
252, 253, 256, 263
Brittain, T.M., 88, 102
Brunton, J.H., 205, 292, 293, 302, 303,
304, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 31 1,
312, 319
Buckley, D.H., 4, 27
Burton, R.A., 25, 26, 28
Burwell, J.T., 6, 27
Busch, H., 319
Butler, L.H., 91, 102, 290
Byrnside, N.C., 158

.,

.,

Caldwell, J., 319

Calvit, H.H., 75, 101
Cameron, A., 28, 91, 102
Cortier, M., 82, 102
Cattaneo, C,, 81, 101
Caubet, J.J., 82, 102
Chen, W.T., 69, 70, 71, 101
Cheng, H.S., 91, 102
Chiu, Y.P., 23, 25, 28, 102

Christensen, H., 91, 102

Christie, D.G., 317, 319
Clinton, W.C., 27
Cole, G.F., 290
Commissaris, C. P. L., 172, 174, 175, 179
Conway, H. D., 58, 79, 80, 101
Cook, M.A., 318
Cook, S.S., 291, 318
Costello, G.A., 48, 58
Cottrell, A.H., 103
Crossley, F.R.E., 51, 59
Dauer, F.W ., 290
DeCorso, S.M., 319
DeGee, A.W.J., 11, 27, 172, 174,
175, 179
DeHaller, P., 291, 318
DeSalvo, G . J 63, 66, 100
Dowson, D., 27
Dudley, D.W., 28
Dunn, R., 103

.,

Elkin, A. I., 19, 28

Engel, O.G., 291, 298, 317, 318, 319
Engel, P.A., 58, 59, 69, 70, 71, 75,
79, 93, 94, 101, 103, 205, 237,
243, 266, 290
Eudier, M., 27
Farnham, K.A., 80, 101
Feng, I.M., 14, 27
Ferry, J.D., 101
Field, J.E., 147, 148, 158, 292, 295,
304, 305, 306
Finkin, E.F., 70, 72, 88, 101, 102
Finnie, I., 105, 106, 109, 112, 114,
118, 123, 128
Fligge, W., 59, 101
Fowles, P.E., 88, 102
Freyberg, D.W., 330
Fyall, A.A., 319
Galin, L.A., 103
Gallagher, R.H., 59
Gebhart, B., 103
Gilchrist, A., 124, 125, 126, 127,128,
134. 158
Gohar, R., 42, 58
Goldsmith, W., 58, 59
Goldstein, H., 205

Gommel, G., 95, 103

Goodier, J.N., 58, 158
Goodman, L. E., 42, 58, 79, 83, 101, 102
Goodwin, J. E., 105, 128
Gould, P., 92, 102
Graham, D., 143, 158
Graham, G.A.C, 75, 101
Greenwood, J.A., 23, 28, 84, 102, 243
Grosch, K. A., 28
Gupta, P.K., 70, 72, 101
Hadley, G., 243
Halliday, J.S., 14, 27
Halling, J.F., 28
Hamilton, G.M., 44, 58, 83, 102
Hammitt, F.G., 299, 300, 318
Hancox, N . L., 306, 307, 308, 313, 314,
318, 319
Hanley, W.E., 158
Hardy, C., 64, 65, 100
Harenz, H., 263
Harper, E.Y., 58
Harr, M.E., 149, 153, 158
Hartstein, F., 104, 128
Hays, D.F., 90, 102
Hayward, G.W., 317, 319
Head, W.J., 145, 149, 153, 158
Heinicke, G., 263
Hertz, H., 36, 58
Heymann, F.J., 318
Higginson, G. R., 28
Hill, R., 100
Hirst, W., 14, 27
Hoersch, V.A., 58
Hoff, G., 319
Holm, R., 2, 5, 27, 92, 102
Honegger, E., 294, 318
Hopkinson, B., 59
Horvay, G., 51, 59
Huang, Y.C., 298, 299, 300,318
Hunter, S.C., 59, 75, 101
Hurricks, P.L., 14, 27
Hutchings, I.M., 143, 144, 145, 146,
147, 148, 158
Iliuc, I.,

179

Jahanmir, S., 28
Jenkins, D.C., 294,317, 318, 319
Johnson, K. L., 23, 28, 64, 82, 100
Johnson, R.L., 4, 27
Johnson, W., 301, 313, 318, 319

Jolliffe, K.H., 319

Jones, A.L., 320
Kabil,Y.H.,
110, 111, 112,
Kanhere, A., 139, 140, 142,
Kashcheev, V. N., 105, 128
Kaya, I., 75, 101
Keyes, R.T., 318
Kinslow, R., 158, 299, 301,
Klatt, K.G., 158
106, 128, 148
Kleis, I.R.,
KO, P. L., 175, 176, 179
Kolsky, H., 58, 101, 319
Kornhauser, M., 58
Kothmann, R.E., 319
Kraghelskii, I.V., 20, 28
Ku, P.M., 25, 26, 28
Ku, T.C., 14, 27, 194, 195,
Kuhn, R.F., 101

128
158

318

277, 290

Langbein, G., 319

Langhaar, H.L., 158
Langmuir, I., 158
Lasky, R.C., 93, 94, 103, 290
Lau, E.K., 153, 154, 155, 158
Lawn, B. R., 58
Lee, C. H., 58, 59
Lee, E.H., 75, 101
Lee, K.M., 91, 102
Leibensperger, R. L., 88, 102
Lewis, R.B., 28
Lifschitz, J.M., 101
Lineback, L.D., 145, 158
Ling, F. F., 92, 102
Liu, C. K., 82, 101
Love, A.E.H., 58
Ludema, K.C., 18, 19, 28
Lyons, T. H 179, 205

.,

Manning, C. R., 145, 158

Marriott, J.B., 319
Marsh, D. M., 66, 100, 277, 290
Martin, J.A., 102
Mendelson, A., 100
Mindlin, R.D., 81, 101, 184, 205
Montgomery, R. S,, 176, 177, 178, 179
Moore, A.J.W.,
84, 102
Moore, D. F., 90, 91, 102, 103
Moyer, C.A., 42, 58
McClintock, F.A.,

100

McCool, J.I.,

23, 24, 25, 28, 102, 205

Nadai, A., 100

Nayok, P.R., 103
Neifert, H. R., 42, 58
Neilson, J.H., 124, 125, 126, 127, 128
134, 158
Nelson, C.W., 27
290
Nemier, S.E.,
Nepomnyashchii, E. F., 28
Nikolayev, V.N., 28
Nikpur, K., 42, 58
Oh, H., 128
Ohmae, N., 13, 27, 179
O ' N e i l l , H., 327
Polmgren, A., 9, 27
Pao, Y.H., 74, 101
Parker, R.J., 28
Pashkov, P.O., 250, 263
Pavelescu, D,, 179
Pearson, D., 31 9
Polyakova, 1. I,, 250, 263
Poon, 23, 28
Quinn, T.F.J.,

12, 27

Rabinowicz, E., 7, 27, 205, 290

Radok, J.R.M., 75, 101
Raman, C . V., 59
Rao, B.C.S., 317, 319
Roo, N.S.L., 317, 319
Rao, P.V., 317, 319
Royleigh, J.W.S., 59
Richardson, R.C. D., 290
Rice, S.L., 172, 174, 179
Riedel, R., 263
Roark, R. J., 42, 58
Roshon, D. D., 290
Rowden, G., 319
Rozeanu, L., 10, 27, 178, 179
Saaty, T. L., 243
Sacher, E., 101, 290
Sackman, J.L., 75, 101
Sage, W., 105, 128, 129, 131, 158
Schallamach, A., 20, 28
Schmugar, K.L., 179
Scott, D., 179
Scott, H.M., 179
Schumacher, R.A., 9, 27
Schwortz, J., 58

Sears, J.E., 50, 58

Seely, F.B., 58
Shalkey, A.T., 205
Shaw, M.C., 63, 66, 100, 128
Sheldon, G.L., 113, 114, 118, 139,
140, 142
Sibley, L.B., 24, 28
Sirico, J. L., 27, 179,205,237,243,290
Sliney, H.E., 28
Smith, A., 319
Smith, D.G., 299, 301, 318
Smith, J - O , , 58, 82, 101
Smith, T.L., 101
So, S., 80, 101
Sorokin, G.M., 178, 179
Spence, D.A., 80, 101
Stegun, I.A., 58
Steijn, R. P., 28
Stippes, M.C., 48, 58
Suh, N.P., 15, 27, 28, 205
Swain, M.V., 58
Swift, H.F., 158
Tabor, D., 2, 18, 19, 27, 28, 66, 67,
88, 90, 95, 96, 102, 263
Tallian, T.E., 9, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28
188, 205
Taylor, R.L., 59
Thiessen, P.A., 263
Thiruvengadam, A., 117, 128, 314
Thomas, G.P., 205, 309, 310, 3i1,
312, 319
Thomas, H.R., 58
Tillett, J.P.A.,
101, 128
Tilly, G.P., 105, 128, 129, 131, 133,
136, 137, 145, 158
Timoshenko, S., 38, 50, 54, 55, 58
Ting, T.C.T.,
75, 101
Tobolsky, A.V., 28
Tordion, G. V., 64, 65, 100
Torvik, P.J., 158
Tripp, J.H., 87, 102, 243
Tsukizoe, T., 13, 27, 179
Turner, A.P.L., 28
Tyler, J.C., 25, 26, 28
Uetz, H., 27, 95, 103, 104, 105, 128
Uhlig, H.H., 14, 27
Ursenbach, W.O., 318
Uumeyis, K.K., 106, 128

Vaessen, G.H.G.,
11, 27
Velusvarni, M.A., 51, 59
Vickers, G.W., 296, 313, 318, 319
Vogel, S.M., 80, 101
Volak, J., 110, 111, 128
Wahl, H., 104, 128
Walling, R.L., 158
Walowit, J.A., 70, 72, 101
Wang, H.C., 58, 59
Waterhouse, R. B., 14, 27, 205
Wayson, A.R., 14, 27, 205
Weber, J. R., 48, 58
Weibull, W., 115, 128
Wellinger, K., 27, 104, 105, 128, 179,
244, 245, 246, 249, 252, 253, 256,
263
Whitehouse, D. J., 103
Williams, J.H., 153, 154, 155, 158
Williamson, J.B.P., 85, 102
143, 144, 145, 146, 147,
Winter, R.E.,
148, 158
Yang, W., 299, 300, 318
Youssef, H., 27
Zaat, J.H., 172, 174, 175, 179
Zaretsky, E.V., 28
Zener, C , 59

SUBJECT INDEX
Abrasion, 104, 264
three-body, 7
two-body, 7
Abrasives, 1 11
Abrasive wear theory, 6
Abrasive wear constant, 8; 271, 276
Activation energy, 13, 178, 207
Adhering contact, 79, 81, 186
Adhesive wear constants, 6
Adhesive wear theory, 3
A i r flow, 136
Aircraft erosion, 317
Aluminum, 127, 134, 139, 145, 152,
168, 226, 304, 312
Aluminum oxide, 127, 134, 145
American Chemical Society, 20
Amontons's law 1, 19, 81
Annealed metal, 140, 143, 313
APL, 320
Archard's law, 5, 12, 16, 25
Arrhenius equation, 13
Asperities, 24, 84, 188
statistical analysis, 85
compliance, 87
impact, 88
Auerbach's law, 1 19
Ball testers, 24
Ballistic impact, 162, 245, 257
Bearings, 23
Boussinesq problem, 42
Brass, 31 3
Brinnel l hardness number, 327
Brittle erosion, 1 12, 152
Buckingham's *-theorem, 150
Butyl rubber, 93
Cadmium, 17
Cavitation erosion, 291
Carbon steel, 167, 193, 199, 226
Charring, 20, 285
Chattering, 175
Cobalt, 4
Coefficient of restitution, 31, 76, 99
Complex modulus, 75, 281
Computer programs, 320
Constraints, 21 0
Constraint factor, 63, 66

Contact,
apparent area, 3, 86
approach, 37
asperities, 84
cylinders, 41, 325
fatigue, 23, 25
fatigue apparatus, 25
pressures, 37
quadratic surfaces, 40
quantities, 39
real area, 4, 86
spheres, 37, 323
state o f stress, 43, 323
temperature, 13, 26
Contact Stress,
i n layered media, 70
plane strain, 82, 91
Copper, 143, 248, 309, 31 1
Corrosive wear, 12
Coulomb's law, 1, 19, 81, 184
Cracks, 15, 1 13, 156, 288, 302
C r i t i c a l velocity, 316
Cross-sectioning, 172, 249
Cutting wear, 122, 143
Crystal structure of metals, 4
Deformation energy, 246
Deformation wear, 122
Delamination, 285
theory o f wear, 15
Deposition, 134
Differential expansion, 78
Dimensional analysis, 150, 31 7
Dislocations, 15, 61
Dissipation factor, 76, 282
Drop test, 68, 73, 88, 95, 245
Ductile erosion, 106, 140, 152
Eccentric impact, 34
Elastic layers, 69
Elastomer, 17
Elasto-plastic contact stress, 62, 120
Electrical conductivity, 162, 176
Endurance limit, 312
Energy dissipation, 99, 246, 281
Engineering model, 10, 23, 147
Environmental temperature, 283

Erosion,
angle dependence, 105, 108, 109, 113,
118, 123, 126, 138, 153
brittle, 112, 152
causing ripples, 1 11
coefficient, 117
combined theory, 120
copper, 109
cutting theory, 106
empirical laws, 150, 154
liquids, 291
maximum, 108, 153
metals, 110
plateau, 133
primary, 132
secondary, 133, 145
soil, 149, 153
solid particles, 104
steel, 105, 109
testing apparatus, 105, 139, 144,
146, 309
velocity dependence, 108, 114, 142,
146
Etching, 161
Failure parameter, 21 0
Fatigue, 156, 288, 312
Finite element method, 55, 56, 64
Flash temperature, 92
Flat indenter, 43
Flaw distribution, 115
Flow pressure, 3, 62, 68, 142, 148, 277
Fluid stream, 136
Fluorite, 145
Forming, 157
Fragmentation, 129, 145
Fretting,
motion, 14, 228, 281
wear, 13, 25, 175, 195, 228
Friction, 3
coefficient of, 4, 21, 148, 267, 271
of polymers, 18
Gears, 23
Glancing impact, 32
Glass, 118, 152, 304, 306
erosives, 129, 139
Glass transition temperature, 17
Glass-fil led nylon, 285
Gradient method, 210
Graphite-epoxy, 153
Griffith's theory, 10

Grubin's equation, 22
Hammer, 51, 278
pivotal, 92, 169, 267
wear by polymers, 285
Hardness,
dynamic test, 67
elastic contact, 87
effect on erosion, 1 10
indium, 69
lead, 69
mapping, 172
testing, 327
Heat transfer, 92, 99, 281
Hertz contact, 36, 213
High-sliding speed, 186, 205, 266
High-speed photography, 130, 146, 292
Hyper-velocity impact; 292

IBM Endicott Laboratory, 10, 20, 162,

169, 273
Impact,
angle, 138, 148
combined vibrational and Hertz, 50,
169
compound, 160, 183, 265
eccentric, 34
elastic, 34
elastic rods, 50
elastic sphere on beam, 53, 55
elastomers, 92
frequency, 76, 200, 268
industrial uses, 104, 155
layers, 73
matrix method of analysis, 52
measurement, 161, 172, 267, 299
normal, 185
observation of, 130, 162,
quasi-static (Hertz), 46, 164, 190,
213, 320
peak force, 218
percussive wear, 159
plastic, 34, 258
plastic analysis for spheres, 66
repetitive, 100
rotational effect, 195
spring restraint effect, 199, 268
stereomechanical, 30
stress waves, 30, 50, 75, 305, 320
temperatures, 97, 148, 162, 280
thermal effects, 92, 259
three-dimensional, 51

time, 76, 296

wear-testing apparatus, 162, 169, 172,
178, 229, 245, 278, 292, 309, 317
Impact wear,
ball vs. plane, 214
compound impact, 223
cylinders, 218
elastomers, 287
lubricated, 235
polymer films, 277
slide rule, 227
Impulse and momentum, 31
Incubation period, 134, 169, 180, 306
Inelastic impact behavior, 33
Infrared,
absorption spectra, 285
microscope, 92
Ink, 273
Integral equation, 38
Interfacial shear stress, 72
Jet, 292
Junctures, 3
Khrushchov's law, 8, 16
Knoap hardness number, 259, 327
Lead, 144
Lip formation, 143
Liquid erosion, 291
aircraft, 317
intensity, 314
prestressed materials, 313
rain, 314
reinforced plastic, 313
Liquid impact,
repetitive, 306
tester, 292, 299
Liquid pressure, 291, 298
Liquid surface, 295
Logarithmic decrement, 76
Looseness of elements, 228
Lubricant, 26, 88, 171, 237
thermal effects, 92
Lubrication, 20, 230
boundary, 21, 234
elastohydrodynamic, 22, 91, 234
film thickness, 21
hydrodynamic, 21
partial EHL, 23

Mass matrix, 57
Master curve solution, 220, 242, 253,261
Matrix printing, 272
Measurable wear, 181, 206, 255
Meyer hardness number, 142, 327
Microhardness, 161, 259, 329
M.I.T.,
15
Moderate sliding speed, 186, 205, 265
Moh's hardness scale, 145
Molybdenum disulfide, 15
Monel, 175
Munroe jet, 294
Murphy's toughness criterion, 149
Newtonian liquids, 21, 88
Nondimensional curvature, 214, 262
Nylon, 135
Optimal wear-path, 207, 241, 250
Overstress, 282
Oxidative wear, 12, 13
Oxides, 165, 228
Peening, 156
Penetration, 139
Percussion, 29
center of, 35
Pin-and-disk machine, 15
Pits, 309
Plastic,
deformation, 25, 62, 84, 88, 119,
139, 141, 146, 156, 228,248, 257,
302, 315
displacement, 16
Plasticity index, 87
Plating, 157
Plexiglas, 77, 293, 302, 303, 310, 313
Plowing, 106, 141
friction, 7
Point-matching, 79
Polishing, 8
Polycarbonate, 285
Polyester urethane, 288
Poi ymers, 17, 277, 302
wear, 277
Polypropylene, 135
Polyurethane, 278
Polyvinyl fluoride, 285
Pressure-viscosity parameter, 91
Printing, 264
Print wires, 272

Probability, 85, 178

Projectiles, 162, 195, 257
Pulse shape, 201
P.V. method, 20
Quadratic surfaces, 40
Quartz particles, 131
Rain erosion, 31 7
Rake angle, 143
Reactor material, 172, 175
Reflectivity, 306
Release waves, 295
Repetition rate, 164, 288
Reynolds equation, 21, 88
Reynolds number 137
Rheovibron tester, 75, 98
Rock drilling, 176
Rockwel l hardness number, 259, 328
Rotling wear, 23
Roshon's wheel tester, 271
Roughness, 168, 231, 259, 330
theory o f friction, 2
Roundness, 149
Runge-Kutta method, 48, 55, 57, 73, 198,
267, 320
Saint-Venant vibrational theory, 30
Sand blasting,l05, 153
Scabbing, 303
Scanning electron micrograph, 9, 161,
167,
276
Scoring, 23
Scouring, 129, 296, 302
Self-equilibrating shear stresses, 78, 228
Shallowing, 66
Shot blasting, 156
Shear stress, 9
Silicon carbide, 110, 114, 117, 152
Single particles, 139
Sintered aluminum powder, 172
Size effect, 117
SKF Industries, 23, 27
Sliding, 80
heating o f contact, 92
pass, 10, 194
spherical contact, 83
wear, 10, 194
Slip, 14, 80, 184, 197
S l i p factor, 185, 198, 223, 265
S l i p lines, 62, 309

in,

Slipping time, 185, 265

Sol i d lubricants, 21
Spalling, 23, 25, 177
Spring steel, 170, 212, 229, 237
Squeeze film, 88
impact, 90
rough surfaces, 90
shape factor, 89
Stagnation pressure, 295
Steam turbine erosion, 317
Steel shot, 125, 139, 146
Stereomechanical impact, 30
Stiffness, 53, 56
Strain energy, 95, 121, 132, 314
Stress-strain behavior, 29
Stress severity factor, 21 5, 250, 261
Stress wave propagation, 305
Subsurface damage, 24, 187, 302
Surface,
damage, 24, 187, 302
damage contribution factor, 188,
198, 223
fatigue, 9, 23, 177
finish, 157, 166, 230, 330
preparation, 157
Talysurf, 161, 257, 261, 284, 306
Temperature, 93
o f contacts, 95, 280
measurement, 92, 95
Theory of elasticity, 36
Thermal wear, 20
Thermocouple, 93
Threshold size, 132
Threshold velocity, 308
Tool steel, 165, 192, 198
Toughness, 149
Tractions, 36
Trajectory, 136, 188
Transducers, 161, 172, 278
Tungsten, 273
Tungsten carbide, 176
Type character, 269

University of Cambridge, 292

University of Connecticut, 172
University o f Stuttgart, 172, 244

Variable curvature, 212

Vibrational contacf, 172, 229
Vickers diamond hardness number, 328
Viscoelasticity, 18, 73
Viscoelastic impact, 74
Viscous oil, 88
Viscosity, 21, 138, 230
Voids, 15
Water hammer, 291, 295
Wear,
adhesive, 2
atomic model of, 5
by paper, 264
cylinders, 218
effect of ink, 273
effect of repetition rate, 288
energy, 1 1
factor, 188, 256
formation, 208
fretting, 13
history, 209, 259, 284
law, 209, 224
measurement, 161, 252, 270, 271
mechanisms of, 2, 160, 204, 206,
214, 223, 248
mild, 6
model, 20, 188, 194, 207, 265, 275
one-body, 159, 230
oxidative, 12
particles, 5, 15, 161, 170, 178, 249
polymers, 19, 277
printing, 264, 272
rolling, 23
rubber, 20
scar, 11, 208
severe, 5
stress dependence, 207
test results, 192, 226, 254, 260, 288
two-body, 159, 240
velocity dependence, 247, 288
Wear state surface, 210
Weld, 157
Wheel and jet tester, 294
WLF equation, 18, 76
Work hardening, 66
Wrapping effect, 275

X-ray diffraction analysis, 165

Yield theories, 61
Zero wear, 10, 180, 204, 214, 230, 255
Zinc, 257