MEE322 - FUELS AND COMBUSTION

UNIT - 2
Fossil Fuels - Coal and Liquid fuels
Lecture 1. Wood as solid Fuel
Text Book: Samir Sarkar, Fuels and Combustion Orient Longman Pvt Ltd.,
Chapter 3 and Chapter 4
Topics for discussion under UNIT -2 Solid Fuels
1. Wood, and wood charcoal,
pages 30-33
2. Classification and different types coal
34-40,
3. Origin of coal and composition of coal
47-52
4. Analysis of different types of coal
52-67
5. Preparation, Coal washing and cleaning
88-102
6. Storage of coal and carbonisation of coal
104-118
7. Mechanism of combustion of coal
269
8. Briquetting
118-120
9. Gasification of coal and production of liquid fuels from coal.120-123
1. Wood - A Renewable Fuel
At one time it was extensively used as a fuel.
It consists of mainly carbon and hydrogen.
The wood is converted into coal when burnt in the absence of air.
It is not considered as a commercial fuel, except in industries, where a large
amount of waste wood is available.
The calorific value of wood varies with its kind and moisture content.
The average calorific value of the wood is 19700 kJ/kg.
1.1.

Typical Proximate Analysis of Wood compared to Coal

Fuel

Moisture, %

Fixed
Carbon, %
52.9

Ash, %

2.5

Volatile
Matter, %
37.6

Bituminous Coal
Hard Wood wet
Hard Wood dry
Southern pine wet
Southern pine dry

45.6
0.0
52.3
0.0

48.58
89.31
31.5
66.0

5.52
10.14
15.9
33.4

0.3
0.56
0.29
0.6

7.0

1.2. Typical Ultimate Analysis of some types of wood in %

Type of Wood
C
H
O
N
S
Ash
California Red Wood
Western Hemlock
Douglas Fir
Pine (Sawdust)

53.5
50.4
52.3
51.8

5.9
5.8
6.3
6.3

40.3
41.4
40.5
41.3

0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1

Trace
0.1
Trace
Trace

0.2
2.2
0.8
0.5

Typical Values of Calorific Values in kJ/kg of Wood Fuels

Wood Variety
Calorific Value, green Calorific Value, dry
Ash-white
10,300
12,550
Beech
9,165
12,465
Birch Yellow
8,850
12,150
Chestnut
6,125
13,440
Cotton Wood
7,035
13,950
Elm-white
8,350
13,280
Hickory
9,425
14,420
Maple, sugar
9,490
13,000
Maple, red
8,710
13,880
Oak, red
7,860
12,940
Oak, white
9,300
12,930
Willow
5,510
13,650
1.3. Wood Storage
Wood fuels undergo losses in net available energy as storage time increases due
to
Moisture accumulation with time and reaches saturation.
Loss of volatiles due to evaporation: 15% of net available energy is lost this
way.
The pH of wood is reduced making it acidic leading to corrosive effects
Last in, first out (LIFO) must be followed.
1.4. Wood Combustion
Surface undergoes thermal breakdown: vapors, gases, mists (combustibles)
are evolved. Exists up to 200oC.
More gases are evolved. Heat liberation reactions occur but no flaming.
Occurs from 200 to 280oC.
Gases continue to evolve and heat is liberated. Flaming starts. Occurs up to
500oC.

 Above 500oC all gases and tar are driven off. Pure carbon (charcoal) remains.
Further heating will result in combustion of charcoal.
Combustion Characteristics of Wood
see page 30
It is easily ignited.
Does not burn in large pieces because layers of semi-fused ash forms on the
surface.
Produces a long, non-smoky flame when burned in excess air. With limited
air, it burns with a lot of smoke.
As saw dust it burns readily. Saw dust can be made into binderless briquettes
at pressures of up to 8 kg/mm2.
Absence of ash disposal problems
1.5. Alternate fuels from Wood
1. Charcoal:
page 31
A carbonized form of wood. Involves the decomposition of the wood in
the absence of air. Three methods are known:
a. An ancient process: in pits.
b. Low temperature carbonization: in metal retorts, at about 350oC.
c. High temperature carbonization: in retorts, at around 1000-1200oC.
Charcoal is easily ignited. Used as reducing agent for iron ore, domestic
cooking and to manufacture producer gas.
Charcoal (Continued)
Typical Ultimate analysis on wet basis with ash:
Carbon:
85.2%
Hydrogen:
2.9%
Oxygen + Nitrogen:
3.5%
Ash:
2.5%
Moisture:
5.9%
Calorific Value:
31,400 kJ/kg
Combustion characteristics of wood charcoal
page 32
It easily ignites and burns at low rates
For clean and smooth burning in heating ovens
Costly fuel and Absence of ash disposal problems
Applications of wood charcoal
page 33
Used as a fuel in Blacksmiths and metal workers forges,
Cottage industries
Used as absorbent in gas purification, solvent recovery and liquid purification
Manufacture of CS2
Vehicular fuel in pre war period.
2. Substitute Natural Gas (SNG) and Methanol:

Obtained by gasifying wood to carbon monoxide and hydrogen after moisture is

removed.
Wood has self generating water supply and low ash and sulfur, making its
gasification superior to coal gasification.
CO and H2 are synthesized to form SNG over a catalyst or methanol.
Methanol can be converted to gasoline by the MTG process.
3. Producer gas:
In India, producer gas from wood is used as a fuel. Yield from about 500
kg wood is about 7400 m3 and calorific value is about 5600 kJ/ m3.
L2. Classification and different types coal
Ch.3.3-3.8 p.34-45
Composition of coal and Calorific values and calorimetry Ch.3.12. p.49
L3. Analysis and properties of different types of coal
Moisture,
Ash and mineral matter
Volatile matter and fixed carbon
Carbon
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Sulphur,
Oxygen
Phosphorous
Calorific value,
Caking properties,
Sp. gravity and bulk density,
Angle of repose
Porosity, surface area
Refractive index and reflectance
Grindability

Ch3.13.p.52-67

L3. Origin of coal and composition of coal

p47-52
Drift theory
Coal seams,
Coal measures
Hilts law
Coal petrography
Macrocomponents (rock-type) and micro components (Maceral)
Vitrain
Clarain,
Durain
Fusain

Types
Vitrinite,
Fusinite
Micrinite
Liptinite or exinite
Solid fuel embraces a wide variety of combustibles, ranging from wood, peat
and lignite, through refuse and other low calorific value substances, to coal and
other solid fuels derived from it.
Coal represents by far the largest component of the worlds fossil fuel reserves.
In thermal terms 90% of the known hydrocarbon fuel deposits are formed by
coal.
The carbon: hydrogen ratio of coal is the highest of the fossil fuels, hence the
calorific values of coals are principally determined by the carbon in the fuel.
Origin of coal Occurrence
Coal is a sedimentary rock of vegetable origin.
Vast deposits of plant material, formed approximately 80 million years ago,
were consolidated by pressure, heat and earth movement.
Coal is found to be interbedded with other sedimentary rocks, one might
consider to be ordinary rather than extraordinary: sandstones, shales, and
limestones.
Coal is found in beds (or seams, in coal terminology) ranging in thickness from
just millimeters to many meters. Typical thickness of coal beds is half a meter to
a few meters.
Formation of stratified coal seams and sedimentory rocks is known as coal
measures.
See-p47
In general, deposits close to the surface which can be worked by strip mining
produce a more economical fuel than deep mined coal.
Coal was the first fuel which fired the Industrial Revolution, but it is no longer
the cheapest option among the fossil fuels.
Rank of a coal
It is usual to consider coal in terms of their rank: in general, a high ranking coal
will have a high carbon content.
The other major coal constituent element, hydrogen, is present in hydrocarbons
which are released as volatile matter, when the coal is heated.
The rank of a coal is related to its geological age and, generally, its depth in the
earth.
The ranking sequence is:
- Wood
- Peat
- Lignite (brown coal)
- Bituminous Coal
- Anthracite
5

Carbon content and age of different coals

The final type is called anthracite and consists of almost pure carbon (86-98%)
together with some impurities. Barely 1 percent of all coal is classified as
anthracite and it is mainly used in domestic situations as a smokeless fuel. It is
harder to ignite than steam coal and the scarce supplies have greatly limited the
uses.
Higher carbon content than 98% leads to graphite or diamonds. Graphite is not
used as a fuel, due to the problems of igniting it. Both graphite and diamonds
have many uses in industry and are not treated as normal coal.
Analysis of different grades of coal

Coal may be banded or non-banded.

A banded coal is not homogeneous but consists of alternate layers or bands of
bright-black, dull-black and gray vegetal matter.
Exists in all types of coal.
Attributed to different kinds of wood and plant substances in various stages of
decay.
Non-banded coals are uniform and compact in structure.
Coal composition
Coal Petrography is the study of coal components by visual methods with or
without the help of a microscope.
Example: rock type, harder or soft coals,
brown coal, dull coal, bright coal, dull black, waxy solid,
wet coal, glossy black, lustrous etc.
The plant materials from which coal is derived are largely carbohydrates
of various kinds, only the most resistant of which (mainly cellulose and lignin)
remain after partial decomposition after death of the plants.
6

Ash: the solid residue upon combustion: sand, silt, and clay in variable
proportions, either carbonate or siliciclastic (mostly the latter). From fractions
of a percent in the cleanest coal to such large values that the rock should be
called a carbonaceous shale or a carbonaceous sandstone rather than coal. Very
impure coal is called bone coal.
See-p49
Macrocomponents
Vitrain: brilliant, vitreous (glassy-looking), homogeneous part with massive
texture, jetlike coal with conchoidal (shell-like) fracture
Clarain: semibright homogeneous coal layers that appear silky from the
presence of very delicate internal lamination with smooth surface
Durain: dull, lusterless, heterogeneous matte layers of coal with a close or
dense texture, without internal lamination
Fusain: friable and highly porous coal, usually appearing as irregular chips
and wedges lying along the bedding; fibrous, often called mineral charcoal.
Responsible for the dirty and dusty character of the coal.
Microcomponents
The plant constituents of coal have been classified both macroscopically and
microscopically. The basic idea is that all coal is composed of a small
number of kinds of fragments of plant debris called macerals, which are
analogous to the minerals of an ordinary sedimentary rock.
Macerals represent such things as branches, twigs, leaves, bark, interior
tissue of various kinds, and pollen or spores, among many others. Study and
classification of coal macerals is highly botanical and can be done only with
the aid of a microscope.
p50

Hilts law: The coals in the lower seams of coal measures are generally more
mature and harder than those of upper seams. This variation of rank of coal with
depth is known as Hilts law. Hilt's Law is a geological term that states the
deeper the coal, the deeper its rank (grade). The law holds true if the thermal
7

gradient is entirely vertical, but metamorphism may cause lateral changes of

rank, irrespective of depth
L4. Coal mining, Preparation, Coal washing and cleaning Ch4. p88-102
Co-existence of coal and petroleum
Where coal and petroleum co-exist, increasing temperature affect in opposite
ways.
Coal gradually loses its volatility and goes deeper whereas petroleum becomes
progressively lighter as it cracks and rises.
Thus the best coals are deeper in the ground whereas the best petroleum are
nearer the ground level.
4.1. Coal Mining
see page 40
There are two ways of mining coal, surface mining and underground mining.
Which method that is used depends on the local properties of the coal seams.
Underground mining currently stands for approximately 60% of the worlds
coal production.
However the worlds largest coal exporter, Australia, uses 80% surface mining.
Underground mines normally takes longer time to finish and tend to make a
larger portion of the coal seam unusable. However it is the only viable choice
for coal seams deep down. Two different mining methods exist, room-and-pillar
mining and long wall mining.
The first one is cheaper, but leaves more coal unrecoverable while the long wall
mining option is more expensive but can recover more coal.
The choice of mining technique is always based on economic considerations
and differences in a single mine can lead to both methods being used.
A problem with underground coal mining is the risk of explosions. Coal seams
contain small amounts of methane and other combustible gases that might be
ignited by sparks, leading to explosions when the gas conditions are right.
This is not a problem in surface mining.
Surface mining can recover as much as 90% and more of the coal. But is only
economical when the coal seam is located near the surface. Surface mining is
simply a matter of soil relocation that uncovers the coal by moving the
overlying dirt. This temporarily damages the area, but if proper refilling and
recuperation is undertaken the mining site can completely restored.
Coal that comes directly from a mine often needs to be treated in various ways.
This treatment can be everything from crushing the coal into fine powder to
complex chemical cleaning processes to reduce certain impurities. Coal
cleaning can reduce the amount of ash by over 50% and thus cutting down the
amount of waste from coal combustion.
In discussing coal, it is important to distinguish between proved reserves and
the total resource. The term resource is usually used to describe the total
amount of coal known to be in the ground.

The proved reserves is a smaller number describing the amount that is

recoverable under existing economic and operating conditions. In the United
States the coal resource is some six times larger than the proved reserves.
Surface mining, also called strip mining, is a highly efficient process, in that it
can recover virtually all of the coal in a given seam.
Strip mining is also highly productive, in that thirty to forty tons of coal can be
produced per worker per day.
About 60% of all coal mined in the United States comes from strip mines;
practically 100% of the lignite and subbituminous coal production is obtained
from strip mines.
However, strip mining is a controversial activity, primarily because of its impact
on the environment. In strip mining the fertile top soil must be removed to
expose the coal.
If the top soil is not properly stored during mining, and then replaced and reseeded after mining, nothing can grow in the mined area.
The strip-mined lands will resemble a lunar landscape.
Underground mining is generally performed by one of two methods. The room
and-pillar method cuts rooms into the coal seam, and leaves large pillars of
unmined coal standing to help support the roof. Leaving these pillars of coal
means that only about 60% of the coal in a seam is actually extracted.
In the longwall method mechanized mining equipment is used to gouge the coal
away from the seam face.
The mining equipment is designed to allow the roof to collapse as the coal is
removed. Longwall mining is more efficient than room-and-pillar mining in that
it allows the recovery of almost all the coal, but its use is restricted to mining
situations that can physically accommodate the large machinery used.
Underground mining is much less productive than strip mining. It is highly
mechanized today; nevertheless, it remains an unpleasant and dangerous
occupation.

Numerous technical problems are associated with underground mining. Air in

the mine must be kept safe. Both methane and carbon dioxide are released as
by-products during the formation of coal.
These gases can be trapped in the coal and accumulate in the mine as the coal is
removed. Accumulation of carbon dioxide can cause asphyxiation. Methane can
cause explosions or fires.
Electronic detectors and alarms are used to safeguard miners, but mines still
require good ventilation.
In addition, mining creates a lot of coal dust. The amount of dust in the air must
be controlled.
A mixture of fine coal dust and air is easily ignited; it is a powerful explosive,
which can cause devastating, and often fatal, mine explosions.
Long-term exposure of miners to coal dust leads to the debilitating black lung
disease.
Some very deep mines may extend below the natural water table, requiring huge
pumps to keep the mines from flooding. The water in coal mines is usually very
acidic (because slow oxidation of the pyrite in coal produces sulfuric acid).
If acid mine water drains into rivers or lakes it can kill the aquatic life; if it finds
its way to the top soil, it can dissolve away minerals and nutrients needed by
plants.

4.2.Coal Bed Methane

Methane physically adsorbs onto coal
Can desorb methane by..
Reducing pressure (pumping water)
Injecting carbon dioxide, nitrogen, etc.
Features.
10

Very shallow production (cheap)

Plentiful--nearly every coal bed has methane with it
Must produce a lot of water
Economical at >2$/MCF
4.3. Coal preparation (coal washing) p93-100
It is usually processed to separate the inorganic, ash-forming components and
to produce appropriately sized particles. The various operations involved in this
processing are collectively known as coal preparation or coal beneficiation.
The degree of preparation depends on the intended use of
the coal. For residential or commercial heating a very small market for coal
nowadays lumps about 1 inch in size are desired, along with as small an
amount of inorganic constituents as practicable (to leave little ash after burning).
Coal to be used for the production of coke for the iron and steel industry has the
most stringent requirements.
It must have low ash (typically less than 5%), low sulfur, and must be of
bituminous rank.
As mentioned above, this is a small but very important market for coal. Coal for
use in electric power plants by far the largest market for coal has the least
stringent requirements.
Substantial amounts of ash can be tolerated.
The coal need not be pulverized before transportation, but for firing in modern
power plants it will be reduced in size to about 0.1 mm before being burnt.

4.4. Coal transportation

How coal is transported depends on the distance to the place where it will be
used. Coal is generally transported over short distances with trucks or conveyors.
Trains and barges are used for longer distances within a domestic market,
alternatively the coal can be grinded into a fine powder and mixed with water to
form a coal slurry that can be transported through pipelines.
11

Ships are used for the longest distances. Around 700 million tones of coal were
traded internationally in 2003 and around 90% was seaborne trade1. Coal
transportation can be very expensive. In many cases up to 70% of the total cost
is due to transportation expenses. Only high-rank coal is traded internationally.
Lignite and sub-bituminous coal can be traded regionally but is too expensive
for shipment over longer distances, due to the low energy content compared to
high-rank coals.
A possible alternative to present transportation strategies is shipment of coal by
slurry pipelines.
Coal is pulverized to a size of 1-10 mm, mixed with roughly an equal weight of
water, and the resulting slurry is pumped through pipelines from the mine to the
point of use.
Such pipelines may find increasing use in the United States. However, with
current combustion technology, it is necessary to separate the coal from the
water at the receiving end of the pipeline, leaving an impure water that must
be treated before being returned to the environment.

Most large-scale users of coal will provide for storage of coal supplies on site.
This can involve a short-term storage for a few days, to guard against brief
interruptions of supply, as might be caused by a railroad accident, or long-term
storage, of one to two months supply, as protection against severe disruptions
such as labor strikes.
If proper procedures for stockpiling the coal are not used, heat can be generated
in the pile until, in extreme
cases, the coal will actually catch fire.
A very slow reaction of the coal with oxygen in the
12

air liberates heat.

If the heat is not dispersed, not only will the temperature of the coal pile
increase, but the rate of the chemical reaction between oxygen and coal will also
increase.
This effect establishes a "vicious cycle" of greater and greater heat build-up
with faster and faster reaction until the coal ignites in a phenomenon known as
spontaneous combustion or spontaneous inflammation
P 104
L5. Coal combustion
Coal combustion is a two-phase process and the objective of the burner is, as
always, to achieve complete combustion of the fuel with maximum energy
efficiency.
Three common ways of burning solid fuels are currently in use and are briefly
reviewed below.
Coal combustion for domestic heating has been practiced since antiquity. Today
less than 1% of the coal sold is used for domestic heating and cooking because
coal is a dirty fuel.
The importance of coal combustion is due to the following:
z To illustrate some general principles of combustion, and
z Coal-fired stoves or heaters are making a modest come-back as auxiliary
sources of household heat.
The standard way of burning coal on a small scale is using various versions of
the updraft combustor (see Fig. 7-7).
The hottest part of the fire is on the grate. Here complete combustion of the
elements in coal occurs.
Although the components of coal are chemically bonded in a complex structure,
for illustrative purposes we can write the reactions as if they were simply
individual elements.
Thus we have the following simple chemical equations:
C + O2 CO2
2 H + 0.5 O2 H2O
S + O2 SO2
N + O2 NO2

13

Higher in the bed of coal, there will be less oxygen available for combustion,
because some of the oxygen in the air sweeping through the bed has already
been used up. In an atmosphere which has a deficiency of oxygen, incomplete
combustion occurs:
C + 0.5 O2 ---> CO
This reaction is undesirable for two reasons. First, less heat is liberated when
carbon is burnt to form carbon monoxide than when carbon is converted to
carbon dioxide. Much more important, however, is the fact that carbon
monoxide is a deadly poison.
An additional problem associated with the combustion of coal in small units is
the production of smoke and soot.
In the complete absence of oxygen, carbon and carbon compounds will not burn.
If the fire is starved of oxygen, particles of carbon from the coal
may not burn, but rather be liberated from the coal as soot particles. In addition,
smoke is formed when the top-most layers of coal on the grate become hot
enough to evolve volatiles (as in the volatile matter test in the proximate
analysis of coal).
These volatiles may undergo partial combustion or carbonization to form tars
and soot.
This coal smoke reduced the amount of sunlight reaching the
ground by 40%. In addition to the aesthetic problems of soot depositing on
clothes, buildings and other belongings.
Coal smoke can also contribute to health problems.
In spite of these problems, coal is one of the cheapest and most reliable fuels for
use in electric power plants.
5.2. Stages of Coal Combustion
When heated to progressively higher temperatures in inert atmosphere (very
little oxygen present), coal decomposes.
Evolves water, tar and gas, and leaves a solid residue whose composition and
properties depend on heat treatment temperature.
Temperature range in which volatilization proceeds very rapidly is 350-500oC.
But thermal decomposition begins at a much lower temperature.
Can be divided into 3 stages.
Below 200oC decomposition is slow. Release of small quantities of
chemically combined water, oxides of carbon and hydrogen sulfide.
Begins between 350 and 400oC and ends around 550oC. About 75% of all
volatile matter is released, including all the tar.
Termed secondary degasification, is characterized by gradual
elimination of hetero-atoms, and ends when the char is transformed into a
graphitic solid. Principal products include water, oxides of carbon,
hydrogen, methane, and traces of C2 hydrocarbons.
As carbon content increases, active thermal decomposition occurs at
progressively higher temperature.
14

 In this stage, there is progressive aromatization of the char, i.e.,

increasingly large hexagonal carbon platelets.
Where residue is a coke, heat treatment up to 1000oC also leads to
marked increase in mechanical strength.
Fixed bed firing:
The advantages of a stoker system include
1. Coal does not have to be pulverized.
2. A low level of particulate emissions occurs, simplifying flue gas cleanup.
3. A stoker is easy to operate and can be manually controlled if desired.
4. It can be built in small sizes.
Some disadvantages are
1. High maintenance is involved due to bulky moving parts.
2. The stoker does not provide efficient gas-solid contact and requires a
relatively large furnace volume for a given steam production, due to the low
heat release rate per unit area of grate and the fact that the grate takes up furnace
volume.
Grate Combustion
The simplest, and most common, way of burning coal is by igniting a bed of the
fuel on a porous grate which allows air to rise through the bed, either by
buoyancy in smaller equipment or with fan assistance in the larger, automatic
stokers.
The combustion of a coal on a grate commences with heat transfer to the raw
coal from the adjacent incandescent fuel.
The first effect that this has is to drive off the volatile matter from the coal.
As the combustion process proceeds, the volatile matter decreases until there is
only the carbonaceous residue left, which burns with the intense emission of
radiation.
The volatiles will then rise through the bed, partly reacting with the hot
carbonaceous material above it, to burn as a yellow flame above the bed.
As the air enters the fuel bed from below, the initial reaction is the combustion
of the carbon to carbon dioxide.
In the hot upper region of the gas this is reduced to carbon monoxide:
CO2 + C 2CO
Which burns in the secondary air above the bed.
The effect of this is to decrease the concentration of oxygen from 21% at entry,
to zero at about 100 mm above the grate.
At this point, there is a peak in the carbon dioxide concentration which falls
away as the reduction to carbon monoxide proceeds (Fig. 9.2, next slide).

15

Underfeed Stoker
Next slide, Fig. 9.3, coal is fed into the retort by the action of a screw.
When combustion is completed at the top of the bed, a residue of ash and
clinker remains which falls to the sides of the retort.
The de-ashing of underfeed stokers is generally a manual process, although
some manufacturers offer automatic ash-handling facilities.
Bituminous singles with an ash fusion temperature of around 1,200oC are an
appropriate fuel for this type of device.

Chain Grate Stoker

A diagram of a chain grate boiler is shown in Fig. 9.4 (next slide).

16

The coal is supplied by the traveling grate and the thickness of the bed
controlled by the guillotine door.
The speed of the grate and an air damper setting control the firing rate.
The fuel for such boilers is usually smalls (about 13-25 mm) with a high ash
fusion temperature.
The ash falls from the end of the grate into a pit, from where it can be
removed by a conveyor belt or screw.
Pulverized Fuel
The coal is ground to a very fine size (about 0.08mm or more than 70% pass
through #200 mesh) when it can be made to behave rather like a liquid if air is
blown upwards through the powder.
z The preparation and handling equipment is very expensive and pulverized
fuel installations are generally only economically viable in very large
scale applications, such as thermal power stations.
z The fuel is injected in the form of a conical spray, inside a swirling
conical primary air supply in a fashion analogous to that for an oil burner.
Fluidized Bed Combustors (FBC)
The basic principle of operation is that the coal is mixed with an inert material
(e.g. sand) and the bed is fluidized by an upwards flow of air (Fig. 9.1, next
slide).

17

Although the fluidization requires more fan power than the conventional grate
combustions (Figs. 9.3 & 9.4), there are a number of advantages in FBC:
(1) The bed temperature can be kept cooler than in the case of grate
combustion-fluidized bed temperatures are generally within the range 750950oC.
This means that ash fusion does not occur and the low temperatures produce
less NOX.
(2) High rates of heat transfer can be attained between the bed and heat
exchanger tubes immersed in it.
(3) A wide range of fuel types can be burned efficiently.
(4) additives (such as limestone) can be used which react with oxides of sulfur
retaining the sulfur in the bed with consequent reduction in SOX emission.
Mechanism of combustion of carbon
Carbon + oxygen -> carbon dioxide is a heterogeneous reaction.
A complex is formed at the surface of carbon by the process of chemisorption.
xC + y O2 ->CxO2y -> mCO + nCO2
In the presence of free O2, CO undergoes further oxidation to CO2
CO + O2 -> CO2
The CO2 formed can react with Hot C to produce CO, which is called Boudard
reaction
CO2 + C -> 2 CO
Depending upon the O2 concentration, the product will be rich in CO2 or CO.

18

Chain breakers like POCl3, CCl4 etc inhibit the Oxidation of CO. while water
vapour increases the oxidation rate of CO.
The reaction mechanism is same whether carbon is in the form of bed of lumps
or a suspension of powder.
Ref. Ch8.p269
L6.Coal Utilization
L6. Storage of coal
Ch.4.3.p104-105
Carbonisation of coal
Ch4.4.p105-118
Briquetting of solid fuels
Ch.4.5.p118-120
There are three major pathways for coal utilization. These are illustrated in
Figure 7-4.
Combustion involves burning the coal in air to liberate thermal energy (heat).
The heat is used as such for comfort or to carry out many industrial processes
that require high temperatures; it is also used to generate steam for use in
electric power plants.
Carbonization is the heating of coal to high temperatures in the absence of air; it
is used in manufacturing coke for the metallurgical industry.
Conversion uses various chemical processes to transform coal into gaseous or
liquid fuels, called synthetic fuels.
Currently only one commercial synfuels plant exists in the United States.
Common to all these processes is prior mining of the coal, its preparation
(processing) and its transportation to the consumers.
Pathwaysto coal utilisation

6.1. Preparation
Coal preparation before use is important for good combustion.
In industry, coal handling methods range from manual and conveyor systems.
It would be advisable to minimize the handling of coal so that further
generation of fines and segregation effects are reduced.
The preparation of coal prior to feeding into the boiler is an important step
for achieving good combustion.
Large and irregular lumps of coal may cause the following problems:
19

- Poor combustion conditions and inadequate furnace temperature.

- Higher excess air resulting in higher stack loss.
- Increase of unburnts in the ash.
- Low thermal efficiency.
6.2. Storage, Handling
Uncertainty in the availability and transportation of fuel necessitates storage and
subsequent handling.
Storing coal has its own disadvantages like build-up of inventory, space
constraints, deterioration in quality and potential fire hazards.
Other minor losses associated with the storage of coal include oxidation, wind
and carpet loss.
A 1% oxidation of coal has the same effect as 1% ash in coal.
Wind losses may account for nearly 0.5 1.0 % of the total loss.
Storage to minimize carpet loss and loss due to spontaneous combustion.
The main goal of good coal storage is to minimize carpet loss and the loss due
to spontaneous combustion. Formation of a soft carpet, comprising of coal
dust and soil, causes carpet loss.
On the other hand, if the temperature gradually rises in a coal heap, then
oxidation may lead to spontaneous combustion of coal stored.
How to reduce the carpet loss:
1. Preparing a hard solid surface for coal to be stored
2. Preparing standard storage bays of concrete and brick
Ref.1 p104
In industry, coal handling methods range from manual and conveyor systems. It
would be advisable to minimize the handling of coal so that further
generation of fines and segregation effects are reduced.
The preparation of coal prior to feeding into the boiler is an important step for
achieving good combustion.
Large and irregular lumps of coal may cause the following problems:
Poor combustion conditions and inadequate furnace temperature.
Higher excess air resulting in higher stack loss.
Increase of unburnts in the ash.
Low thermal efficiency.
Most large-scale users of coal will provide for storage of coal supplies on site.
This can involve a short-term storage for a few days, to guard against brief
interruptions of supply, as might be caused by a railroad accident, or long-term
storage, of one to two months supply, as protection against severe disruptions
such as labor strikes.
If proper procedures for stockpiling the coal are not used, heat can be generated
in the pile until, in extreme cases, the coal will actually catch fire.
A very slow reaction of the coal with oxygen in the air liberates heat.

20

If the heat is not dispersed, not only will the temperature of the coal pile
increase, but the rate of the chemical reaction between oxygen and coal will also
increase.
This effect establishes a "vicious cycle" of greater and greater heat build-up
with faster and faster reaction until the coal ignites in a phenomenon known as
spontaneous combustion.
6.3. Preparation of Solid Fuels
Blending of coal:
z Used with excessive coal fines.
z Blending of lumped coal with coal containing fines.
z Limits fines in coal being fired to <25%.
z Ensures more uniform coal supply.
Conditioning of coal:
z Coal fines cause combustion problems
z Segregation can be reduced by conditioning coal with water.
z Decrease % unburnt carbon.
z Decrease excess air level required.
Solid fuels from Coal
6.4.Briquetting
Coal can be used as mined or after treatment.
Coal can be briquetted or converted to coke.
1. Briquetted coal:
It has the advantage of having no loss through grate openings and thus it
increases the heating value of the fuel.
Briquetting is done because:
(i) to convert cheap and waste coal dust to lump fuel.
(ii) to use coal more effectively on the grate of furnace, and
(iii) to produce smokeless fuel from fine coal.
Briquetting may be done as follows:
Refer Ch4.5. p118-120
1. Without binder for sub-bituminous coal, lignite or peat. It is produced
from finely ground coal by moulding under pressure.
2. With binder like pitch for bituminous, carbonaceous and anthracite coals.
A binding material such as pitch, coal tar, crude oil and clay etc are also
employed.
3. Other inorganic binders like sodium silicate, magnesium oxychloride and
lime silica may be used.
4. Inorganic binders are easy to use but will increase the ash content when
burnt.
5. Cereal binders like starch and ground maize may also be used.
6.
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2. Wood charcoal
It is made by heating wood with a limited supply of air at > 2800 C.
It is a good prepared solid fuel, and is used for various metallurgical
processes.
3. Coke.
Formed by the carbonization of coal.
Coke is dull black in colour, porous and smokeless.
It has a high carbon content (85 to 90%) and has a higher calorific value
than coal.
Yields benzole, oils and tar.
Gaseous products include coal gas.
Yield and chemical nature of the products depend on rank of coal
carbonized and duration of carbonization.
4. Pulverised coal
The low grade coal with a high ash content is powdered to produce pulverised
coal.
The coal is first dried and crushed into a fine powder by pulverising machines.
Widely used in the cement industriy and also in metallurgical processes.
6.5. Carbonisation
Two commercial processes are available:
see page 105
1. Carbonisation is the process when coal is strongly heated for 42 to 48 hours
in the absence of air in a closed vessel.
2. Low temperature carbonization at about 600oC, it is termed as lower
temperature coke or soft coke or char and it is used as a domestic
(smokeless) fuel.
3. High temperature carbonization at temperatures 900 - 1100oC.
Coal is heated in retorts. Evolves gases like carbon monoxide, methane,
unsaturated hydrocarbons, and hydrogen. It is termed as Hard coke.
4. Tar forms up to about 500-600oC. It is used in blast furnace.
Coals for converting to coke must have carbon content from 83 to 90%.
Coke is used in iron and steel industries (metallurgical coke), foundries, for
extracting pig iron from iron ores and to some extent for producing cast iron in
cupola furnace.
The second largest use of coal is the manufacture of coke for the metallurgical
industry.
Charcoal is made by heating wood in the absence of air, driving out the
moisture and a variety of other products and leaving behind the carbon-rich
porous solid. As the demand for iron increased, so too did the demand for the
necessary reducing agent, charcoal.

22

When many kinds of bituminous coals are heated in an inert atmosphere, they
soften and swell to form a plastic mass. This process is known as caking. Coals
that pass through a plastic stage on heating are called caking coals.
The escaping volatiles pass through this plastic material, which then resolidifies
to a carbon-rich solid upon further heating, known as coking.
Some caking coals resolidify on heating to form a hard, very strong, carbon-rich
porous mass suitable for use as a reducing agent in the metallurgical industry.
This material is called coke, and the special class of caking coals that yield a
satisfactory coke are known as coking coals.

L7. Coal Liquefaction

Refer C4.6 and 4.7 p120-123
Coal can be converted into a clean liquid fuel by reducing its molecular weight
with a substantial reduction in the C/H ratio. Four methods are possible:
1. Pyrolysis.
2. Direct Liquefaction. Examples are the SRC (Solvent Refined Coal), the
Synthoil and H-coal processes.
3. Indirect Liquefaction. The Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. Example is the
SASOL process developed in South Africa.
4. Chemical Synthesis.
Liquefaction entails use of large quantities of water and there is the
problem of ash disposal and slag removal plus elimination of sulfur dioxide
emissions if the coal contains large quantities of sulfur.
Coal tar is a brown or black liquid of high viscosity, which smells of
naphthalene and aromatic hydrocarbons. Coal tar is among the by-products
when coal is carbonized to make coke or gasified to make coal gas. Coal tars are
complex and variable mixtures of phenols, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs), and heterocyclic compounds, about 200 substances in all.
See p116-117
Several very old processes since WWII
Same general theme: increase H/C ratio
23

Can make a wide variety of hydrocarbon products (e.g. synthetic crude or

synfuel)
Two basic methods: direct and indirect
Advantages of Coal To Liquid (CTL) Fuels
CTL Improves national and economic security
Lessens dependence on foreign oil
Uses domestic resources and produces more jobs for Americans
Provides environmental benefits
Cleaner fuels that reduce NOx and particulate emissions
Enables use of higher efficiency engines
Is capable of capturing CO2 emissions
Provides geographic diversity as energy source
Coal liquefaction is Very expensive
Liquefaction attractive for transportation fuel
Indirect liquefaction commercially proven (>50 yrs)
Acid gas removal by amines (CO2, H2S)
S removal by Claus Process
H2S + O2 = H2O + SO2
H2S + SO2 = S + H2O
Direct Liquefaction of Coal Attractive Because of
Low transportation cost
Less chemical transformation required
Higher efficiency than high Btu gas production
Easy to store
Less water required for manufacture
However, processing slurries at high temperature and pressure presents
difficulties with equipment life and solid/liquid separation (still not commercial)
Two Basic Approaches to Convert Coal To A Liquid Fuel
1. Direct Liquefaction:
Dissolves coal in a solvent at elevated temperature and pressure
Combined with hydrogen gas and a catalyst
2.
Indirect Liquefaction:
Involves first gasifying coal, followed by reacting carbon monoxide and
hydrogen together
nCO + (2n+1)H2 = CnH2n+2 + nH2O
Comparison of processes
Direct Liquefaction
Adds hydrogen to break down the coal
Dissolves in a solvent followed by hydrocracking
Operates at 450 C and 170 bars
Light products are distilled
Medium and heavy distillates obtained from vacuum distillation
Liquid yields of 70% of the dry weight of coal feed
Further upgrade is needed for use as transportation fuels
24

Indirect liquefaction
Complete breakdown of coal with steam and oxygen
Sulfur is removed from the syngas
Syngas reacted over catalyst at
300 C and 20 bars
Produces a lighter suite of products; high quality gasoline and
petrochemicals
Oxygenated chemicals

Fischer-Tropsch Indirect Liquefaction Process

Yields high quality transportation fuels plus other products

Schematic diagram of different coal liquefaction processes.

25

Liquids Fuels Summary

Proven technologies
All processes require adding hydrogen
All processes remove sulfur and ash
Product include liquid, gas, and combustible solid (char)
Several long-standing commercial processes (e.g., S. Africa - SASOL)
So far no large-scale use without government support
Coal to Liquids Summary.
Good promise because of very large coal deposits in the world
Numerous processes that can generate a wide variety of products
Environmental issues include some hazardous wastes and byproducts
Does not yet effectively compete with natural gas or oil production
requires some form of subsidy.

26

Review Questions
1. Explain the rank of coal
(5)
2. Comparison between Flash point or fire point
(2)
3. Proximate and ultimate analysis relationship
(5)
4. How the moisture content of coal is determined?
(5)
5. How does moisture content varies in different coals? p53
(2)
6. Differentiate between the d.a.f coal and d.m.m.f coal
(2)
7. What is meant by bed moisture?
(2)
8. How does the ash content of coal affect its combustion characteristics?
(2)
9. What are the possible mineral contents in coal?
(2)
10. How the volatile matter is estimated in coal?
(2)
11. Explain the ultimate analysis method of determining the various elements
present in coal. Explain the detailed method?
(5)
12. Explain the Dulongs formula for determining the heat of combustion of
solid and liquid fuels.
13. What do you mean by the term calorific value of the fuel? How does
wood compare with coal in its calorific value?
(2)
14. What are the difficulties in storing wood for future applications?
(2)
15. What are the various stages of combustion of wood?
(2)
16. Give the salient features of the combustion characteristics of wood fuel.
(2)
17. Explain the process of preparation of wood charcoal from wood (5) p31
18. What are the combustion characteristics of wood charcoal?
(2) p 32
19. What are the applications of wood charcoal?
p 33 (2)
20. Which coal is called steam coal ? why?
(2)
21. Define the terms coal bed and coal seam, coal measure?
22. Explain briefly the ranking of a coal
(5)
23. How the different types of coals compare in their ultimate and proximate
analysis values
(5)
24. What are the applications of bituminous coal?
(2)
25. Give the applications of Lignite coal
(2)
26. Differentiate between caking and coking of coal?
p61 (2)
27. Explain why graphite is not used as a fuel?
(2)
28. Explain in detail the coal petrography?
(5)
29. State Hilts law? Where it is applied?
(2)
30. Explain the process of obtaining coal from the mines
(5)
31. Differentiate between strip mining and surface mining
(2)
32. What is meant by proved reserves and total resource?
(2)
33. What are the environmental hazards, the miners face in coal mines? (5)
34. Explain the importance of coal preparation and coal cleaning/ p89 (5)
35. Discuss the importance of coal washing. Describe any one method with
suitable sketch.
p93-100
(5)
36. What is spontaneous inflammation?
P104
(2)
27

37. Write short notes on coal transportation

(5)
38. Describe with a sketch the coal slurry transportation
(5)
39. Write short notes on coal storage?
p104-105 (5)
40. Describe with a sketch the process of coal burning on a grate (5)
41. Describe the different stages of coal combustion.
(5)
42. Describe with a sketch the FBC coal burning system
(5)
43. Explain the mechanism of combustion of carbon Ref. Ch8.p269 (2)
44. Differentiate between soft coke and hard coke. Mention their applications
p105,116
(5)
45. How Coal can be briquetted for use? P118
(5)
46. Explain the process of Briquetting of coal and mention the applications
(5)
47. Differentiate between soft coke and hard coke
(2)
48. Explain the process of carbonisation
p105-6
(2)
49. Differentiate between low temp carbonisation and high temperature
carbonisation
p105
(2)
50. How coal tar is produced? Mention its applications p116-117 (2)
51. Mention the Advantages of Coal to Liquid (CTL) Fuels
(2)
52. Describe the process of producing liquid fuels from coal. Name the
process, explain the flowsheet, products formed, its economics and
applications
(10)

28