Design of Unmanned Aerial Combat Vehicle

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle
DESIGN OF UNMANNED COMBAT AERIAL VEHICLE

A PROJECT REPORT
Submitted by
CHRISTOPHER BHARATH.M
DHINESH KUMAR.U
in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
Page 1

RAJALAKSHMI ENGINEERING
COLLEGE,THANDALAM-602105
ANNA UNIVERSITY::
CHENNAI 600 025
NOVEMBER 2012
RAJALAKSHMI ENGINEERING
COLLEGE
THANDALAM 602 105
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
UNIVERSITY REGISTER No.
211091010
This is to certify that this is a bonafide record of work done by the student ,
,III year Aeronautical Engineering in the AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT -1 Laboratory
during the academic year 2011-2012.
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Signature of Faculty-in-Charge
Submitted for the Practical Examination held on ..
Internal Examiner
External Examiner
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to extend our heartfelt thanks to Prof. Yogesh Kumar Sinha for
giving us his able support and encouragement. At this juncture we must emphasis
the point that this design project would not have been possible without the highly
informative and valuable guidance of Mr. Surendra Bogadi (Asst. Professor of
Aeronautical Department), whose vast knowledge and experience has greatly
helped us in this project. We have great pleasure in expressing our sincere and
whole hearted gratitude to them.
It is worth mentioning about my friends and colleagues of the Aeronautical
department for extending their kind help whenever the necessity arose. I thank one
and all who have directly or indirectly helped us in making this design.
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INDEX
Serial no.
Content
1.
Introduction
2.
Data From ADP-I
3.
Aim & Objective
4.
Three View Diagram
5.
V-n Diagram
6.
Gust Envelope
7.
Schrenks Curve
8.
Load Estimation On Wing
9.
Material Selection
10.
Detailed Wing Design

(Spar Design)
11.
Conclusion
12.
Bibliographies and references
Page no
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SYMBOLS AND NOTATIONS USED

A.R. - Aspect Ratio
B - Wing Span (m)
C - Chord of the Airfoil (m)
C - Mean Aerodynamic Chord (m)
Cd - Drag Co-efficient
Cd,0- Zero Lift Drag Co-efficient
Cp - Specific fuel consumption (lbs/hp/hr)
CL - Lift Co-efficient
D - Drag (N)
E - Endurance (hr)
e - Oswald efficiency
L - Lift (N)
(L/D) loiter - Lift-to-drag ratio at loiter
(L/D) cruise - Lift-to-drag ratio at cruise
R - Range (km)
Re - Reynolds Number
S - Wing Area (m)
Sref - Reference surface area
Swet - Wetted surface area
Sa - Approach distance (m)
Sf- Flare Distance (m)
Sfr- Free roll Distance (m)
Sg - Ground roll Distance (m)
Ttake-off - Thrust at take-off (N)
Vcruise - Velocity at cruise (m/s)
Vstall - Velocity at stall (m/s)
Wempty - Empty weight of aircraft (kg)
Wfuel - Weight of fuel (kg)
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Wpayload - Payload of aircraft (kg)
W0 - Overall weight of aircraft (kg)
W/S - Wing loading (kg/m)
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1.INTRODUCTION
Page 7
INTRODUCTION
The structural design of an airplane actually begins with the flight envelope or Vn diagram, which clearly limits the maximum load factors that the airplane can withstand at any
particular flight velocity. However in normal practice the airplane might experience loads that
are much higher than the design loads. Some of the factors that lead to the structural overload of
an airplane are high gust velocities, sudden movements of the controls, fatigue load in some
cases, bird strikes or lightning strikes. So to add some inherent ability to withstand these rare but
large loads, a safety factor of 1.5 is provided during the structural design.
The two major members that need to be considered for the structural design of an
airplane are wings and the fuselage. As far as the wing design is concerned, the most significant
load is the bending load. So the primary load carrying member in the wing structure is the spar
(the front and rear spars) whose cross section is an I section. Apart from the spars to take the
bending loads, suitable stringers need to take the shear loads acting on the wings.
Unlike the wing, which is subjected to mainly unsymmetrical load, the fuselage is much
simpler for structural analysis due to its symmetrical crossing and symmetrical loading. The
main load in the case of fuselage is the shear load because the load acting on the wing is
transferred to the fuselage skin in the form of shear only. The structural design of both wing and
fuselage begin with shear force and bending moment diagrams for the respective members. The
maximum bending stress produced in each of them is checked to be less than the yield stress of
the material chosen for the respective member.
The Structural design involves:
Determination of loads acting on aircraft:
a) V-n diagram for the design study
b) Gust and maneuverability envelopes
c) Schrenks Curve
d) Critical loading performance and final V-n graph calculation
Determination of loads acting on individual structures
a) Structural design study Theory approach
b) Load estimation of wings
c) Load estimation of fuselage.
d) Material Selection for structural members
e) Detailed structural layouts
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f)
Design of some components of wings, fuselage
DATA FROM ADP-II
Max CL= 1.589 and Min CL=-0.18 @ -8 aoa

Max L/D = 42.431
Wing loading = 95.826 kg/m2 = 940.053 N/m2
Take off gross weight, WO =5500kg=53955N
Empty Weight=3000kg
Fuel weight Wf = 1600 kg
Wing area, S = 57.77 m2
High lift device nil
Zero lift drag coeff, CDo = 0.0119
Drag due to lift coeff, K = 0.0116
Cruise velocity= 175 m/s
Cruise altitude= 10000m
Root chord=8, Tip chord=2.156 m
Wing span=10m
Length=8m
Coefficient Of Lift CL=0.05
Coefficient Of Drag CD=0.0125
Mach No=0.7
Page 9

Airfoil Thickness=6%
Stall Angle=8.5 deg
Camber = 5%
AIM & OBJECTIVE
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AIM & OBJECTIVE

The objective is to design the superior unmanned combat aerial vehicle and it has all kind
of weapons which satisfies the mission as well as military requirements. This design entangles
withMach no 0.7 which is never been designed previously is considered as the special feature of
this aircraft. The scope of this project to design an unmanned combat aerial vehicle to withstand
the high load factor acting on it and it should be highly resistant towards damage or failure. It
can achieve by Proper selection of material and proper design of structural element.
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Three View Diagram
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TOP VIEW
FRONT VIEW
SIDE VIEW
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2. V-n DIAGRAM
Page 14
In accelerated flight, the lift becomes much more compared to the weight of the aircraft.
This implies a net force contributing to the acceleration. This force causes stresses on the aircraft
structure. The ratio of the lift experienced to the weight at any instant is defined as the Load
Factor (n).
Using the above formula, we infer that load factor has a quadratic variation with velocity.
However, this is true only up to a certain velocity.
This velocity is determined by simultaneously imposing limiting conditions aerodynamically
((CL)max) as well as structurally (nmax). This velocity is called the Corner Velocity, and is
determined using the following formula,
In this section, we estimate the aerodynamic limits on load factor, and attempt to draw
the variation of load factor with velocity, commonly known as the V-n Diagram. The Vn
diagram is drawn for Sea level Standard conditions.
V-n diagram is used primarily in the determination of combination of flight conditions
and load factors to which the airplane structure must be designed. V-n diagram precisely gives
Page 15

the structural (maximum load factor) and aerodynamic (maximum CL) boundaries for a
particular flight condition.
This envelope demonstrates the variations of airspeed versus load factor (V n). In
another word, it depicts the aircraft limit load factor as a function of airspeed. One of the primary
reasons that this diagram is highly important is that, the maximum load factor; that is extracted
from this graph; is a reference number in aircraft structural design. If the maximum load factor is
under-calculated, the aircraft cannot withstand flight load safely. For this reason, it is
recommended to structural engineers to recalculate the V-n diagram on their own as a safety
factor.
Real values of load factor for several aircraft
From the table the limit load factor for our UCAV ranges between
lim(+ve) = 9
lim(-ve) = 3
First of all we need to find the
a. Design Maneuvering Speed Va
b. Design Cruising Speed Vc
c. Design Diving Speed Vd
Calculation Of The Positive Curve Of V-N Diagram:

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Design Maneuvering Speed
Va=Vstall lim
Va= 29 9
Va= 87 m/s
Design Cruising Speed
Vc= 175 m/s
Design Diving Speed
Vd= Vc+(10% Va)
Vd= 175+17.5= 192.5 m/s
Load Factor
n=L/W
L = 1/2V 2SCl
Where
=1.224 Kg/m3
S = 57.77 m2
Cl=1.589
For V = 25 m/s
L=35112.125 N
n = 0.65
For V = 30 m/s
L = 50561.46 N
n = 0.94
For V = 40 m/s
L = 89887.04 N
n = 1.665
For V = 60 m/s
L = 202245.84 N
n = 3.748
For Va = 87 m/s
L = 425221.878 N
n = 7.88
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Calculation Of The Negative Curve Of V-N Diagram:

Design Maneuvering Speed
Va=Vstall lim
Va= 29 3
Va= 50.23 m/s
Design Cruising Speed
Vc= 175 m/s
Design Diving Speed
Vd= Vc+(10% Va)
Vd= 175+17.5
Vd= 192.5 m/s
Load Factor
For V = 25 m/s
L = 17556.25 N
n = 0.33
For V = 30 m/s
L = 25281 N
n = 0.47
For V = 40 m/s
L = 44944 N
n = 0.84
For V = 60 m/s
L = 101124 N
n = 1.88
For Va = 50.23 m/s
L = 70872.55 N
n = 1.31
Table Containing the load Factor Values For Positive And Negative Curve.
v
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0
25
0.65
25
-0.3253
30
0.9371
30
-0.4685
40
1.6659
40
-0.833
60
3.748
50.23
-1.31
87
7.88
175
-1.31
175
7.88
192.5
-1
192.5
6.88
192.5
6.88
The V-n plot is shown below, which clearly explains the load factor behavior of the Unmanned
Aerial Vehicle
Page 19
This V-n diagram helps in predicting the positive load limit, negative load limit, Positive
accelerated stall, negative accelerated stall, speed limit, Caution range, Safety limit, structural
damage, etc.,
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3. GUST ENVELOPE
Page 21

Gust is a sudden, brief increase in the speed of the wind. Generally, winds are least gusty
over large water surfaces and most gusty over rough land and near high buildings. With respect
to aircraft turbulence, a sharp change in wind speed relative to the aircraft; a sudden increase in
airspeed due to fluctuations in the airflow, resulting in increased structural stresses upon the
aircraft.
Sharp-edged gust (u) is a wind gust that results in an instantaneous change in direction or
speed.
Derived gust velocity (U or Umax) is the maximum velocity of a sharp-edged gust that
would produce a given acceleration on a particular airplane flown in level flight at the design
cruising speed of the aircraft and at a given air density. As a result a 25% increase is seen in lift
for a longitudinally disturbing gust.
The effect of turbulence gust is to produce a short time change in the effective angle of
attack. These changes produce a variation in lift and thereby load factor
For velocities up to Vmax, cruise, a gust velocity of 15 m/s at sea level is assumed. For
Vdiv, a gust velocity of 10 m/s is assumed.
Effective gust velocity: The vertical component of the velocity of a sharp-edged gust that
would produce a given acceleration on a particular airplane flown in level flight at the design
cruising speed of the aircraft and at a given air density.
Reference Gust Velocity (Uref )at sea level 15m/s.
Design Gust Velocity (Uds) Uref X K.
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Construction
The increase in the load factor due to the gust can be calculated by
For curve above V-axis:
Where ,
K
Gust Alleviation Factor.
Umax
Maximum derived Gust Velocity.
Lift Curve Slope for wing.
For curve below V-axis:
Gust Alleviation Factor (K):
Lateral Mass Ratio ():
Where
g
Acceleration due to Gravity.
Mean Aerodynamic Chord.
Page 23
ct=
Chord at tip = 8 m
cr
Chord at root = 2.156 m
5.64
lift curve slope for airfoil
=Sweep angle at leading Edge of Wing
a = 0.074
Therefore we obtain,
=374.85
K=0.176
We know ,
Page 24

By using the equations and for various speeds of Umax we get the following gust lines
Calculation Of The Positive And Negative Curve Of Gust Diagram:

Velocity
Load Factor
Velocity
Load Factor
25
0.3125
25
0.3125
30
0.432
30
0.175
40
0.702
40
-0.1
60
1.894
50.23
-0.38
87
5.785
175
-3.81
192.5
3.156
192.5
-0.434
The load factors at the various points can be found using the formula using the corresponding
values of Umax and the gust envelope is found to be,
Page 25
Page 26
4.SCHRENKS CURVE
Page 27
Schrenks Curve
Lift varies along the wing span due to the variation in chord length, angle of attack and sweep
along the span. Schrenks curve defines this lift distribution over the wing span of an aircraft,
also called simply as Lift Distribution Curve. Schrenks Curve is given by
Where
y1 is Linear Variation of lift along semi wing span also named as L1.
y2 is Elliptic Lift Distribution along the wing span also named as L2.
a =5
Linear Lift Distribution:
Lift at root
Lroot=238450 N
Lift at tip
Ltip=64262N
Page 28
Lift intermediate
L1=110283N
L2=64262N
By representing this lift at sections of root and tip we can get the equation for the wing.
Equation of linear lift distribution for starboard wing
Y1 = -64262x+348733
Equation of linear lift distribution for port wing we have to replace x by x in general,
Y1 = 64262x+348733
For the Schrenks curve we only consider half of the linear distribution of lift and hence we
derive y1/2
Y1/2 = -32131x + 174366.5
Page 29
Elliptic Lift Distribution:

Twice the area under the curve or line will give the lift which will be required to
overcome weight
Considering an elliptic lift distribution we get
Where
b1 is Actual lift at root
a is wing semi span
Lift at tip
b1=6869.74
Equation of elliptic lift distribution
Y2 = 1373.95*(25-x2)
Page 30
For the remaining Schrenks curve we consider the half of the eliptic distribution of lift and
hence we derive y2/2
Y2/2 = 686.975*(25-x2)
Construction of Schrenks Curve:
Schrenks Curve is given by
-32131x + 174366.5+686.975*(25-x2)
Page 31
Substituting different values for x we can get the lift distribution for the wing semi span
Lift distribution table along semi span
x
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
linear
348733
316602
284471
252340
220209
188078
155947
123816
91685
59554
27423
elliptic
6869.74
6835.305
6730.943
6553.314
6296.221
5949.369
5495.792
4905.976
4121.844
2994.45
0
Combined
177801.4
161718.7
145601
129446.7
113252.6
97013.68
80721.4
64360.99
47903.42
31274.23
13711.5
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5. LOAD ESTIMATION ON WING
Page 33
The solution methods which follow Eulers beam bending theory (/y=M/I=E/R) use the
bending moment values to determine the stresses developed at a particular section of the beam
due to the combination of aerodynamic and structural loads in the transverse direction. Most
engineering solution methods for structural mechanics problems (both exact and approximate
methods) use the shear force and bending moment equations to determine the deflection and
slope at a particular section of the beam. Therefore, these equations are to be obtained as
analytical expressions in terms of span wise location. The bending moment produced here is
about the longitudinal (x) axis.
Loads acting on wing:

As both the wings are symmetric, let us consider the starboard wing at first. There are
three primary loads acting on a wing structure in transverse direction which can cause
considerable shear forces and bending moments on it. They are as follows:
Lift force (given by Schrenks curve)
Self-weight of the wing
Weight of the power plant
Weight of the fuel in the wing
Shear force and bending moment diagrams due to loads along transverse
direction at cruise condition:
Lift Force given by Schrenks Curve:
Linear lift distribution (trapezium):

Y1/2 = -32131x + 174366.5
Elliptic lift distribution (quarter ellipse):
Page 34
Y2/2 = 686.975*(25-x2)
Hence
-32131x + 174366.5+686.975*(25-x2)
Lift distribution (linear)
Lift distribution (Elliptic)
Page 35
Self-Weight (y3): Self-weight of the wing,

WWing= 0.25* WEmpty
=0.25*3000*9.81
WWing = 7357.5 N
WPort= -3678.75 N
Wstarboard= -3678.75 N
Assuming parabolic weight distribution
Where b
= span
When we integrate from x=0 (root location) to x=b (tip location) we get the net weight of port
wing.
y3 = k ( x 5)
By integrating and substituting the known values we get,

Page 36

K=-88.3
y3 = 88.3 ( x 5 )
Substituting various values of x in the above equation we get the self-weight of the wing.
Fuel weight:
This design has fuel in the wing so we have to consider the weight of the fuel in the wing.
Again by using general formula for straight line y=mx + c we get,
Yf=441.95x-1878.3
Page 37
Overall Load distribution:
Loads simplified as point loads

Curve / component
y1/2
Area enclosed /
structural weight (N)
943557.5
Centroid (from
wing root)
2.0835
Page 38

y2/2
26977.4
2.122
Wing
3683
1.875
Fuel
3093.63
1.955
Reaction force and Bending moment calculations
VA= 0
VA-943557.5-26977.4+3683+3093.63 = 0
VA = 963758.27 N
MA= 0
MA+(3683*1.875)+(3093.63*1.955)-(943557.5*2.0835)-(26977.4*2.122) = 0
MA = 2010194.42 Nm
Now we know VA and MA, using this we can find out shear force and Bending moment.
Page 39
Shear Force:
SFBC =(
SFBC
y1 + y 2
+ y 3)dx VA
2
x3
64262 2
2
1 x
=
x + 348733x + 1374 x 25 x + 25sin 88.3 5 x 2 + 25 x
2
5
3
963758.24
SFDC = (
y1 + y 2
+ y 3)dx VA + ( yfuel )dx
2
SFDC = SFBC + 220.975 x 2 1878.3x
SFAD = (
y1 + y 2
+ y 3)dx VA + 3094
2
SFAD = SFBC + 220.975 x 2 1878.3 x + 3093.63 x

By using the corresponding values of x in appropriate equations we get the plot of shear force
Page 40
Bending moment
y +y
BM BC = 1 2 + y3 VA dx 2 + M A
2
x
BM BC = 10710 x 3 +174366.5 x2 + 687 x x 25 x 2 + 25sin 1
5
1.5
x4
+37.5 ( 25 x 2 ) 88.3
1.66 x3 +12.5 x 2 963758.24 x + 2010194.42
12
BM DC = BM BC + y fuel dx
BM DC = BM BC + 220.975 x 3 939.15 x 2
BM AD = BM DC 3094 x
By substituting the values of x for the above equations of bending moments obtained we can get
a continuous bending moment curve for the port wing.
Note: if we replace the x by -x in each term we get the distribution of starboard wing
Page 41
Shear force and bending moment diagrams due to loads along chordwise
direction at cruise condition:
Aerodynamic center- This is a point on the chord of an airfoil section where the bending
moment due to the components of resultant aerodynamic force (Lift and Drag) is constant
irrespective of the angle of attack. Hence the forces are transferred to this point for obtaining
constant Mac
Shear center- This is a point on the airfoil section where if a force acts, it produces only bending
and no twisting. Hence the force is transferred to this point and the torque is found.
Cruise CL=0.05 @ V= 175 m/s
Cruise CD= 0.0125
Angle of attack= -4 (obtained from the lift curve slope)
Angle of attack @ zero lift= -5.5
Wing lift curve slope (a)= 0.074 /degree
Page 42

Co-efficient of moment about aerodynamic centre= -0.15
Location of aerodynamic centre:
xac/c=0.25
Location of shear centre:
xsc/c=0.3
Lift and drag are the components of resultant aerodynamic force acting normal to and along the
direction of relative wind respectively. As a result, components of them act in the chordwise
direction also which produce a bending moment about the normal (z) axis.V
Co-efficient of force along the normal direction,
Cn=CLCos +CD Sin

Cn = (0.05 * Cos -4) + (0.0125 * Sin -4)
Cn =0.05
Cc =CLSin +CD Cos
Page 43

Cc = (0.05 * Sin -4) + (0.0125 * Cos -4)
Cc = 0.1212
Chord wise force at root,
FR = (0.5*0.1212*1.225*1752*8)
FR = 18187.575 N/m
Chord wise force at tip,
FT = (0.5*0.1212*1.225*1752*2.156)
FT = 4901.55 N/m
Chord wise force at intermediate length,
F1 = 8411.75 N/m
F2 = 4901.55 N*m
By using y = mx +c again we get the equation as
y = -2565.5x + 15219
The above equation gives the profile of load acting chordwise, by integrating this above equation
we get a component of Shear force and again by integrating the same we get the component of
Bending Moment
ydx = 1282.75 x
ydx
+ 15219 x
= 427.58 x 3 + 7609.5 x 2
Load along chord wise direction

Page 44
To find fixing moment and the reaction force,
VA = 0
VA = 40394.32 N
MA = 0
MA = 83616.24 Nm
Shear Force:
SF = ydx VA
SF = 1282.75 x 2 + 15219 x 40394.32
Page 45
Bending Moment:
BM = ydx 2 VA x + M A
BM = 427.58 x 3 + 7609.5 x 2 40394.32 x + 83616.24
Page 46
Torque due to normal forces and constant pitching moment at cruise condition:
The lift and drag forces produce a moment on the surface of cross-section of the wing, otherwise
called a torque, about the shear center. Moment about the aerodynamic center gets transferred to
the shear center. The power plant also produces a torque about the shear center on the chord
under which it is located.
Page 47

Torque at cruise condition:
Torque due to normal force:
1
Cn V 2c * 0.05c
2
1
T1 = *0.05*1.225*1752 * 0.05c
2
T1 = 46.89c 2
T1 =
Where
c = chord
The equation for chord can also be represented in terms of x by taking c= mx+k
c = -1.1285x + 6.6944
Therefore torque
T1 = 46.89 c 2 dx
2
T1 = 46.89 ( 1.1285 x + 6.6944 ) dx
T1 = 46.89 ( 1.273 x 2 15.11x + 44.82 ) dx

T1 = 46.89 0.424 x3 7.55 x 2 + 44.82 x
Page 48
Torque due to chord wise force:
T2 = Fc * 0
T2 =0
Torque due to moment:
1 2 2
V c
2
T3 = 0.15*0.5*1.225*1752 * c 2
T3 = CM ac
T3 = 2813.67c 2
T3 = 2813.67 0.424 x3 7.55 x 2 + 44.82 x
Page 49
Then the different torque components are brought together in a same graph to make a
comparison
Page 50

The net torque will be sum of all the above torques i.e. torque due to normal force, chordwise
force, powerplant and aerodynamic moment
Page 51
7. MATERIAL SELECTION
Page 52
Aircraft Metals
Knowledge and understanding of the uses, strengths,limitations, and other characteristics of
structuralmetals is vital to properly construct and maintain any equipment, especially airframes.
In aircraft maintenance and repair, even a slight deviation from design specification, or the
substitution of inferior materials,may result in the loss of both lives and equipment. The use of
unsuitable materials can readily erase the finestcraftsmanship. The selection of the correct
material fora specific repair job demands familiarity with the most common physical properties
of various metals.
Properties of Metals
Of primary concern in aircraft maintenance are suchgeneral properties of metals and their alloys
as hardness,malleability, ductility, elasticity, toughness, density, brittleness, fusibility,
conductivity contractionand expansion, and so forth. These terms are explainedto establish a
basis for further discussion of structuralmetals.
Hardness
Hardness refers to the ability of a material to resistabrasion, penetration, cutting action, or
permanentdistortion. Hardness may be increased by cold working the metal and, in the case of
steel and certain aluminumalloys, by heat treatment. Structural parts are often
formed from metals in their soft state and are then heattreated to harden them so that the finished
shape will beretained. Hardness and strength are closely associated properties of metals.
Strength
One of the most important properties of a material isstrength. Strength is the ability of a material
to resistdeformation. Strength is also the ability of a material to resist stress without breaking.
The type of load orstress on the material affects the strength it exhibits.
Density
Page 53

Density is the weight of a unit volume of a material.In aircraft work, the specified weight of a
material percubic inch is preferred since this figure can be used indetermining the weight of a
part before actual manufacture.Density is an important consideration whenchoosing a material to
be used in the design of a partin order to maintain the proper weight and balance ofthe aircraft.
Malleability
A metal which can be hammered, rolled, or pressedinto various shapes without cracking,
breaking, orleaving some other detrimental effect, is said to bemalleable. This property is
necessary in sheet metalthat is worked into curved shapes, such as cowlings,fairings, or wingtips.
Copper is an example of a malleablemetal.
Ductility
Ductility is the property of a metal which permits it tobe permanently drawn, bent, or twisted
into variousshapes without breaking. This property is essential formetals used in making wire
and tubing. Ductile metalsare greatly preferred for aircraft use because of theirease of forming
and resistance to failure under shockloads. For this reason, aluminum alloys are used for
cowl rings, fuselage and wing skin, and formed orextruded parts, such as ribs, spars, and
bulkheads.Chrome molybdenum steel is also easily formed intodesired shapes. Ductility is
similar to malleability.
Elasticity
Elasticity is that property that enables a metal to returnto its original size and shape when the
force whichcauses the change of shape is removed. This propertyis extremely valuable because it
would be highlyundesirable to have a part permanently distorted afteran applied load was
removed. Each metal has a pointknown as the elastic limit, beyond which it cannot be
loaded without causing permanent distortion. In aircraftconstruction, members and parts are so
designed that the maximum loads to which they are subjected willnot stress them beyond their
elastic limits. This desirableproperty is present in spring steel.
Toughness
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A material which possesses toughness will withstandtearing or shearing and may be stretched or
otherwisedeformed without breaking. Toughness is a desirableproperty in aircraft metals.
Brittleness
Brittleness is the property of a metal which allows littlebending or deformation without
shattering. A brittlemetal is apt to break or crack without change of shape.Because structural
metals are often subjected to shockloads, brittleness is not a very desirable property. Cast
iron, cast aluminum, and very hard steel are examplesof brittle metals.
Fusibility
Fusibility is the ability of a metal to become liquid bythe application of heat. Metals are fused in
welding.Steels fuse around 2,600 F and aluminum alloys atapproximately 1,100 F.
Conductivity
Conductivity is the property which enables a metalto carry heat or electricity. The heat
conductivity ofa metal is especially important in welding because itgoverns the amount of heat
that will be required forproper fusion. Conductivity of the metal, to a certainextent, determines
the type of jig to be used to controlexpansion and contraction. In aircraft, electrical conductivity
must also be considered in conjunction withbonding, to eliminate radio interference.
Thermal Expansion
Thermal expansion refers to contraction and expansionthat are reactions produced in metals as
the result ofheating or cooling. Heat applied to a metal will causeit to expand or become larger.
Cooling and heatingaffect the design of welding jigs, castings, and tolerancesnecessary for hot
rolled material.
Aircraft structures are basically unidirectional. This means that one dimension, the
length, is much larger than the others - width or height. For example, the span of the wing and
Page 55

tail spars is much longer than their width and depth; the ribs have a much larger chord length
than height and/or width; a whole wing has a span that is larger than its chords or thickness; and
the fuselage is much longer than it is wide or high. Even a propeller has a diameter much larger
than its blade width and thickness, etc.... For this simple reason, a designer chooses to use
unidirectional material when designing for an efficient strength to weight structure.
Unidirectional materials are basically composed of thin, relatively flexible, long fibers which are
very strong in tension (like a thread, a rope, a stranded steel wire cable, etc.)
An aircraft structure is also very close to a symmetrical structure. That means the up and
down loads is almost equal to each other. The tail loads may be down or up depending on the
pilot raising or dipping the nose of the aircraft by pulling or pushing the pitch control; the rudder
may be deflected to the right as well as to the left (side loads on the fuselage). The gusts hitting
the wing may be positive or negative, giving the up or down loads which the occupant
experiences by being pushed down in the seat ... or hanging in the belt.
Because of these factors, the designer has to use a 74 structural material that can
withstand both tension and compression. Unidirectional fibers may be excellent in tension, but
due to their small cross section, they have very little inertia (we will explain inertia another time)
and cannot take much compression. They will escape the load by bucking away. As in the
illustration, you cannot load a string, or wire, or chain in compression.
In order to make thin fibers strong in compression, they are "glued together" with some
kind of an "embedding". In this way we can take advantage of their tension strength and are no
longer penalized by their individual compression weakness because, as a whole, they become
compression resistant as they help each other to not buckle away. The embedding is usually a
lighter, softer "resin" holding the fibers together and enabling them to take the required
compression loads. This is a very good structural material.
6061 Aluminium Alloy

6061 is a precipitation hardening aluminium alloy, containing magnesium and silicon as its
major alloying elements. It has good mechanical properties and exhibits good weldability. It is
one of the most common alloys of aluminium for general purpose use.
Page 56

It is commonly available in pre-tempered grades such as, 6061-O (solutionized), 6061-T6
(solutionized and artificially aged), 6061-T651 (equivalent to T6 in rolled stock).
Basic properties
6061 has a density of 2.70 g/cm (0.0975 lb/in).
Chemical composition
The alloy composition of 6061 is:
Silicon minimum 0.4%, maximum 0.8% by weight
Iron no minimum, maximum 0.7%
Copper minimum 0.15%, maximum 0.40%
Manganese no minimum, maximum 0.15%
Magnesium minimum 0.8%, maximum 1.2%
Chromium minimum 0.04%, maximum 0.35%
Zinc no minimum, maximum 0.25%
Titanium no minimum, maximum 0.15%
Other elements no more than 0.05% each, 0.15% total
Remainder Aluminium
Mechanical properties
The mechanical properties of 6061 depend greatly on the temper, or heat treatment, of the
material.
a) 6061-0
Annealed 6061 (6061-0 temper) has maximum tensile strength no more than 18,000 psi (125
MPa), and maximum yield strength no more than 8,000 psi (55 MPa). The material has
elongation (stretch before ultimate failure) of 25-30 %.
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b) 6061-T4
T4 temper 6061 has an ultimate tensile strength of at least 30,000 psi (207 MPa) and yield
strength of at least 16,000 psi (110 MPa). It has elongation of 16%.
c) 6061-T6
T6temper 6061 has an ultimate tensile strength of at least 42,000 psi (290 MPa) and yield
strength of at least 35,000 psi (241 MPa). In thicknesses of 0.250 inch (6.35 mm) or less, it has
elongation of 8% or more; in thicker sections, it has elongation of 10%. T651 temper has similar
mechanical properties. The famous Pioneer plaque was made of this particular alloy.
Uses
6061 is widely used for construction of aircraft structures, such as wings and fuselages, more
commonly in homebuilt aircraft than commercial or military aircraft.
6061 is used for yacht construction, including small utility boats.
6061 is commonly used in the construction of bicycle frames and components.
Welding
6061 is highly weldable, for example using tungsten inert gas welding (TIG) or metal inert gas
welding (MIG). Typically, after welding, the properties near the weld are those of 6061-0, a loss
of strength of around 80%. The material can be re-heat-treated to restore -T4 or -T6 temper for
the whole piece.
Extrusions
6061 is also an alloy used in the production of extrusionslong constantcross-section structural
shapes produced by pushing metal through a shaped die.
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Forgings
6061 is also an alloy that is commonly used in a hot forging. The billet is heated through an
induction furnace and forged using a closed die process. Automotive parts, ATV parts, and
industrial parts are just some of the uses as a forging.
Page 59
8. DETAILED WING DESIGN
Page 60

Spar design:
Spars are members which are basically used to carry the bending and shear loads acting
on the wing during flight. There are two spars, one located at 15-20% of the chord known as the
front spar, the other located at 60-70% of the chord known as the rear spar. Some of the
functions of the spar include:
They form the boundary to the fuel tank located in the wing.
The spar flange takes up the bending loads whereas the web carries the shear loads.
The rear spar provides a means of attaching the control surfaces on the wing.
Considering these functions, the locations of the front and rear spar are fixed at 0.17c and
0.65c respectively. The ARA-D 6% airfoil is drawn to scale using any design software and the
chord thickness at the front and rear spar locations are found to be (0.84 m and 0.62 m), (0.37 m
and 0.30), (0.237 m and 0.155 m ) for three sections respectively.
The spar design for the wing root has been taken because the maximum bending moment
and shear force are at the root. It is assumed that the flanges take up all the bending and the web
takes all the shear effect. The maximum bending moment for high angle of attack condition is
2010194.42 Nm. the ratio in which the spars take up the bending moment is given as
Where
h1 =height of front spar
h2 =height of rear spar
FIRST SECTION
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The yield tensile stress y for 6061 Al Alloy is 276MPa. The area of the flanges is determined
using the relation
Where
is yield strength(276 Mpa)
M is bending moment taken up by each spar(2010194.42),
A is the flange area of each spar,
z is the centroid distance of the area = h/2
Area of the front Spar,
Afs= 0.0235
Area of the rear spar
Ars= 0.0173
Assumptions:
T sections are chosen for top and bottom flanges of front and rear spars.
Both the flanges are connected by a vertical stiffener through spot welding
From the buckling equation,
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the thickness to width ratio of web
is found to be 0.1016. Also from ANALYSIS AND
DESIGN OF FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES by BRUHN, the flange to web width ratio of
the T section
By equating all the three values of the ratio in area of the section equation, the dimensions of the
spar can be found.
Specification For Front Spar:
t2 = 1.02616*10-3
t = 0.0320 m
bf= 0.2079 m
bw= 0.315 m
Specification For Rear Spar:
t2 = 7.5753*10-4
t = 0.0275 m
bf= 0.178 m
bw= 0.270 m
SECOND SECTION
The yield tensile stress y for 6061 Al Alloy is 276 MPa. The area of the flanges is determined
using the relation
Page 63
Where
Afs= 0.0485
Ars= 0.0393
Assumptions:
the T section
spar can be found.
Page 64

t2 = 2.133*10-3
t = 0.0462 m
bf= 0.30 m
bw= 0.4547 m
t2 = 1.717*10-3
t = 0.0414 m
bf= 0.269 m
bw= 0.4075 m
THIRD SECTION
The yield tensile stress y for 6061 Al Alloy is 276 MPa. The area of the flanges is determined
using the relation
Where
Page 65

Afs= 0.0642
Ars= 0.052
Assumptions:
the T section
spar can be found.
t2 = 4.1148*10-3
t = 0.0642 m
bf= 0.4164m
bw= 0.631 m

t2 = 2.682*10-3
t = 0.052 m
Page 66

bf= 0.335 m
bw= 0.508 m
FIRST SECTION
SECOND SECTION
Page 67
THIRD SECTION
Page 68
CONCLUSION
The structural design part 2 of the UNMANNED COMBAT AERIAL VEHILE which is a
continuation of the aerodynamic design part 1 carried out last semester, is completed
satisfactorily.
As earlier said, many of the methods used in the design are no longer in regular usage, having
been supplanted by finite element methods. The older methods are useful, however for
approximating the correct answers to insure that the finite element results are in the right ball
park
According to Raymer, the study of classical methods is useful for learning the vocabulary of the
structural design
Page 69
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Raymer, D.P, Aircraft Design - a Conceptual Approach ,AIAA educational series second
edition 1992.
2. T.H.G.Megson , Aircraft Structures for engineering students, 4th EditionElsevier Ltd USA
2007.
3. E.F.Bruhn , Analysis and design of flight vehicle structures,1st Edition, tri-state offset
company,USA,1973.
4. Micheal Chun-Yung Niu, Airframe structural design, 2nd Edition, Hong Kong Conmilit
Press Ltd, Hong Kong, 2001.
5.Anderson, John D, Fundamentals of Aerodynamics, 2nd Edition McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1991.
6.Anderson, John D , Aircraft design and performance by Anderson, 3rd Edition , Tata
McGraw-Hill, New York , 2010.
Page 70

Design of Unmanned Aerial Combat Vehicle

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DESIGN OF UNMANNED COMBAT AERIAL VEHICLE

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

Data From ADP-I

Aim & Objective

Three View Diagram

Load Estimation On Wing

Detailed Wing Design

Bibliographies and references

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

SYMBOLS AND NOTATIONS USED

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

Design of some components of wings, fuselage

DATA FROM ADP-II

Max CL= 1.589 and Min CL=-0.18 @ -8 aoa

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

AIM & OBJECTIVE

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

AIM & OBJECTIVE

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

Three View Diagram

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

Real values of load factor for several aircraft

Calculation Of The Positive Curve Of V-N Diagram:

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

Calculation Of The Negative Curve Of V-N Diagram:

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

Gust Alleviation Factor.

Maximum derived Gust Velocity.

Lift Curve Slope for wing.

For curve below V-axis:

Gust Alleviation Factor (K):

Lateral Mass Ratio ():

Acceleration due to Gravity.

Mean Aerodynamic Chord.

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

Chord at root = 2.156 m

lift curve slope for airfoil

=Sweep angle at leading Edge of Wing

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

Calculation Of The Positive And Negative Curve Of Gust Diagram:

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

Elliptic Lift Distribution:

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle

Design Of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle