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8
Flywheels
John M. Miller
J-N-J Miller Design Services, Cedar, Michigan

8.1

FLYWHEEL THEORY

Flywheel systems have been promoted as mechanical batteries and offered as energy
storage systems capable of high power and high cycle life. Operation of a flywheel
energy storage system (ESS) is basically the same as that for an ultracapacitor, only
the energy is stored as kinetic rather than potential energy. There is a direct analogy
between angular speed of a flywheel and voltage in an ultracapacitor. The higher the
angular speed (e.g., voltage) the greater the energy storage capacity in a flywheel. Issues
that plague flywheel systems parallel those of the ultracapacitor: A containment vessel to
hold a vacuum for a long term and non-contacting bearings correspond to minimization
of ESR in an ultracapacitor. High tensile strength materials that can withstand large hoop
stress without rupturing correspond to the dissociation potential of the ultracapacitor electrolyte. Even the governing equations are similar. However, whereas the ultracapacitor
stores energy in the same form as it is being used, the flywheel system depends on
electromechanical energy conversion in both directions; hence, its efficiency will be lower
than that of an ultracapacitor.
The flywheel, on the other hand, does offer unique benefits that make it suitable for
spacecraft, specifically, its rotational moment [1]. This enables the flywheel ESS to play
a dual role: energy storage for communications and guidance backup during periods of
solar eclipse plus platform stabilization (i.e., attitude control). Flywheels for space-borne
applications face critical thermal management issues because no convection is present for
cooling and only radiant means are available for heat rejection. This means that the
flywheel, its bearing structure, and the interface motor-generator (M/G) needed for energy
conversion have the highest possible efficiency. Most flywheel energy storage systems
operate in the angular speed regime of 50 to 90 krpm. Figure 8.1 is a sketch of fundamental
components of a flywheel ESS.

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Magnetic
Bearing Control
Brushless
M/G

Id

Vd

Power Electronics
Interface

Containment
Vessel

Flywheel mass
Flywheel hub
Flywheel axle
Figure 8.1 Elementary flywheel energy storage system.

With proper design and materials the flywheel is a feasible energy storage unit
because it is inherently non-toxic, fully recyclable, and completely rechargeable. The
energy throughput life of a flywheel is limited only by the bearing system, the M/G, and
containment vessel vacuum integrity.
Modern materials capable of withstanding the high hoop stress resulting from centrifugal forces are generally the lightest weight materials that possess very high tensile
stress. This is because the hoop stress varies in direct proportion to the material density,
whereas the energy stored grows with angular speed squared. A lightweight material
flywheel can store the same energy as a steel flywheel but weigh less. In terms of material
properties, the energy storage capacity of a flywheel is given as Equation 8.1:
WFW =

K max
(Wh/kg)
2

(8.1)

where Kmax is the limiting tensile stress above which the rim will delaminate and burst.
Fibers that offer the highest energy storage capacity range from E-glass (which can store
as much energy as high-strength steel) to Kevlar, a type of nylon that can store 7 times
more energy than high-strength steel. A common fiber used in todays flywheel components
is fused silica glass. A flywheel ESS can also be lighter than an advanced battery for the
same energy content.
The flywheel shown diagrammatically in Figure 8.1 has a polar moment of inertia
calculated in Equation 8.2, where rro = outer radius of the rim, rri = inner radius of the
rim, mr = mass of the rim (glass fiber), mh = mass of the hub, and define = rri /rro.
J FW =

1
1
mr (1 2 )rro2 + m h 2 rro2 (kgm2)
2
2

(8.2)

Flywheel polar moment of inertia is proportional to its rim radius squared. However,
a higher rim radius exposes the material to higher tensile stress, leading to failure if speeds
are too high. Reasonable numbers for rim radius are 50 to 100 mm, and = 0.65 is typical.
Energy storage capacity of the flywheel is dependent on the polar moment of inertia
and on the speed ratio over which it can be operated. Equation 8.3 summarizes the energy

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Torque

M/G Capability
Constant
Torque

Tem
Constant Power

CPSR = max/ b
Case 2
Case 1
f2

f1

max

Figure 8.2 M/G torque-speed capability curve for flywheel interface.

capacity of a flywheel system in terms of its available energy and taking into account
some typical component efficiencies [2].
WFWavail =

Jeq (1 2f ) o2
2

= I m FW
Jeq = J FW + J MG
f =

(J)

(8.3)

f
o

where the component efficiencies used are I = 0.96 for the inverter, m = 0.90 for the
motor-generator, FW = 0.85 for the flywheel system, and o is the nominal or rated angular
velocity. Representative inertias for the system are JFW = 0.05 kgm2 for the flywheel itself
and FMG = 0.005 kgm2 for the motor-generator. The speed ratio f = f /o can be viewed
as a direct analogy to voltage swing in the ultracapacitor ESS.
For a given value of M/G electromagnetic torque, Tem, the terminal power of the
flywheel ESS during discharge can be represented as Equation 8.4.
PESS = f o Tem (W)

(8.4)

It is readily apparent from inspection of Equation 8.4 that the angular speed swing
range, f , and the torque rating of the M/G determine the peak power capability of the
flywheel ESS. This is due to the fact that the flywheel angular speed can slew no faster
than Tem /(JFW + JMG). In fact, the particular choice of M/G technology and where its corner
point speed is set determines the time to charge the flywheel ESS. Figure 8.2 depicts a
typical M/G torque-speed capability curve for two cases of flywheel minimum angular
speed, f , one when f = b, the M/G base or corner point speed that describes the entry
into constant power regime, and the second case when f < b, in which case the M/G
must first accelerate the flywheel in constant torque up to an angular speed of b and then
transition into constant power mode. It should also be pointed out that M/Gs having a

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constant power speed range (CPSR) that matches or exceeds the angular speed swing
range of the flywheel is a necessary condition.
For a given M/G power, PMGb, the time to charge the flywheel is strongly dependent
on whether the M/G operates entirely in constant power or if it starts out in constant torque
and completes charging under constant power.
PMGb = Tem b (W)

(8.5)

Case 1: f = b, and PMGb = constant for f < < b. For this case the time to
charge the flywheel from its initial angular speed, f, to its final speed, b, requires tf1
seconds where:

tf1 =

tf1 =

Jeq

tf1 =

Tem

Jeq
Tem

Jeq b
PMGb

d (s)

(8.6)

( o f )

Case 2: f < b, and Tem = constant for f < < b, and PMGb = constant for b <
< o. In this case the flywheel first charges under constant torque at a rate determined
by the M/G torque rating and then under constant power as the flywheel angular speed
passes through the M/G corner point speed. In this case the time to charge the flywheel,
tf2, becomes:
b

tf 2 =

tf2 =

Jeq

tf 2 =

Tem
Jeq
Tem

Jeq
Tem

d +

Jeq b
PMGb

(( b + o ) 2 f )

(s)

(8.7)

b + t f 1

The flywheel operating initially in constant torque, as shown in Figure 8.2 for case 2,
results in a longer charging time, all else being equal. For best response the flywheel
should be charged and discharged under constant power operating mode of the interface
M/G. This means that M/G technologies having CPSR > 3:1 are recommended for flywheel
applications. This speed ratio admits induction, switched reluctance, and interior permanent magnet machines in either radial (drum) or axial (pancake) geometries.

8.2

FLYWHEEL APPLICATIONS IN HYBRID VEHICLES

To date there have not been any applications of flywheel technologies in hybrid vehicles.
There are many proposals for such systems, but the fact remains that flywheel energy
storage at present is still more costly than electrochemical batteries or ultracapacitors.

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Issues with containment and bearings have been solved so that this technology is possible
for introduction into mass market hybrid vehicles.
To briefly review the types of flywheel applications in hybrid vehicles consider the
following scenarios:
A flywheel directly coupled to the vehicle drivetrain via a continuously variable
transmission (CVT). In this architecture the CVT acts as a speed matching
device with infinitely variable ratio so that flywheel angular momentum can be
transferred into the vehicle propulsion system.
A system wherein the traction M/G has rotating rotor and stator with the stator
assembly powered via slip rings and where its mass is the flywheel energy
storage unit. Such systems have been proposed and shown to offer considerable
merit in terms of energy storage and fuel economy improvements. However,
the mechanics of charging and discharging the flywheel impose some odd
operating modes on the M/G and vehicle engine such as having the M/G in
generating mode during a vehicle launch and vice versa.
A more conventional system in which the flywheel assembly is standalone and
packaged in the vehicle in much the same manner as a traction battery. In this
architecture the flywheel would by necessity require counter-rotating elements
so that it did not impose a torque couple on the vehicle chassis during grade
changes or turns. Of course, a gimbaled single flywheel assembly would not
contribute any couple into the chassis, but it would require considerably more
packaging attention.

8.3

ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM OUTLOOK

Energy storage systems that retain the working form of energy offer the most promising
choices for hybrid vehicle systems. Electrochemical storage batteries do not store energy
as accumulated charge (although there exists a double layer capacitive element within
their structure), but rather as energy of covalent bonds. Chemical reactions are necessary
for such storage to be effective, and in many instances, the reactions may proceed faster
in one direction than another, adding a dimension of non-symmetrical behavior to their
charge/discharge characteristics. Temperature effects are far more pronounced in electrochemical reactions than in electrostatic storage or in mechanical forms of energy storage.
The spectrum of energy storage mediums can be categorized according to the manner
in which the energy is stored, whether as a change in internal energy of the storage medium,
or as some form of stress on the materials comprising the storage medium. For instance,
capacitors rely on the electric stress across a dielectric (i.e., separation of charge) with the
limiting value of stress occurring when the dielectric breaks down. A flywheel is similar
and encounters its limiting value of charge when the materials comprising the rim and
hub begin to fail in tension. Both of these energy storage forms rely on molecular bond
strength to define their limit of storage density (i.e., atomic binding energy). Electrochemical forms of energy storage rely on the strength of ionic bonds to define their limiting
energy density. Electrochemical storage in terms of energy/unit mass is typically an order
of magnitude or higher than molecular bond strength limited forms of energy storage for
conventional materials. However, electrochemical storage in terms of being limited by
atomic binding energies is on par with mechanical and electrostatic energy storage systems.
Storing energy in covalent bonds (heats of reaction, combination, and separation of atoms),

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such as in fuels, pushes the energy density some 2 to 3 orders of magnitude higher than
electrochemical energy densities. Finally, energy storage in nuclear bonds (i.e., combination and separation of nucleons) pushes the energy storage density some 6 orders of
magnitude higher than that of covalent bonds.
Practical energy storage systems for automotive applications are those that can be
adapted to the automotive environment and operate efficiently over wide temperature
extremes. Today, advanced batteries and fuel cells do not operate efficiently over wide
temperature extremes and must be augmented either internally with additives to do so or
externally with other types of storage mediums in order to deliver nominal performance.
For reasons that parallel the choice of series electric hybrid for large, massive
vehicles, the flywheel is viable in locomotive applications [3]. Operating in a manner
reminiscent of the battery, or ultracapacitor, in a hybrid automobile, the flywheel energy
storage system in a locomotive supplies (and absorbs) its intermittent power demand. This
feature permits the locomotive power plant to be downsized. Moreover, the onboard energy
storage, if sufficiently high, would give the locomotive the flexibility to traverse long
tunnels without emissions. Electric mode in tunnels is becoming a sought after feature in
hybrid city buses.

REFERENCES
[1]

B.H. Kenny, P.E. Kascak, R. Jansen, T. Dever, A Flywheel Energy Storage System Demonstration for Space Applications, IEEE International Electric Machines and Drives Conference, IEMDC2003, Monona Terrace Convention Center, Madison, WI, June 14, 2003,
pp. 13141320.
[2] M. Ehsani, Power Electronics & Motor Drives for Military Vehicles, U.S. Army Vetronics
Institute Seminar Series, Warren, MI, June 29, 2003.
[3] R.F. Thelen, J.D. Herbst, M.T. Caprio, A 2MW Flywheel for Hybrid Locomotive Power,
IEEE 58th Vehicular Technology Conference, VTC 2003-Fall, Orlando, FL, October 69,
2003.

2005 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC