18

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1

GENERAL
The literature surveyed related to the performance improvement of

power system using computational intelligence technique with optimal power

flow considering FACTS devices are reviewed and presented in this chapter.
Also, comprehensive review of literature on optimal power flow, reactive
power compensation, importance of FACTS in controlling the power flow,
FACTS devices types and benefits are presented.
2.2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The development of an optimal solution to network problems was

initiated by the desire to find the minimum of the operating cost for the supply
of electric power to a given load (Kichmayer 1958). The problem evolved as
the so called dispatch problem. The principle of equal incremental cost to be
achieved for each of the control variables or controllers has already been
realized in the pre-computer era when slide rules and the like were applied.
A major step in encompassing not only the cost characteristics but
also the influence of the network, in particular the losses were the formation
of an approximate quadratic function of the network losses expressed by the
active injections. Its core was the B-matrix which was derived from a load
flow and was easily combined with the principle of equal incremental cost

19

thus modifying the dispatched powers by loss factors. The formulation of the
problem must be considered as a remarkable improvement as shown by
Squires, Carpentier, however, still there was no effective algorithm available.
At that time the ordinary load flow made considerable progress
(Tinney et al 1967, Scott 1974) and the capabilities of computers showed
promising aspects.
Peschon et al (1968) proposed a method to minimize the
transmission power losses by selecting of reactive power injections in to the
systems and using transformer tap changing settings. They have included a
suitable method to get the solution from a feasible optimal point, but it is
more time consuming.
Dommel and Tinney (1968) presented a method to find the optimal
power flow using a non linear optimization technique. They have used a non
linear objective function of cost or losses using kuhn-tucker conditions, but
control variables are not coordinated due to slow convergence. This is not
suitable for large systems.
Hano et al (1969), proposed a new method of controlling the system
voltage and reactive power distribution in the system. They followed the
sensitivity relation ship between controlled variables and loss sensitivity
indices and the implemented direct search algorithm to minimize the losses.
Narita et al (1971) developed the sensitivity analysis using method
of base optimization technique to minimize the voltage deviation and
minimize the system losses. To obtain successful operation they used voltage
and reactive power regulating devices installed at various points.

20

Scott (1974) proposed power flow calculations to perform power

system planning, operational planning and control. the OPF is solved by
varities of methods i.e, successive linear programming method. Minimization
of transmission losses can be achieved by controlling system devices such as
generators, capacitors, reactors and tap changing transformers; it is possible to
minimize the system losses by reactive power redistributions in the system
Mamandur et al (1981) proposed an efficient algorithm to minimize
the transmission loss. Considering the network performance constraints and
the constraints on the control variables, they were applied a dual linear
programming technique to find optimal adjustments to the control variables
satisfying many constraints. This method is used to improve voltage profile
and minimize system losses under operating condition. The result is showing
to zigzagging due to slow convergence.
Shahidehpour et al (1990) discussed an overview of the reactive
power allocation in electric power systems. Optimal reactive power control is
the most important functions giving inadequate reactive power bring up some
problems such as low voltage profile, extra loss and equipment overload.
They have carried out to solve this problem, using nonlinear and linear
programming methods.
Bhatele et al (1985) proposed a mathematical formulation of optimal
power control problem to minimize and control the voltage profile. They have
developed reduced gradient and Fletchers update algorithm to solve this
problem. In most of the studies, only they have considered system losses
minimization. They are not considered light load conditions when the
generators are under exited.

21

Rama Iyer et al (1983) formulated optimization problem to optimal

allocation of reactive power using the linear programming technique. It is
very fast converge compared to earlier algorithms.
Thukaram et al (1984) described an improved method of reactive
power optimization. In this technique they were avoiding the inverse of large
matrices. They have included voltage-dependency characteristics of loads.
Deeb et al (1988) formulated a mathematical formulation of the
reactive power optimization problem. They were proposed outstanding
features that it does not require matrix inversion, less computation time and
memory space and also it can be utilized for large scale systems. They have
incorporated dependent variables for formulations of equality constraints.
Benders decomposition can be implemented for problem formulation in order
to save computation time and faster convergence.
Huneault et al (1991) presented a literature of published works in
the field of optimal power flow and dispatching. They suggested that
classification of methods based on the optimization technique. They have
compiled more than three hundred publication work. In early 1930s for
minimizing the fuel cost they were used incremental loading method.
Zhifeng Qiu et al (2009) discussed a literature survey of OPF
problems in the electricity market context; traditionally classical mathematical
optimization methods have been implemented to solve conventional OPF
problems, due to urgency of a deregulation electricity market and
consideration of dynamic system properties. Conventional mathematical
methods suffer from poor convergence and it is very difficult to get local
optimum and not suitable for large scale system.

22

Singh et al (2000) proposed a simple and efficient method to

optimal location of FACTS devices considering congestion management for
controlling the device parameters. They used two step approach one for
location of FACTS devices and other for control parameters fixing. It can be
used to reduce the flow on over loaded lines and to increase utilization of the
alternative path excess capacity. This will lead to increase power transfer
capability in existing transmission lines and distribution systems. However,
due to increase demand and adverse effect between FACTS devices, very
difficult to find the optimal locations in most effective manner and how many
devices to be installed on economic basis is a question of great significance.
Momoh et al (1998) analyzed an integrated approach to study the
optimal power flow (OPF) with phase shifter for alleviating over loads in line
conventional OPF are hourly based but these OPF with phase shifter are daily
based because of discrete nature as well as phase shifting adjustment also
discrete .
Aditya tiwari et al (2012) presented a multi objective optimal power
flow for optimal allocation of FACTS devices using genetic algorithm.
Introduction of FACTS devices reduces the power system losses, reduces the
cost of the generation, improve the stability and increase the power transfer
capability. The main objective of the work is to develop the technique based
on the GA, able to identify the number and location of FACTS devices.
Burchett

et

al

(1984)

introduced

successive

quadratic

programming based OPF methods. This method simplifies the nonlinear OPF
problem with quadratic objective and linearised constraints. This technique
can be utilized for large number of inequality constraints and gives high
accuracy compared to LP method.

23

Sun et al (1984) proposed the Newtons method for solving the

nonlinear OPF problem as a constrained optimization with equality
constraints only. Then, the Lagrange function can be developed and this
function must satisfy the Kuhn-Tucker condition, which is a set of nonlinear
equations.
Momoh et al (1997) discussed the challenges to OPF. The Newtons
OPF method is one of the best OPF method. This method can solve highly
nonlinear problems. OPF formulation can be solved using an advanced
optimization techniques such as GA,

Interior point method,

SA,

decomposition and Newtons method.

Wu et al (1998) proposed allocation and control of FACTS devices
for stability improvement of large scale system. They introduced modal
analysis, and location index for optimal location of FACTS devices. Several
critical swing modes were taken in to consideration for large scale system
model analysis, which provides information on frequency and damping of
each mode is adopted in this work.
Lu et al (2001) presented an improving system security via optimal
placement of Thyristor controlled series capacitor. Single contingency
sensitivity method has been implemented for branch flows, this can be used to
improve a branch prioritizing index in order to rank branches for optimal
placing of TCSCs.
Paterni et al (1999) introduced a optical location of phase shifter in
the french network by genetic algorithm for controlling the power flows in a
network introduced series FACTS devices such as series capacitors or phase
shifters. This can help the reduced power flows in over loaded lines resulting
in an increasing loadability of the system and reduced cost of production.

24

Using multiple phase shifters is complex due to interaction of one another

genetic algorithm. They have chosen last location of phase shifters.
Ge et al (1999) developed a new method to incorporate the power
flow control needs of FACTS in studying the OPF problem. They considered
three FACTS devices namely TCSC, TCPS, UPFC. The proposed method
decomposes into two problems. First one is normal power flow and second
one is optimal power flow problem. The active power OPF is no long a linear
optimization problem. So it is not possible to use the conventional linear
programming based technique directly.
Lehmkoster (2002) presented a security constrained optimal power
flow for an economic operation of FACTS devices in liberalized energy
markers. In this work described the optimization method based on sequential
quadratic programming (SQDO) including models of FACTS devices suitable
for a gradient based optimization.
Al rashidi et al (2009) described the issues related with major
computational intelligence tools which are used to solve optimal power flow
problem. The main computational techniques include EP, GA, ES, ANN, SA,
ACO, FST, and PSO. They have been implemented in a variety of range of
optimization problems.
Chaohua Dai et al (2009) introduced a new algorithm seeker
optimization for reactive power dispatch considering voltage stability.
Optimal reactive power dispatch is well known as a nonlinear multimodal and
multi objective optimization problem where global optimization technique is
used in order to avoid local minima.
In the last decades computation intelligence based technique such as
GA, DE & PSO algorithms etc. in this work a seeker optimization
algorithm(SOA) is described to solve reactive power dispatch.

25

Chung et al (2000) proposed a hybrid GA approach for OPF with

consideration of FACTS devices, to minimize the total generation fuel cost
and keep the power flows within the security limits using GA is integrated
with conventional OPF for selecting the best control parameters.
Leung et al (2006) developed a new GA method to solve optimal
power flow incorporating FACTS devices.(UPFC) unlike other FACTS
devices it has great flexibility to control the real power, reactive power and
voltage simultaneously. To minimize the total generation fuel cost GA is
coupled with full AC power flow. But recently many other intelligence has
been developed.
Gerbex et al (2001) presented a GA based optimal location of multi
type FACTS devices to increase the loadability of the system. Three
parameters were considered to optimize the problem they are location of the
device their type and their values. Four different types of FACTS devices are
used and modeled for study state analysis namely, TCSC, TCPST,
TCVC&SVC to maximize the power transmitted by the network in
controlling the power flows.
Singh et al (2001) presented a new approach for placement of
FACTS devices in open power markets. FACTS devices can be an alternative
to reduce the flows in heavily loaded lines resulting in an increased
loadability , low system loss ,improve the stability limit and reduced cost of
production.
Mori et al (2000) proposed a parallel tabu search based method for
determining optimal allocation of FACTS in power system for maximizing
the available transfer capability.

26

Flexible ac transmission systems (FACTS) have been developed to

improve the performance of weak ac systems and enhance transmission
capabilities over long ac lines. FACTS controllers can be used in all the three
states of the power system, namely: steady state, transient and post transient
steady state. FACTS devices can regulate the active and reactive power as
well as voltage-magnitude (Baghaee et al 2009; Shahgholian, et al 2008).
Dynamic application of FACTS controllers includes transient stability
improvement, oscillation damping (dynamic stability) and voltage stability
enhancement. Facts controller can control shunt impedance, series impedance,
voltage, current and phase angle. FACTS devices types and categories are
presented in (Hingorani 2000) series controllers such as thyristor controlled
series capacitor (TCSC) and static synchronous series compensator (SSSC) ,
(El-Zonkoly et al 2006), shunt controllers such as static var compensator
(SVC)( Amin et al 1999), STATCOM(Shahgholian et al 2008) and
STATCOM with energy-storage system (Kuiava et al 2009), combined seriesshunt controllers such as unified power flow controller (UPFC) (Collins
et al 2006) and combined series-series controllers such as interline power
controller (IPFC) (Mishra et al 2002).
A good number of methods are available on modeling, simulation,
operation and control fundamental of the FACTS devices. Simulation of
FACTS controllers is mainly done in the following two ways: (a) detailed
calculations in 3 phase systems and (b) steady state and stability analyses
(Povh 2004). Shunts FACTS devices are used for controlling transmission
voltage, power flow, reducing reactive loss, and damping of power system
oscillations for high power transfer levels. STATCOM is a kind of dynamic
reactive power compensator, which has been developed in recent days. The
optimization of location of FACTS devices depends on the amount of local
load, the location of the devices, their types, their sizes, improvement
stability, the line loading and system initial operating conditions(Gerbex et al
2003, Sidhartha et al 2009 and Panda et al 2007). There are several methods

27

for finding optimal locations of FACTS devices in both vertically integrated

and unbundled power systems. In (Cai et al 2004) an algorithm for find the
best location for the FACTS devices in multi-machine power systems using
genetic algorithm is proposed. In (Gerbex et al 2001) three criteria are
considered for FACTS optimal allocations: available transfer capability
criterion, steady state stability criterion and economic criterion. An alternative
model that can optimize the placement of FACT devices based on multiple
time periods with losses considered proposed in (Yu et al 2004). In (Sharma
et al 2007) the optimal location of a shunt FACTS device is investigate for an
actual line model of a transmission line having series compensation at the
center to get the highest possible benefit. Consequently, evolutionary
algorithms because of their independency from the type of objective functions
and constraints have been used by many researchers in recent years (Niknam
et al 2005, Niknam et al 2010).
2.3

FACTS DEFINITION
Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) are the name given to

the application of power electronics devices to control the power flows and
other quantities in power systems.
IEEE Definition:
FACTS: AC transmission systems incorporating the power electronic-based
and other static controllers to enhance controllability and increase power
transfer capability.
2.3.1

FACTS History
In its most general expression, the FACTS concept is based on the

substantial incorporation of power electronic devices and methods into the

high-voltage side of the network, to make it electronically controllable. Many

28

of the ideas upon which the foundation of FACTS rests evolved over a period
of many decades. Nevertheless, FACTS, an integrated philosophy, is a novel
concept that was brought to fruition during the 1980s at the Electric Power
Research Institute (EPRI), the utility arm of North American utilities
(Hingorani and Gyugyi 2000). FACTS looks at ways of capitalizing on the
many breakthroughs taking place in the area of high-voltage and high current
power electronics, aiming at increasing the control of power flows in the high
voltage side of the network during both steady-state and transient conditions.
The new reality of making the power network electronically controllable has
started to alter the way power plant equipment is designed and built as well as
the thinking and procedures that go into the planning and operation of
transmission and distribution networks. These developments may also affect
the way energy transactions are conducted, as high-speed control of the path
of the energy flow is now feasible. Owing to the many economical and
technical benefits it promised, FACTS received the un instinctive support of
electrical equipment manufacturers, utilities, and research organizations
around the world (Song and Johns 1999).
Several kinds of FACTS controllers have been commissioned in
various parts of the world. The most popular are: load tap changers, phaseangle regulators, static VAR compensators, thyristor controlled series
compensators, interphase power controllers, static compensators, and unified
power flow controllers.
2.3.2

Why FACTS?

2.3.2.1

Connection of generation
Some of the power plants (large hydro and thermal plants) can be

located near the load and can be connected by relatively short AC lines to the
grid. But some of them have to be located very far from the grid (particularly

29

hydro plants and coal plants) and the transmission has to be carried out by AC
with FACTS.
2.3.2.2

Connection of isolated loads

Isolated loads are meant as loads that due to geographical or other

conditions are not connected to a major grid but have to rely on local
generation. The local generation is often expensive and not environmentally
sound. If the isolated loads are connected to the main grid, the cost of
electricity goes down. The FACTS devices can be used for this purpose.
2.3.2.3

Interconnection
It is increasingly economical to interconnect with neighboring grids

to benefit from the pooling of resources. FACTS can be used to interconnect

grid with same frequency and also with different frequencies while the
network can maintain their separate frequencies.
2.3.3

Types of FACTS Controllers

Figure 2.1 Types of FACTS controllers

30

In general, FACTS Controllers can be divided in to four categories

which are shown in Figure 2.1.
x
x
x
x

Series controllers
Shunt controllers
Combined series series controllers
Combined series-shunt controllers

Series controller: the series controller could be variable impedance,

such as capacitor, reactor, etc., or power electronics based variable source of
main frequency, sub synchronous and harmonic frequencies to serve the
desired need. In principle, all the series controllers inject voltage in series
with the line. Even variable impedance multiplied by the current flow through
it, represents an injected series voltage in the line. As long as the voltage is in
phase quadrature with the line current, the series controller only supplies or
consumes variable reactive power.
Shunt Controllers: - As in the case of series controllers, shunt
controllers may be variable impedance, variable source or a combination of
these. In principle all shunt controller inject current into the system. Even
variable shunt impedance causes a variable current injection into the line. As
long as injected current is in phase quadrature with the line voltage it supplies
or consumes variable reactive power. Any other phase relationship will
involve real power exchange also.
Combined series-series controller: - This could be a combination of
separate series controllers, which are controlled in a coordinated manner, or it
could be a unified controller. The series controllers could provide independent
series reactive compensation but also could transfer real power among the
lines via the power link (D.C link). The real power transfer capability of the

31

unified series-series controller, referred to as interline power flow controller,

makes it possible to balance both the real and reactive power flow in the lines.
And there by maximize the utilization of the transmission system. Note that
the term unified here means that the DC terminals of all controller
converters are all connected together for real power transfer.
Combined series-shunt controller: - This is a combination of series
and shunt controllers which are controlled in a coordinated manner or a
unified power flow controller with series and shunt elements. In principle
combined shunt and series controller inject current in to the system with the
shunt part of the controller and voltage in series in the line with the series part
of the controller. However when the shunt and series controllers are unified,
there can be a real power exchange between the series and shunt controllers
via the power link.
2.3.4

Benefits of FACTS technology

The following benefits will be met with the help of FACTS devices
x
x
x
x

Solve Power Transfer Limit & Stability Problems

Thermal Limit
Voltage Limit
Stability Limit
q

x
x

Transient Stability Limit

Small Signal Stability Limit
Voltage Stability Limit

Control of power flow as ordered

Increase the system security

32

Reduce reactive power flows, thus allowing the lines to carry

more reactive power

x
x
x

x
x
x
x
2.4

Reduce loop flows

Increase utilization of lowest cost generation
Increase (control) power transfer capability of line
Power quality improvement
Load compensation
Limit short circuit current
Increase the loadability of the system

SUMMARY
It is evident from the above review of literature that exhaustive

research work has already been done by several researchers to improve the
performance of power system.
However, no contributions have been made so far to apply hybrid
algorithms for solving optimal power flow with FACTS devices. Hence,
certain approaches have been made in the present work to improve the
performance of power system performance using computational intelligence
techniques

such as, New hybrid PSO technique for optimal location of

FACTS devices considering optimal power flow, modified bacterial foraging

algorithm based Optimal Power Flow to minimize losses and fuel cost
function using shunt devices, Optimal Location of FACTS devices for solving
multi objective OPF using improved shuffled leaping

Frog algorithm ,

Solving Optimum Power Flow in Static and Dynamic Environments using

Dynamic Bacterial Foraging Algorithm to solve optimal power flow using
FACTS devices.