A&P 302 Blood Lecture Notes:

Blood General Characteristics:

The only fluid tissue

Has 2 components:
o Formed elements
o Fluid (plasma)

Blood Elements:

Erythrocytes
o Red blood cells
Buffy coat
o White blood cells
o Platelets
Plasma

Blood Hematocrit:

Percentage of blood made up of erythrocytes

Normal:
o Men - 47%
o Women - 42%

Blood Function:

Distribution
Regulation
Protection

Blood (Function) Distribution:

Delivers oxygen and nutrients

Transports metabolic waste
Transports hormone

Blood (Function) Regulation:

Maintain appropriate body temperature

Maintain normal pH
Maintain adequate fluid volume

Blood (Function) Protection:

Prevent blood loss

Prevent infection

Blood Components:

Plasma
Formed elements

Plasma Components:

Water 90%
Solutes

Plasma Solutes:

Proteins
Non-protein Nitrogenous Substances

Plasma Proteins:

Predominately produced by the liver

Components
o Albumin
o Globulins
o Clotting proteins

Plasma Non-proteins:

Nutrients
Electrolytes
Respiratory gases

(Blood) Formed Elements Components:

Erythrocytes
Leukocytes
Platelets

Erythrocytes Structure:

Biconcave disc with depressed centers

Anucleate
No organelles
Spectrin protein cell wall

Erythrocytes Structural Characteristics:

Huge surface area

97% hemoglobin
Does not use oxygen (no mitochondria)

Erythrocytes Function:

Carries oxygen and carbon dioxide via hemoglobin

Erythrocytes Hemoglobin:

Protein globin
Pigment heme
Normal values:
o Infants 14-20 g/100 ml
o Males 13-18
o Females 12-16

Hemoglobin Oxygen States:

Oxyhemoglobin ruby red and change shapes

Deoxyhemoglobin oxygen detaches becomes dark

Hemoglobin Transport Carbon Dioxide:

Binds to the globins amino acid

Forms carbaminohemoglobin

Blood Cells Production:

Hematopoiesis
Occurs in the red bone marrow
o Axial skeleton and girdle
All blood cells come from hematopoietic stem cell or hemocytoblast

Erythrocytes Production:

Process is called erythropoiesis

Hemocytoblast becomes proerythroblasts
Proerythroblasts becomes early erythroblasts and enters a developmental pathway

Erythropoiesis:

Phase 1 ribosome synthesis

Phase 2 hemoglobin accumulation
Phase 3 ejection of the nucleus

Erythropoiesis Phase 1:

Proerythroblasts become an early (basophilic) erythroblast

Produce huge numbers of ribosome
Hemoglobin synthesis and iron accumulation
Early erythroblasts become late erythroblasts

Erythropoiesis Phase 2:

Late erythroblast becomes a normoblast

Hemoglobin accumulates
At a concentration of hemoglobin at 34% organelles are ejected

Erythropoiesis Phase 3:

Normoblast ejects the nucleus and becomes a reticulocyte

Reticulocytes are ejected into the blood stream and mature to become erythrocytes

Erythropoiesis Regulation:

Controlled by erythropoietin (EPO)

Produced by the kidney
Triggered by a drop in blood oxygen
o Loss of blood cells
o Reduced availability of oxygen
o Increased tissue need

Erythrocytes Iron:

65% of iron is in hemoglobin

Iron is stored in cells as ferritin and hemosiderin
Iron in blood is bound to transferrin

Erythrocytes Destruction:

Live about 120 days

Dying erythrocytes are engulfed by macrophages
Iron is salvaged
Heme becomes bilirubin
Bilirubin is picked up by liver cells and secreted into the intestine as bile
In the intestine is converted to urobilinogen
Degraded pigment is excreted in stool as stercobilin

Leukocytes Structure:

Complete cells with nuclei

Leukocytes Functional Characteristics:

Diapedesis - able to slip out of capillaries

Amoeboid motion movement through tissue
Positive chemotaxis chemical trail released by damaged cells

Leukocytes Classification:

Granulocytes
o Neutrophils
o Basophils
o Eosinophils
Agranulocytes
o Lymphocytes
o Monocytes

Leukocytes Mnemonic:

Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas

Lists the order of most abundant to least

Granulocytes Characteristics:
1) Larger than erythrocytes
2) Lobed nuclei
3) Shorter lived than erythrocytes

Granulocytes Neutrophils:

Also known as polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs or polys)

Very fine granules
Lilac colored
o Absorb both acidic and basic dyes

Neutrophils Functional Characteristics:

Attracted to bacteria and fungi

Contain defensins antibiotic like proteins
Kills bacteria by respiratory burst (oxidation)

Granulocytes Eosinophils:

Deep red nucleus

Nucleus has 2 lobes connected by a broad band
Coarse granules absorb acid (eosin) dyes

Eosinophils Function:

Elevated in:
Neoplasm
Asthma
Allergy
Connective tissue disease
Parasites
(NAACP)
Inactivates inflammatory reactants in allergic reactions

Granulocytes Basophils:

Large coarse histamine containing granules

Deep purple U or S shaped nucleus with 2 3 constrictions
Related to mast cells

Basophils Function:

Binds to immunoglobulin E that cause the release of histamine

Histamine is a vasodilator that attracts other white blood cells

Agranulocytes Lymphocytes:

Large dark purple nucleus

Nucleus is round and occupies most of the cell volume

Lymphocytes Functional Cell Types:

T lymphocytes or T cells
B lymphocytes

Lymphocytes T Cells:

Act against viruses

Acts against tumor cells

Lymphocytes B Cells:

Give rise to plasma cells

Release antibodies

Agranulocytes Monocytes:

Pale blue cytoplasm

Kidney shaped nucleus

Monocytes Function:

Leaves the circulatory system to become macrophages

Fights
o viruses,
o intracellular bacterial parasites,
o and chronic infections

Leukocytes Production:

Called leukopoiesis
Hormonally controlled

Leukopoiesis Hormones:

Released by macrophages and T lymphocytes

Interleukins (numbered IL3)
Colony-stimulating factors (CSFs named e.g. granulocyte CSF)

Leukopoiesis Cell Lines:

Hemoblasts divide into either myeloid stem cells or lymphoid stem cells
Lymphoid stem cells give rise to lymphocytes and plasma cells only
Myeloid stem cells give rise to all others

Leukopoiesis Committed Cells:

Myeloblast
Monoblast
Lymphoblast

Leukopoiesis Developmental Pathway:

Lymphoblasts become prolymphocytes

Monoblasts become promonocytes
Myeloblasts become promyelocytes
Promyelocytes differentiate into
o Eosinophilic myelocytes

o Neutrophilic myelocytes
o Basophilic myelocytes
Myelocytes develop into band cells

Platelets Description:

Cell fragments not a cell

Blue staining outer segment with purple staining granules
Essential for blood clotting

Platelets Formation:

Megokaryoblasts differentiate into megokarocytes

This process is regulated by thrombopoietin
Cell fragments break off and enter the blood

Hemostasis Description:

Fast, localized, controlled reaction

Hemostasis Steps:
1) Vasospasm
2) Platelet plug formation
3) Coagulation (blood clotting)

Hemostasis Vasospasm:

Chemicals released by damaged endothelial cells and platelets

Reflexes initiated by local pain receptors

Lasts 20 30 minutes

Hemostasis Platelet Plug Formation:

Provide a temporary plug

Release chemicals that enhance hemostasis

Platelet Plug Formation Initial Event:

Broken endothelial tissue releases von Willebrand factor (VWF)

Platelets Chemical Release:

Serotonin enhances vasospasm

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) attracts more platelets
Thromboxane A2 stimulates both vasospasm and platelet aggregation

Platelet Regulation:

Endothelial cells produce prostacyclin PGI 2

Produced by intact (healthy) endothelial cells
Prevent aggregation of platelets

Coagulation Description:

1)
2)
3)

Blood transformed from a liquid to a gel

Has three phases:
Prothrombin Activation
Thrombin Activation
Fibrin Mesh

Coagulation Prothrombin Activation:

Two pathways:
o Intrinsic
o Extrinsic
Both require the presence of PF3

Prothrombin Activation Intrinsic Pathway:

Slower
All factors are present in the blood
Only way clotting occurs outside the body

Prothrombin Activation Extrinsic Pathway:

Utilizes tissue factor (TF) or factor III or tissue thromboplastin

Short cut to prothrombin activation

Prothrombin Activation Common Factors:

Both require calcium

Both require factor X

Coagulation Pathway to Thrombin:

Same for either pathway

Prothrombin activator transform prothrombin into thrombin

Coagulation Fibrin Mesh:

Thrombin converts fibrinogen into fibrin

Thrombin activates factor XIII (fibrin stabilizing factor)
Fibrin entraps formed elements

Clot Retraction Platelets Role:

Platelets contain actin and myosin that contract bringing torn endothelial edges together
Causes serum to be squeezed out
Secrete platelet-derived growth factor which induces smooth muscle and fibroblasts to
divide

Coagulation Regulation:

Limiting factors that prevent clotting in the intact blood vessel

Fibrinolysis of the clot

Coagulation Limiting Factors:

Those factors that prevent clotting in intact vessels

Thrombin attaches to fibrin
Free thrombin is quickly inactivated by antithrombin III
Antithrombin III, protein C and protein S inhibit other intrinsic pathway procoagulants
produced by basophils and mast cells by activating antithrombin III

Coagulation Fibrinolysis:

Presence of a clot causes endothelial cells secrete tissue plasminogen activator (TPA)
TPA transformed plasminogen into plasmin
Plasmin dissolves the clot