Electrical Fundamentals

AC Motors
3.18 AC Motors

Construction, principles of operation and

characteristics of: AC synchronous and induction
motors both single and polyphase;
Methods of speed control and direction of rotation;
Methods of producing a rotating field: capacitor,
inductor, shaded or split pole.

BRANDON SOOKDEO

AC Synchronous Motors
Electrical motor in general is an electro-mechanical device that
converts energy from electrical domain to mechanical domain.
Based on the type of input we have classified it into;
single phase and
3 phase motors
Among 3 phase induction motors and synchronous motors are
more widely used. When 3 phase electric conductors are placed in a
certain geometrical positions (In certain angle from one another) there
is an electrical field generated. Now the rotating magnetic field rotates
at a certain speed, that speed is called synchronous speed. Now if an
electromagnet is present in this rotating magnetic field, the
electromagnet is magnetically locked with this rotating magnetic field
and rotates with same speed of rotating field.
Synchronous motors is called so because the speed of the rotor of this
motor is same as the rotating magnetic field. It is basically a fixed
speed motor because it has only one speed, which is synchronous
speed and therefore no intermediate speed is there or in other words
its in synchronism with the supply frequency. Synchronous speed is
given by

BRANDON SOOKDEO

Construction of Synchronous Motor

Normally it's construction is almost similar to that of a 3 phase

induction motor, except the fact that the rotor is given dc supply, the
reason of which is explained later. Now, let us first go through the basic
construction of this type of motor From the above picture, it is clear
that how this type of motors are designed. The stator is given is given
three phase supply and the rotor is given dc supply.

BRANDON SOOKDEO

Main Features of Synchronous Motors

Synchronous motors are inherently not self-starting. They
require some external means to bring their speed close to
synchronous speed to before they are synchronized.
The speed of operation of is in synchronism with the supply
frequency and hence for constant supply frequency they behave
as constant speed motor irrespective of load condition
This motor has the unique characteristics of operating under any
electrical power factor. This makes it being used in electrical
power factor improvement.

Principle of Operation Synchronous Motor

Synchronous motor is a doubly excited machine i.e two electrical
inputs are provided to it. Its stator winding which consists of a 3 phase
winding is provided with 3 phase supply and rotor is provided with DC
supply. The 3 phase stator winding carrying 3 phase currents produces
3 phase rotating magnetic flux. The rotor carrying DC supply also
produces a constant flux. Considering the frequency to be 50 Hz, from
the above relation we can see that the 3 phase rotating flux rotates
about 3000 revolution in 1 min or 50 revolutions in 1 sec. At a
particular instant rotor and stator poles might be of same polarity (N-N
or S-S) causing repulsive force on rotor and the very next second it will
be N-S causing attractive force. But due to inertia of the rotor, it is

BRANDON SOOKDEO

unable to rotate in any direction due to attractive or repulsive force

and remain in standstill condition. Hence it is not self-starting. To
overcome this inertia, rotor is initially fed some mechanical input which
rotates it in same direction as magnetic field to a speed very close to
synchronous speed. After some time, magnetic locking occurs and the
synchronous motor rotates in synchronism with the frequency.

Methods of Starting of Synchronous Motor

1.

Synchronous motors are mechanically coupled with another

motor. It could be either 3 phase induction motor or DC shunt
motor. DC excitation is not fed initially. It is rotated at speed very
close to its synchronous speed and after that DC excitation is given.
After some time when magnetic locking takes place supply to the
external motor is cut off.

2.

Damper winding : In case, synchronous motor is of salient pole

type, additional winding is placed in rotor pole face. Initially when
rotor is standstill, relative speed between damper winding and
rotating air gap flux in large and an emf is induced in it which
produces the required starting torque. As speed approaches
synchronous speed , emf and torque is reduced and finally when
magnetic locking takes place, torque also reduces to zero. Hence in
this case synchronous is first run as three phase induction motor

BRANDON SOOKDEO

using additional winding and finally it is synchronized with the

frequency.

Application of Synchronous Motor

Synchronous motor having no load connected to its shaft is used
for power factor improvement. Owing to its characteristics to
behave at any electrical power factor, it is used in power system
in situations where static capacitors are expensive.
Synchronous motor finds application where operating speed is
less (around 500 rpm) and high power is required. For power
requirement from 35 kW to 2500 KW, the size, weight and cost of
the corresponding three phase induction motor is very high.
Hence these motors are preferably used. Ex- Reciprocating pump,
compressor, rolling mills etc.

AC Induction Motors
One of the most common electrical motor used in most applications
which is known as induction motor. This motor is also called as

BRANDON SOOKDEO

asynchronous motor because it runs at a speed less than its

synchronous speed.
Here we need to define what is synchronous speed. Synchronous
speed is the speed of rotation of the magnetic field in a rotary machine
and it depends upon the frequency and number poles of the machine.
An induction motor always runs at a speed less than synchronous
speed because the rotating magnetic field which is produced in the
stator will generate flux in the rotor which will make the rotor to rotate,
but due to the lagging of flux current in the rotor with flux current in
the stator, the rotor will never reach to its rotating magnetic field
speed i.e. the synchronous speed.
There are basically two types of induction motor that depend upon
the input supply
single phase induction motor and
three phase induction motor
Single phase induction motor is not a self-starting motor which we
will discuss later and three phase induction motor is a self-starting
motor.

BRANDON SOOKDEO

Working Principle of Induction Motor

We need to give double excitation to make a machine to rotate. For
example, if we consider a DC motor, we will give one supply to the
stator and another to the rotor through brush arrangement. But in
induction motor we give only one supply, so it is really interesting to
know that how it works.
It is very simple, from the name itself we can understand that
induction process is involved. Actually when we are giving the supply
to the stator winding, flux will generate in the coil due to flow of
current in the coil. Now the rotor winding is arranged in such a way
that it becomes short circuited in the rotor itself. The flux from the
stator will cut the coil in the rotor and since the rotor coils are short
circuited, according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction,
current will start flowing in the coil of the rotor. When the current will
flow, another flux will get generated in the rotor. Now there will be two
flux, one is stator flux and another is rotor flux and the rotor flux will be
lagging w.r.t to the stator flux. Due to this, the rotor will feel a torque
which will make the rotor to rotate in the direction of rotating magnetic
flux.
So the speed of the rotor will be depending upon the ac supply and the
speed can be controlled by varying the input supply. This is the
working principle of an induction motor of either type single and
three phase.

BRANDON SOOKDEO

Types Induction Motor

SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
Split phase induction motor
Capacitor start induction motor
Capacitor start capacitor run induction motor
Shaded pole induction motor
THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
Squirrel cage induction motor
Slip ring induction motor
We had mentioned above that single phase induction motor is not a
self-starting and three phase induction motor is self-starting. So what is
self-starting?
When the machine starts running automatically without any external
force to the machine, then it is called as self-starting. For example, we
see that when we put on the switch the fan starts to rotate
automatically, so it is self-starting. Point to be noted that fan used in
home appliances is single phase induction motor which is inherently
not self-starting. How? Question arises How it works? We will discuss it
now.

BRANDON SOOKDEO

Why is Three Phase Induction Motor Self

Starting?
In three phase system, there are three single phase line with 120
phase difference. So the rotating magnetic field is having the same
phase difference which will make the rotor to move. If we consider
three phases a, b and c, when phase a is magnetized, the rotor will
move towards the phase a winding a, in the next moment phase b will
get magnetized and it will attract the rotor and then phase c. So the
rotor will continue to rotate.

Why Single Phase Induction Motor is not SelfStarting?

It will be having only one phase still it makes the rotor to rotate, so it is
quite interesting. Before that we need to know why single phase
induction motor is not a self-starting motor and how the problem is
overcome. We know that the ac supply is a sinusoidal wave and it
produces pulsating magnetic field in uniformly distributed stator
winding. Since pulsating magnetic field can be assumed as two

BRANDON SOOKDEO

10

oppositely rotating magnetic fields, there will be no resultant torque

produced at the starting and due to this the motor does not run. After
giving the supply, if the rotor is made to rotate in either direction by
external force, then the motor will start to run. This problem has been
solved by making the stator winding into two winding, one is main
winding and another is auxiliary winding and a capacitor is fixed in
series with the auxiliary winding. This will make a phase difference
when current will flow through the both coils. When there will be phase
difference, the rotor will generate a starting torque and it will start to
rotate. Practically we can see that the fan does not rotate when the
capacitor is disconnected from the motor but if we rotate with hand it
will start to rotate. So this is the reason of using capacitor in the single
phase induction motor. There are several advantages of induction
motor which makes this motor to have wider application. It is having
good efficiency up to 97%. But the speed of the motor varies with the
load given to the motor which is a disadvantage of this motor. The
direction of rotation of induction motor can easily be changed by
changing the sequence of three phase supply, i.e. if RYB is in forward
direction, the RBY will make the motor to rotate in reverse direction.
This is in the case of three phase motor but in single phase motor, the
direction can be reversed by reversing the capacitor terminals in the
winding.

BRANDON SOOKDEO

11

Working Principle of Three Phase Induction

Motor
An electrical motor is such an electromechanical device which converts
electrical energy into a mechanical energy. In case of three phase AC
operation, most widely used motor is Three phase induction motor
as this type of motor does not require any starting device or we can
say they are self starting induction motor. For better understanding the
principle of three phase induction motor, the basic constructional
feature of this motor must be known to us. This Motor consists of two
major parts:
Stator: Stator of three phase induction motor is made up of
numbers of slots to construct a 3 phase winding circuit which is
connected to 3 phase AC source. The three phase winding are arranged
in such a manner in the slots that they produce a rotating magnetic
field after 3Ph. AC supply is given to them. Rotor: Rotor of three
phase induction motor consists of cylindrical laminated core with
parallel slots that can carry conductors. Conductors are heavy copper
or aluminum bars which fits in each slots & they are short circuited by
the end rings. The slots are not exactly made parallel to the axis of the
shaft but are slotted a little skewed because this arrangement reduces
magnetic humming noise & can avoid stalling of motor.

BRANDON SOOKDEO

12

Working of Three Phase Induction Motor

Production of Rotating Magnetic Field
The stator of the motor consists of overlapping winding offset by an
electrical angle of 120. When the primary winding or the stator is
connected to a 3 phase AC source, it establishes a rotating magnetic
field which rotates at the synchronous speed. Secrets behind the
rotation: According to Faradays law an emf induced in any circuit is
due to the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage through the circuit.
As the rotor winding in an induction motor are either closed through an
external resistance or directly shorted by end ring, and cut the stator
rotating magnetic field, an emf is induced in the rotor copper bar and
due to this emf a current flows through the rotor conductor. Here the
relative speed between the rotating flux and static rotor conductor is
the cause of current generation; hence as per Lenz's law the rotor will
rotate in the same direction to reduce the cause i.e. the relative
velocity.
Thus from the working principle of three phase induction motor
it may have observed that the rotor speed should not reach the
synchronous speed produced by the stator. If the speeds equals, there
would be no such relative speed, so no EMF induced in the rotor, & no
current would be flowing, and therefore no torque would be generated.
Consequently, the rotor cannot reach the synchronous speed. The

BRANDON SOOKDEO

13

difference between the stator (synchronous speed) and rotor speeds is

called the slip. The rotation of the magnetic field in an induction motor
has the advantage that no electrical connections need to be made to
the rotor. Thus the three phase induction motor is:
Self-starting.
Less armature reaction and brush sparking because of the
absence of commutators and brushes that may cause sparks.
Robust in construction.
Economical.
Easier to maintain.

Types of Three Phase Induction Motor

Induction motor is also called asynchronous motor as it runs at a speed
other than the synchronous speed. Like any other electrical motor,
induction motor have two main parts namely rotor and stator.

Stator
As the name indicates stator is a stationary part of induction motor. A
three phase supply is given to the stator of induction motor.

BRANDON SOOKDEO

14

Rotor
The rotor is a rotating part of induction motor. The rotor is connected to
the mechanical load through the shaft. The rotor of the three phase
induction motor are further classified as Squirrel cage rotor,
Slip ring rotor or wound rotor or phase wound rotor.
Depending upon the type of rotor used the three phase induction
motor are classified as Squirrel cage induction motor
Slip ring induction motor or wound induction motor or phase
wound induction motor

The construction of stator for both the kind of three phase induction
motor remains the same and is discussed in brief in next paragraph.
Stator of three phase induction motor The stator of the three
phase induction motor consists of three main parts:
Stator frame
Stator core
Stator winding or field winding
1.

Stator Frame : It is the outer most part of the three phase

induction motor. Its main function is to support the stator core

BRANDON SOOKDEO

15

and the field winding. It acts as a covering and provide protection

and mechanical strength to all the inner parts of the machine. The
frame is either made up of die cast or fabricated steel. The frame of
three phase induction motor should be very strong and rigid as the
air gap length of three phase induction motor is very small,
otherwise rotor will not remain concentric with stator which will give
rise to unbalanced magnetic pull.
2.

Stator Core : The main function of the stator core is to carry

alternating flux. In order to reduce the eddy current losses the
stator core is laminated. This laminated type of structure is made
up of stamping which is about 0.4 to 0.5 mm thick. All the stamping
are stamped together to form stator core, which is then housed in
stator frame. The stampings are generally made up of silicon steel,
which reduces the hysteresis loss.

3.

Stator Winding or Field Winding : The slots on the periphery

of stator core of the three phase induction motor carries three
phase windings. This three phase winding is supplied by three
phase ac supply. The three phases of the winding are connected
either in star or delta depending upon which type of starting
method is used. The squirrel cage motor is mostly started by star
delta stater and hence the stator of squirrel cage motor are delta
connected. The slip ring three phase induction motor are started by
inserting resistances so, the stator winding can be connected either
in star or delta. The winding wound on the stator of three phase
induction motor is also called field winding and when this winding is

BRANDON SOOKDEO

16

excited by three phase ac supply it produces rotating magnetic

field.

Single Phase Induction Motor

Single phase power system is widely used as compared to three phase
system for domestic purpose, commercial purpose and to some extent
in industrial purpose. As the single phase system is more economical
and the power requirement in most of the houses, shops, offices are
small, which can be easily met by single phase system. The single
phase motors are simple in construction, cheap in cost, reliable and
easy to repair and maintain. Due to all these advantages the single
phase motor finds its application in vacuum cleaner, fans, washing
machine, centrifugal pump, blowers, washing machine, small toys etc.
The single phase ac motors are further classified as:

BRANDON SOOKDEO

17

 Single phase induction motors or asynchronous motors.

Single phase synchronous motors.
Commutator motors.

Construction of Single Phase Induction Motor

Like any other electrical motor asynchronous motor also have two
main parts namely rotor and stator.

Stator: As its name indicates stator is a stationary part of

induction motor. A single phase ac supply is given to the stator of
single phase induction motor.
Rotor: The rotor is a rotating part of induction motor. The rotor is
connected to the mechanical load through the shaft. The rotor in
single phase induction motor is of squirrel cage rotor type.
The construction of single phase induction motor is almost
similar to the squirrel cage three phase motor except that in case of
asynchronous motor the stator have two windings instead of one as
compare to the single stator winding in three phase induction motor.

BRANDON SOOKDEO

18

Stator of Single Phase Induction Motor

The stator of the single phase induction motor has laminated stamping
to reduce eddy current losses on its periphery. The slots are provided
on its stamping to carry stator or main winding. In order to reduce the
hysteresis losses, stamping are made up of silicon steel. When the
stator winding is given a single phase ac supply, the magnetic field is
produced and the motor rotates at a speed slightly less than the
synchronous speed Ns which is given by

Where,
f = supply voltage frequency,
P = No. of poles of the motor.
The construction of the stator of asynchronous motor is similar to that
of three phase induction motor except there are two dissimilarity in the
winding part of the single phase induction motor.

BRANDON SOOKDEO

19

1.

Firstly, the single phase induction motors are mostly provided

with concentric coils. As the number of turns per coil can be easily
adjusted with the help of concentric coils, the mmf distribution is
almost sinusoidal.

2.

Except for shaded pole motor, the asynchronous motor has two
stator windings namely the main winding and the auxiliary winding.
These two windings are placed in space quadrature with respect to
each other.

Rotor of Single Phase Induction Motor

The construction of the rotor of the single phase induction motor is
similar to the squirrel cage three phase induction motor. The rotor is
cylindrical in shape and has slots all over its periphery. The slots are
not made parallel to each other but are bit skewed as the skewing
prevents magnetic locking of stator and rotor teeth and makes the
working of induction motor more smooth and quieter i.e less noise.
The squirrel cage rotor consists of aluminum, brass or copper bars.
These aluminum or copper bars are called rotor conductors and are
placed in the slots on the periphery of the rotor. The rotor conductors
are permanently shorted by the copper or aluminum rings called the
end rings. In order to provide mechanical strength these rotor
conductors are braced to the end ring and hence form a complete
closed circuit resembling like a cage and hence got its name as
"squirrel cage induction motor". As the bars are permanently shorted

BRANDON SOOKDEO

20

by end rings, the rotor electrical resistance is very small and it is not
possible to add external resistance as the bars are permanently
shorted. The absence of slip ring and brushes make the construction of
single phase induction motor very simple and robust.

Working Principle of Single Phase Induction

Motor
NOTE: We know that for the working of any electrical motor
whether its ac or dc motor, we require two fluxes as, the
interaction of these two fluxes produced the required torque,
which is desired parameter for any motor to rotate.
When single phase ac supply is given to the stator winding of single
phase induction motor, the alternating current starts flowing through
the stator or main winding. This alternating current produces an
alternating flux called main flux. This main flux also links with the rotor
conductors and hence cut the rotor conductors.
According to the Faradays law of electromagnetic induction, EMF gets
induced in the rotor. As the rotor circuit is closed one so, the current
starts flowing in the rotor. This current is called the rotor current. This
rotor current produces its own flux called rotor flux. Since this flux is

BRANDON SOOKDEO

21

produced due to induction principle so, the motor working on this

principle got its name as induction motor.
Now there are two fluxes one is main flux and another is called rotor
flux. These two fluxes produce the desired torque which is required by
the motor to rotate.

Why Single Phase Induction Motor is not Self

Starting?
According to double field revolving theory, any alternating quantity can
be resolved into two components, each component have magnitude
equal to the half of the maximum magnitude of the alternating
quantity and both these component rotates in opposite direction to
each other. For example - a flux, can be resolved into two
components

Each of these components rotates in opposite direction i. e if one m / 2

is rotating in clockwise direction then the other m / 2 rotates in
anticlockwise direction. When a single phase ac supply is given to the
stator winding of single phase induction motor, it produces its flux of
magnitude, m. According to the double field revolving theory, this
alternating flux, m is divided into two components of magnitude m /2.
Each of these components will rotate in opposite direction, with the
synchronous speed, Ns. Let us call these two components of flux as

BRANDON SOOKDEO

22

forward component of flux, f and backward component of flux, b. The

resultant of these two component of flux at any instant of time, gives
the value of instantaneous stator flux at that particular instant.

Now at starting, both the forward and backward components of flux are
exactly opposite to each other. Also both of these components of flux
are equal in magnitude. So, they cancel each other and hence the net
torque experienced by the rotor at starting is zero. So, the single phase
induction motors are not self-starting motors.

Methods for Making Single Phase Induction as

Self Starting Motor
From the above topic we can easily conclude that the single phase
induction motors are not self-starting because the produced stator flux
is alternating in nature and at the starting the two components of this
flux cancel each other and hence there is no net torque. The solution to
this problem is that if the stator flux is made rotating type, rather than
alternating type, which rotates in one particular direction only. Then
the induction motor will become self-starting. Now for producing this
rotating magnetic field we require two alternating flux, having some
phase difference angle between them. When these two fluxes interact
with each other they will produce a resultant flux. This resultant flux is
rotating in nature and rotates in space in one particular direction only.

BRANDON SOOKDEO

23

Once the motor starts running, the additional flux can be removed. The
motor will continue to run under the influence of the main flux only.
Depending upon the methods for making asynchronous motor as Self
Starting Motor, there are mainly four types of single phase induction
motor namely,
1.

Split phase induction motor,

2.

Capacitor start inductor motor,

3.

Capacitor start capacitor run induction motor,

4.

Shaded pole induction motor.

5.

Permanent split capacitor motor or single value capacitor

motor.

Types of Single Phase Induction Motor

The single phase induction motors are made self starting by providing
an additional flux by some additional means. Now depending upon
these additional means the single phase induction motors are
classified as:
1.

Split phase induction motor.

2.

Capacitor start inductor motor.

3.

Capacitor start capacitor run induction motor ( two

value capacitor method).

4.

Permanent split capacitor (PSC) motor .

5.

Shaded pole induction motor.

BRANDON SOOKDEO

24

Split Phase Induction Motor

In addition to the main winding or running winding, the stator of single
phase induction motor carries another winding called auxiliary winding
or starting winding. A centrifugal switch is connected in series with
auxiliary winding . The purpose of this switch is to disconnect the
auxiliary winding from the main circuit when the motor attains a speed
up to 75 to 80% of the synchronous speed. We know that the running
winding is inductive in nature.
Our aim is to create the phase difference between the two winding and
this is possible if the starting winding carries high resistance. Let us
say Irun is the current flowing through the main or running winding, I start
is the current flowing in starting winding, and V T is the supply voltage.

BRANDON SOOKDEO

25

We know that for highly resistive winding the current is almost in phase
with the voltage and for highly inductive winding the current lag
behind the voltage by large angle. The starting winding is highly
resistive so, the current flowing in the starting winding lags behind the
applied voltage by very small angle and the running winding is highly
inductive in nature so, the current flowing in running winding lags
behind applied voltage by large angle. The resultant of these two
current is IT. The resultant of these two current produce rotating
magnetic field which rotates in one direction.
In split phase induction motor the starting and main current get
splitted from each other by some angle so this motor got its name as
split phase induction motor.

BRANDON SOOKDEO

26

Applications of Split Phase Induction Motor

Split phase induction motors have low starting current and moderate
starting torque. So these motors are used in fans, blowers, centrifugal
pumps, washing machine, grinder, lathes, air conditioning fans, etc.
These motors are available in the size ranging from 1 / 20 to 1 / 2 KW.

Capacitor Start IM and Capacitor Start Capacitor

Run IM

BRANDON SOOKDEO

27

The working principle and construction of Capacitor start inductor

motors and capacitor start capacitor run induction motors are almost
the same. We already know that single phase induction motor is not
self starting because the magnetic field produced is not rotating type.
In order to produce rotating magnetic field there must be some phase
difference. In case of split phase induction motor we use resistance for
creating phase difference but here we use capacitor for this purpose.
We are familiar with this fact that the current flowing through the
capacitor leads the voltage.
So, in capacitor start inductor motor and capacitor start
capacitor run induction motor we are using two winding, the main

BRANDON SOOKDEO

28

winding and the starting winding. With starting winding we connect a

capacitor so the current flowing in the capacitor i.e I st leads the applied
voltage by some angle, st.
The running winding is inductive in nature so, the current flowing in
running winding lags behind applied voltage by an angle, m. Now
there occur large phase angle differences between these two currents
which produce an resultant current, I and this will produce a rotating
magnetic field. Since the torque produced by these motors depends
upon the phase angle difference, which is almost 90. So, these motors
produce very high starting torque. In case of capacitor start
induction motor, the centrifugal switch is provided so as to
disconnect the starting winding when the motor attains a speed up to
75 to 80% of the synchronous speed but in case of capacitor start
capacitors run induction motor there is no centrifugal switch so,
the capacitor remains in the circuit and helps to improve the power
factor and the running conditions of single phase induction motor.

Application of Capacitor Start IM and Capacitor

Start Capacitor Run IM
These motors have high starting torque hence they are used in
conveyors, grinder, air conditioners, compressor, etc. They are
available up to 6 KW.

BRANDON SOOKDEO

29

Shaded Pole Single Phase Induction Motors

The stator of the shaded pole single phase induction motor has
salient or projected poles. These poles are shaded by copper band or
ring which is inductive in nature. The poles are divided into two
unequal halves. The smaller portion carries the copper band and is
called as shaded portion of the pole.

BRANDON SOOKDEO

30

ACTION: When a single phase supply is given to the stator of shaded

pole induction motor an alternating flux is produced . This change of
flux induces emf in the shaded coil. Since this shaded portion is short
circuited, the current is produced in it in such a direction to oppose the
main flux. The flux in shaded pole lags behind the flux in the unshaded
pole. The phase difference between these two fluxes produces
resultant rotating flux.
We know that the stator winding current is alternating in nature and so
is the flux produced by the stator current. In order to clearly
understand the working of shaded pole induction motor consider three
regions1.

When the flux changes its value from zero to

nearly maximum positive value.

2.

When the flux remains almost constant at its

maximum value.

3.

When the flux decreases from maximum positive

value to zero.

REGION 1: When the flux changes its value from zero to nearly
maximum positive value In this region the rate of rise of flux and

BRANDON SOOKDEO

31

hence current is very high. According to Faraday's law whenever there

is change in flux emf gets induced. Since the copper band is short
circuit the current starts flowing in the copper band due to this induced
emf. This current in copper band produces its own flux. Now according
to Lenz's law the direction of this current in copper band is such that it
opposes its own cause i.e rise in current. So the shaded ring flux
opposes the main flux, which leads to the crowding of flux in non
shaded part of stator and the flux weaken in shaded part. This non
uniform distribution of flux causes magnetic axis to shift in the middle
of the non shaded part.
REGION 2: When the flux remains almost constant at its maximum
value In this region the rate of rise of current and hence flux remains
almost constant. Hence there is very little induced emf in the shaded
portion. The flux produced by this induced emf has no effect on the
main flux and hence distribution of flux remains uniform and the
magnetic axis lies at the center of the pole.

REGION 3: When the flux decreases from maximum positive value to

zero - In this region the rate of decrease in the flux and hence current
is very high. According to Faraday's law whenever there is change in
flux emf gets induced. Since the copper band is short circuit the
current starts flowing in the copper band due to this induced emf. This
current in copper band produces its own flux. Now according to Lenz's

BRANDON SOOKDEO

32

law the direction of the current in copper band is such that it opposes
its own cause i.e decrease in current. So the shaded ring flux aids the
main flux, which leads to the crowding of flux in shaded part of stator
and the flux weaken in non shaded part. This non uniform distribution
of flux causes magnetic axis to shift in the middle of the shaded part of
the pole.
This shifting of magnetic axis continues for negative cycle also and
leads to the production of rotating magnetic field. The direction of this
field is from non shaded part of the pole to the shaded part of the pole.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Shaded Pole

Motor
The advantages of shaded pole induction motor are
Very economical and reliable.
Construction is simple and robust because there is no centrifugal
switch.

The disadvantages of shaded pole induction motor are

Low power factor.
The starting torque is very poor.

BRANDON SOOKDEO

33

 The efficiency is very low as, the copper losses are high due to
presence of copper band.
The speed reversal is also difficult and expensive as it requires
another set of copper rings.

Applications of Shaded Pole Motor

Applications of Shaded pole motors induction motor areDue to their low starting torques and reasonable cost these motors are
mostly employed in small instruments, hair dryers, toys, record
players, small fans, electric clocks etc. These motors are usually
available in a range of 1/300 to 1/20 KW.

Construction of Three Phase Induction Motor

The three phase induction motor is the most widely used electrical
motor. Almost 80% of the mechanical power used by industries is
provided by three phase induction motors because of its simple and
rugged construction, low cost, good operating characteristics, absence
of commutator and good speed regulation. In three phase induction
motor the power is transferred from stator to rotor winding through
induction. The Induction motor is also called asynchronous motor as it
runs at a speed other than the synchronous speed. Like any other

BRANDON SOOKDEO

34

electrical motor induction motor also have two main parts namely rotor
and stator.

1.

Stator: As its name indicates stator is a stationary part of

induction motor. A stator winding is placed in the stator of induction
motor and the three phase supply is given to it.

2.

Rotor: The rotor is a rotating part of induction motor. The rotor is

connected to the mechanical load through the shaft.

The rotor of the three phase induction motor is further classified as

Squirrel cage rotor,
Slip ring rotor or wound rotor or phase wound rotor.

Depending upon the type of rotor construction used the three phase
induction motor are classified as:
Squirrel cage induction motor,
Slip ring induction motor or wound induction motor or phase
wound induction motor.

BRANDON SOOKDEO

35

The construction of stator for both the kinds of three phase induction
motor remains the same and is discussed in brief in next paragraph.
The other parts, which are required to complete the induction motor,
are:
1. Shaft for transmitting the torque to the load. This shaft is made
up of steel.
2. Bearings for supporting the rotating shaft.
3. One of the problems with electrical motor is the production of
heat during its rotation. In order to overcome this problem we
need fan for cooling.
4. For receiving external electrical connection Terminal box is
needed.
5. There is a small distance between rotor and stator which
usually varies from 0.4 mm to 4 mm. Such a distance is called
air gap.

BRANDON SOOKDEO

36

Stator of Three Phase Induction Motor

The stator of the three phase induction motor consists of three main
parts :
1.

Stator frame,

2.

Stator core,

3.

Stator winding or field winding.

Stator Frame

BRANDON SOOKDEO

37

It is the outer most part of the three phase induction motor. Its main
function is to support the stator core and the field winding. It acts as a
covering and it provide protection and mechanical strength to all the
inner parts of the induction motor. The frame is either made up of die
cast or fabricated steel. The frame of three phase induction motor
should be very strong and rigid as the air gap length of three phase
induction motor is very small, otherwise rotor will not remain
concentric with stator, which will give rise to unbalanced magnetic pull.

BRANDON SOOKDEO

38

Stator Core
The main function of the stator core is to carry the alternating flux. In
order to reduce the eddy current loss, the stator core is laminated.
These laminated types of structure are made up of stamping which is
about 0.4 to 0.5 mm thick. All the stamping are stamped together to
form stator core, which is then housed in stator frame. The stamping is
generally made up of silicon steel, which helps to reduce the hysteresis
loss occurring in motor.

Stator Winding or Field Winding

The slots on the periphery of stator core of the three phase induction
motor carries three phase windings. This three phase winding is
supplied by three phase ac supply. The three phases of the winding are
connected either in star or delta depending upon which type of starting
method is used. The squirrel cage motor is mostly started by star
delta stater and hence the stator of squirrel cage motor is delta
connected. The slip ring three phase induction motor are started by
inserting resistances so, the stator winding of slip ring induction motor
can be connected either in star or delta. The winding wound on the
stator of three phase induction motor is also called field winding and
when this winding is excited by three phase ac supply it produces a
rotating magnetic field.

BRANDON SOOKDEO

39

BRANDON SOOKDEO

40

Types of Three Phase Induction Motor

1. Squirrel cage three phase induction motor: The rotor of
the squirrel cage three phase induction motor is cylindrical in
shape and have slots on its periphery. The slots are not made
parallel to each other but are bit skewed (skewing is not shown
in the figure of squirrel cadge rotor beside) as the skewing
prevents magnetic locking of stator and rotor teeth and makes
the working of motor more smooth and quieter. The squirrel
cage rotor consists of aluminum, brass or copper bars (copper
bras rotor is shown in the figure beside). These aluminum,
brass or copper bars are called rotor conductors and are placed
in the slots on the periphery of the rotor. The rotor conductors
are permanently shorted by the copper or aluminum rings
called the end rings. In order to provide mechanical strength
these rotor conductor are braced to the end ring and hence
form a complete closed circuit resembling like a cage and
hence got its name as "squirrel cage induction motor". The
squirrel cage rotor winding is made symmetrical. As the bars
are permanently shorted by end rings, the rotor resistance is
very small and it is not possible to add external resistance as
the bars are permanently shorted. The absence of slip ring and
brushes make the construction of Squirrel cage three phase
induction motor very simple and robust and hence widely used

BRANDON SOOKDEO

41

three phase induction motor. These motors have the advantage

of adapting any number of pole pairs. The below diagram
shows squirrel cage induction rotor having aluminum bars short
circuit by aluminum end rings.

Advantages of squirrel cage induction rotor Its construction is very simple and rugged.
As there are no brushes and slip ring, these motors requires less
maintenance.
Applications: Squirrel cage induction motor is used in lathes, drilling
machine, fan, blower printing machines etc

BRANDON SOOKDEO

42

2. Slip ring or wound three phase induction motor : In this

type of three phase induction motor the rotor is wound for the
same number of poles as that of stator but it has less number
of slots and has less turns per phase of a heavier conductor.The
rotor also carries star or delta winding similar to that of stator
winding. The rotor consists of numbers of slots and rotor
winding are placed inside these slots. The three end terminals
are connected together to form star connection. As its name
indicates three phase slip ring induction motor consists of slip
rings connected on same shaft as that of rotor. The three ends
of three phase windings are permanently connected to these
slip rings. The external resistance can be easily connected
through the brushes and slip rings and hence used for speed
control and improving the starting torque of three phase
induction motor. The brushes are used to carry current to and
from the rotor winding. These brushes are further connected to
three phase star connected resistances. At starting, the
resistance are connected in rotor circuit and is gradually cut
out as the rotor pick up its speed. When the motor is running
the slip ring are shorted by connecting a metal collar, which
connect all slip ring together and the brushes are also
removed. This reduces wear and tear of the brushes. Due to
presence of slip rings and brushes the rotor construction

BRANDON SOOKDEO

43

becomes somewhat complicated therefore it is less used as

compare to squirrel cage induction motor.

Advantages of slip ring induction motor 1.

It has high starting torque and low starting current.

2.

Possibility of adding additional resistance to control speed.

Application:
Slip ring induction motor are used where high starting torque is
required i.e in hoists, cranes, elevator etc.

BRANDON SOOKDEO

44

Difference between Slip Ring and Squirrel Cage

Induction Motor
Slip ring or phase wound
Induction motor

Squirrel cage induction motor

Construction is complicated due to

presence of slip ring and brushes

Construction is very simple

The rotor winding is similar to the stator

winding

The rotor consists of rotor bars which are

permanently shorted with the help of end
rings

We can easily add rotor resistance by

using slip ring and brushes

Since the rotor bars are permanently

shorted, its not possible to add external
resistance

Due to presence of external resistance

high starting torque can be obtained

Staring torque is low and cannot be

improved

Slip ring and brushes are present

Slip ring and brushes are absent

Frequent maintenance is required due to

presence of brushes

Less maintenance is required

The construction is complicated and the

presence of brushes and slip ring makes
the motor more costly

The construction is simple and robust

and it is cheap as compared to slip ring
induction motor

This motor is rarely used only 10 %

industry uses slip ring induction motor

Due to its simple construction and low

cost. The squirrel cage induction motor is

BRANDON SOOKDEO

45

widely used
Rotor copper losses are high and hence
less efficiency

Less rotor copper losses and hence high

efficiency

Speed control by rotor resistance method Speed control by rotor resistance method
is possible
is not possible
Slip ring induction motor are used where
high starting torque is required i.e in
hoists, cranes, elevator etc

Squirrel cage induction motor is used in

lathes, drilling machine, fan, blower
printing machines etc

Speed Control of Three Phase Induction Motor

A three phase induction motor is basically a constant speed motor so
its somewhat difficult to control its speed. The speed control of
induction motor is done at the cost of decrease in efficiency and low
electrical power factor. Before discussing the methods to control the
speed of three phase induction motor one should know the basic
formulas of speed and torque of three phase induction motor as the
methods of speed control depends upon these formulas.
Synchronous Speed

Where f = frequency and P is the number of poles

The speed of induction motor is given by,

BRANDON SOOKDEO

46

Where N is the speed of rotor of induction motor, N s is the synchronous

speed and S is the slip.

The Speed of Induction Motor is changed from

Both Stator and Rotor Side
The speed control of three phase induction motor from stator side are
further classified as:
V / f control or frequency control.
Changing the number of stator poles.
Controlling supply voltage.
Adding rheostat in the stator circuit.
The speed controls of three phase induction motor from rotor side are
further classified as:
Adding external resistance on rotor side.

BRANDON SOOKDEO

47

 Cascade control method.

Injecting slip frequency emf into rotor side.

BRANDON SOOKDEO

48