SQL Basics Cheat sheet

Find All Columns and Rows in a Table

SELECT * FROM <table name>;

The asterisk or star symbol (*) means all columns.

The semi-colon (;) terminates the statement like a period in sentence or
question mark in a question.
Examples:
SELECT
SELECT
SELECT
SELECT

*
*
*
*

FROM
FROM
FROM
FROM

books;
products;
users;
countries;

Retrieving Specific Columns of Information

Retrieving a single column:
SELECT <column name> FROM <table name>;

Examples:
SELECT
SELECT
SELECT
SELECT

email FROM users;

first_name FROM users;
name FROM products;
zip_code FROM addresses;

Retrieving multiple columns:

SELECT <column name 1>, <column name 2>, ... FROM <table name>;

Examples:
SELECT
SELECT
SELECT
SELECT

first_name, last_name FROM customers;

name, description, price FROM products;
title, author, isbn, year_released FROM books;
name, species, legs FROM pets;

Aliasing Column Names

SELECT <column name> AS <alias> FROM <table name>;
SELECT <column name> <alias> FROM <table name>;

Examples:
SELECT username AS Username, first_name AS "First Name" FROM users;
SELECT title AS Title, year AS "Year Released" FROM movies;
SELECT name AS Name, description AS Description, price AS "Current Price" FROM
products;
SELECT name Name, description Description, price "Current Price" FROM products;

Finding the Data You Want

SELECT <columns> FROM <table> WHERE <condition>;

Equality Operator
Find all rows that a given value matches a column's value.
SELECT <columns> FROM <table> WHERE <column name> = <value>;

Examples:
SELECT
SELECT
SELECT
SELECT

* FROM contacts WHERE first_name = "Andrew";

first_name, email FROM users WHERE last_name = "Chalkley";
name AS "Product Name" FROM products WHERE stock_count = 0;
title "Book Title" FROM books WHERE year_published = 1999;

Inequality Operator
Find all rows that a given value doesn't match a column's value.
SELECT <columns> FROM <table> WHERE <column name> != <value>;
SELECT <columns> FROM <table> WHERE <column name> <> <value>;

The not equal to or inequality operator can be written in two ways !

= and <>. The latter is less common.
Examples:
SELECT
SELECT
SELECT
SELECT

* FROM contacts WHERE first_name != "Kenneth";

first_name, email FROM users WHERE last_name != "L:one";
name AS "Product Name" FROM products WHERE stock_count != 0;
title "Book Title" FROM books WHERE year_published != 2015;

Relational Operators
There are several relational operators you can use:

<

<=

>

>=

less than
less than or equal to

greater than
greater than or equal to

These are primarily used to compare numeric and date/time types.

SELECT
SELECT
SELECT
SELECT

<columns>
<columns>
<columns>
<columns>

Examples:

FROM
FROM
FROM
FROM

<table>
<table>
<table>
<table>

WHERE
WHERE
WHERE
WHERE

<column
<column
<column
<column

name>
name>
name>
name>

< <value>;
<= <value>;
> <value>;
>= <value>;

SELECT
SELECT
2015;
SELECT
SELECT

first_name, last_name FROM users WHERE date_of_birth < '1998-12-01';

title AS "Book Title", author AS Author FROM books WHERE year_released <=
name, description FROM products WHERE price > 9.99;
title FROM movies WHERE release_year >= 2000;

More Than One Condition

You can compare multiple values in a WHERE condition. If you want to test
that both conditions are true use the AND keyword, or either conditions are
true use the OR keyword.
SELECT <columns> FROM <table> WHERE <condition 1> AND <condition 2> ...;
SELECT <columns> FROM <table> WHERE <condition 1> OR <condition 2> ...;

Examples:
SELECT username FROM users WHERE last_name = "Chalkley" AND first_name =
"Andrew";
SELECT * FROM products WHERE category = "Games Consoles" AND price < 400;
SELECT * FROM movies WHERE title = "The Matrix" OR title = "The Matrix Reloaded" OR
title = "The Matrix Revolutions";
SELECT country FROM countries WHERE population < 1000000 OR population >
100000000;

Searching in a Set of Values

SELECT <columns> FROM <table> WHERE <column> IN (<value 1>, <value 2>, ...);

Examples:
SELECT
SELECT
SELECT
SELECT

name FROM islands WHERE id IN (4, 8, 15, 16, 23, 42);

* FROM products WHERE category IN ("eBooks", "Books", "Comics");
title FROM courses WHERE topic IN ("JavaScript", "Databases", "CSS");
* FROM campaigns WHERE medium IN ("email", "blog", "ppc");
To find all rows that are not in the set of values you can use NOT IN.
SELECT <columns> FROM <table> WHERE <column> NOT IN (<value 1>, <value
2>, ...);

Examples:
SELECT answer FROM answers WHERE id IN (7, 42);
SELECT * FROM products WHERE category NOT IN ("Electronics");
SELECT title FROM courses WHERE topic NOT IN ("SQL", "NoSQL");

Searching within a Range of Values

SELECT <columns> FROM <table> WHERE <column> BETWEEN <lesser value> AND
<greater value>;

Examples:
SELECT * FROM movies WHERE release_year BETWEEN 2000 AND 2010;
SELECT name, description FROM products WHERE price BETWEEN 9.99 AND 19.99;
SELECT name, appointment_date FROM appointments WHERE appointment_date
BETWEEN "2015-01-01" AND "2015-01-07";

Pattern Matching

Placing the percent symbol (%) any where in a string in conjunction with
the LIKE keyword will operate as a wildcard. Meaning it can be substituted
by any number of characters, including zero!
SELECT <columns> FROM <table> WHERE <column> LIKE <pattern>;

Examples:
SELECT
SELECT
SELECT
SELECT

title FROM books WHERE title LIKE "Harry Potter%Fire";

title FROM movies WHERE title LIKE "Alien%";
* FROM contacts WHERE first_name LIKE "%drew";
* FROM books WHERE title LIKE "%Brief History%";

PostgreSQL Specific Keywords

in PostgreSQL is case-sensitive. To do case-insensitive searches
use ILIKE.
LIKE

SELECT * FROM contacts WHERE first_name ILIKE "%drew";

Missing Values
SELECT * FROM <table> WHERE <column> IS NULL;

Examples:
SELECT * FROM people WHERE last_name IS NULL;
SELECT * FROM vhs_rentals WHERE returned_on IS NULL;
SELECT * FROM car_rentals WHERE returned_on IS NULL AND location = "PDX";
To filter out missing values use can use IS NOT NULL.
SELECT * FROM <table> WHERE <column> IS NOT NULL;

Examples
SELECT * FROM people WHERE email IS NOT NULL;
SELECT * FROM addresses WHERE zip_code IS NOT NULL;

Reporting with SQL Cheatsheet

Ordering Columns
Ordering by a single column criteria:
SELECT * FROM <table name> ORDER BY <column> [ASC|DESC];
ASC is used to order results in ascending order.
DESC is used to order results in descending order.

Examples:
SELECT
SELECT
SELECT
SELECT

*
*
*
*

FROM
FROM
FROM
FROM

books ORDER BY title ASC;

products WHERE name = "Sonic T-Shirt" ORDER BY stock_count DESC;
users ORDER BY signed_up_on DESC;
countries ORDER BY population DESC;

Ordering by multiple column criteria:

SELECT * FROM <table name> ORDER BY <column> [ASC|DESC],
<column 2> [ASC|DESC],
...,
<column n> [ASC|DESC];

Ordering is prioritized left to right.

Examples:
SELECT * FROM books ORDER BY
title ASC;

genre ASC,

SELECT * FROM books ORDER BY genre ASC,

year_published DESC;
SELECT * FROM users WHERE email LIKE "%@gmail.com"
ORDER BY last_name ASC,
first_name ASC;

Limiting Results
SQLite, PostgreSQL and MySQL
To limit the number of results returned, use the LIMIT keyword.
SELECT <columns> FROM <table> LIMIT <# of rows>;

MS SQL
To limit the number of results returned, use the TOP keyword.
SELECT TOP <# of rows> <columns> FROM <table>;

Oracle
To limit the number of results returned, use the ROWNUM keyword in
a WHERE clause.
SELECT <columns> FROM <table> WHERE ROWNUM <= <# of rows>;

Paging Through Results

SQLite, PostgreSQL and MySQL
To page through results you can either use the OFFSET keyword in
conjunction with the LIMIT keyword or just with LIMIT alone.
SELECT <columns> FROM <table> LIMIT <# of rows> OFFSET <skipped rows>;
SELECT <columns> FROM <table> LIMIT <skipped rows>, <# of rows>;

MS SQL and Oracle

To page through results you can either use the OFFSET keyword in
conjunction with the FETCH keyword. Cannot be used withTOP.
SELECT <columns> FROM <table> OFFSET <skipped rows> ROWS FETCH NEXT <# of
rows> ROWS ONLY;

Syntax definitions

Keywords: Commands issued to a database. The data presented in

queries is unaltered.

Operators: Performs comparisons and simple manipulation

Functions: Presents data differently through more complex

manipulation

Arguments or Parameters: Values passed in to functions.

A function looks like:

<function name>(<value or column>)

Examples:
SELECT UPPER("Andrew Chalkley");
SELECT UPPER(name) FROM passport_holders;

Concatenating Strings
SQLite, PostgreSQL and Oracle
Use the concatenation operator ||.
SELECT <value or column> || <value or column> || <value or column> FROM <table>;

MS SQL
Use the concatenation operator +.
SELECT <value or column> + <value or column> + <value or column> FROM <table>;

MySQL, PostgreSQL and MS SQL

Use the CONCAT() function.
SELECT CONCAT(<value or column>, <value or column>, <value or column>) FROM
<table>;

Finding Length of Strings

To obtain the length of a value or column use the LENGTH() function.
SELECT LENGTH(<value or column>) FROM <tables>;

Changing the Case of Strings

Use the UPPER() function to uppercase text.
SELECT UPPER(<value or column>) FROM <table>;
Use the LOWER() function to lowercase text.
SELECT LOWER(<value or column>) FROM <table>;

Create Excerpts with Substring

To create smaller strings from larger piece of text you can use
the SUBSTR() funciton or the substring function.'
SELECT SUBSTR(<value or column>, <start>, <finish>) FROM <table>;

Replacing Portions of Text

To replace piece of strings of text in a larger body of text you can use
the REPLACE() function.
SELECT REPLACE(<original value or column>, <target string>, <replacement string>)
FROM <table>;

Counting Results
To count rows you can use the COUNT() function.
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM <table>;

To count unique entries use the DISTINCT keyword too:

SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT <column>) FROM <table>;

To count aggregated rows with common values use the GROUP

BY keywords:
SELECT COUNT(<column>) FROM <table> GROUP BY <column with common value>;

Obtaining Totals
To total up numeric columns use the SUM() function.
SELECT SUM(<numeric column) FROM <table>;
SELECT SUM(<numeric column) AS <alias> FROM <table>

GROUP BY <another column>

HAVING <alias> <operator> <value>;

Calculating Averages
To get the average value of a numeric column use the AVG() function.
SELECT AVG(<numeric column>) FROM <table>;
SELECT AVG(<numeric column>) FROM <table> GROUP BY <other column>;

Finding the Maximum and Minimum Values

To get the maximum value of a numeric column use the MAX() function.
SELECT MAX(<numeric column>) FROM <table>;
SELECT MAX(<numeric column>) FROM <table> GROUP BY <other column>;
To get the minimum value of a numeric column use the MIN() function.
SELECT MIN(<numeric column>) FROM <table>;
SELECT MIN(<numeric column>) FROM <table> GROUP BY <other column>;

Mathematical Operators

Multiply

Divide

Add

Subtract

SELECT <numeric column> <mathematical operator> <numeric value> FROM <table>;

Up-to-the-Minute Dates and Times

SQLite
To get the current date use: DATE("now")
To get the current time use: TIME("now")
To get the current date time: DATETIME("NOW")

MS SQL
To get the current date use: CONVERT(date, GETDATE())
To get the current time use: CONVERT(time, GETDATE())
To get the current date time: GETDATE()

MySQL

To get the current date use: CURDATE()

To get the current time use: CURTIME()
To get the current date time: NOW()

Oracle and PostgreSQL

To get the current date use: CURRENT_DATE
To get the current time use: CURRENT_TIME
To get the current date time: CURRENT_TIMESTAMP

Calculating Dates
See documentation sites:

SQLite

MS SQL

PostgreSQL

MySQL

Oracle

Formatting Dates
See documentation sites:

SQLite

MS SQL

PostgreSQL

MySQL

Oracle

Querying Relational Databases

Cheatsheet

SQL JOINs
JOINs merge related data from multiple tables together in to result set.
The two most common types of joins are:

INNER JOIN

OUTER JOIN

INNER JOINs
INNER JOINs return rows that match from both tables.
SELECT <columns> FROM <table 1>
INNER JOIN <table 2> ON <table 1>.<column> = <table 2>.<column>;
SELECT <columns> FROM <table 1> AS <table 1 alias>
INNER JOIN <table 2> AS <table 2 alias> ON <table 1 alias>.<column> = <table 2
alias>.<column>;

Examples:
SELECT product_name, category FROM products
INNER JOIN product_categories ON products.category_id = product_categories.id;
SELECT products.product_name, product_categories.category FROM products
INNER JOIN product_categories ON products.category_id = product_categories.id;
SELECT p.product_name, c.category FROM products AS p
INNER JOIN product_categories AS c ON p.category_id = c.id;

INNER JOINing multiple tables:

SELECT <columns> FROM <table 1>
INNER JOIN <table 2> ON <table 1>.<column> = <table 2>.<column>
INNER JOIN <table 3> ON <table 1>.<column> = <table 3>.<column>;

Examples:
SELECT users.full_name, sales.amount, products.name FROM sales
INNER JOIN users ON users.id = sales.user_id
INNER JOIN products ON products.id = sales.product_id;

OUTER JOINs
There are 3 types of OUTER JOINs:

LEFT OUTER JOIN - JOINs all matching data and all non-matching
rows from the left table in the query

RIGHT OUTER JOIN - JOINs all matching data and all non-matching
rows from the right table in the query

FULL OUTER JOIN - JOINs all matching data and then all nonmatching rows from both tables.

SELECT <columns> FROM <left table>

LEFT OUTER JOIN <right right> ON <left table>.<column> = <right
table>.<column>;
SELECT <columns> FROM <left table> AS <left alias>
LEFT OUTER JOIN <right table> AS <right alias>
ON <left alias>.<column> = <right alias>.<column>;

Example
If you wanted to get the product count for every category, even categories
without products, an OUTER JOIN is the best solution. The following two
examples will yield the same results, however one is an
SELECT categories.name, COUNT(products.id) AS "Product Count" FROM categories
LEFT OUTER JOIN products ON categories.id = products.category_id;
SELECT categories.name, COUNT(products.id) AS "Products Count" FROM products
RIGHT OUTER JOIN categories ON categories.id = products.category_id;

Set Operations
Set operations merge data in to one set based on column definitions and
the data contained within each column.
The four set operations are:

UNION

UNION ALL

INTERSECT

EXCEPT

The number of columns need to match. If number of columns don't match

it'll result in an error.
<query 1> <set operation> <query 2>
SELECT <column> FROM <table 1> <set operation> SELECT <column> FROM <table
2>;
SELECT <column>, <column> FROM <table 1> <set operation> SELECT <column>,
<column> FROM <table 2>;

UNION Examples
Unions return all distinct values from both data sets with no duplicates.

Get a list of unique restaurants from both north and south malls.
SELECT store FROM mall_south WHERE type = "restaurant"
UNION
SELECT store FROM mall_north WHERE type = "restaurant";

Get a list of unique classes taught in two schools. Order them by their
class name.
SELECT evening_class FROM school_1 UNION SELECT evening_class FROM school_2
ORDER BY evening_class ASC;

UNION ALL
Union all returns all values from both data sets with duplicates.
Get a list of all names for boys and girls and order them by name.
SELECT boy_name AS name FROM boy_baby_names
UNION ALL
SELECT girl_name AS name FROM girl_baby_names
ORDER by name;

INTERSECT
Returns only values that in both data sets.
Get list of classes offered in both schools.
SELECT evening_class FROM school_1 INTERSECT SELECT evening_class FROM school_2
ORDER BY evening_class ASC;

Get list of restaurants at both mall locations.

SELECT store FROM mall_south WHERE type = "restaurant"
INTERSECT
SELECT store FROM mall_north WHERE type = "restaurant";

EXCEPT
Returns data from the first data set that's not in the second.
Get a list of local stores in a mall.
SELECT store FROM mall
EXCEPT
SELECT store FROM all_stores WHERE type = "national"

Subqueries
Subqueries are queries within queries. A subquery can also be called
an inner query with the "parent" query being called the outer query.

There are two main ways to use a subquery:

1. In an IN condition
2. As a derived or temporary table
A subquery in an IN condition must only have one column.

SELECT <columns> FROM <table 1> WHERE <table 1>.<column> IN (<subquery>);

SELECT <columns> FROM <table 1>
WHERE <table 1>.<column> IN (SELECT <a single column> FROM <table 2> WHERE
<condition>);

Examples:
Get a list of user's names and emails for users who have spent over 100
dollars in a single transaction.
SELECT name, email FROM users
WHERE id IN (SELECT DISTINCT(user_id) FROM sales WHERE saleAmount > 100);
// OR
SELECT name, email FROM users
INNER JOIN (SELECT DISTINCT(user_id) FROM sales WHERE saleAmount > 100) AS
best_customers
ON best_customers.user_id = users.id

Get a list of user's names and emails for users who have spent over 1000
dollars in total.
SELECT name, email FROM users WHERE id IN (SELECT user_id FROM sales WHERE
SUM(saleAmount) > 1000 GROUP BY user_id);
// OR
SELECT name, email, total FROM users
INNER JOIN (SELECT user_id, SUM(saleAmount) AS total FROM sales WHERE total >
1000 GROUP BY user_id) AS ultimate_customers
ON ultimate_customers.user_id = users.id;