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Fault breccias, or tectonic breccias, are a type of cataclastic rock formed by mechanical
deformation during crustal movements (Glossary of Geology, 2005). They are further
classified as chaotic, mosaic, or crackle breccias based on percentage of large (>2mm) clasts
(Woodcock and Mort, 2008).
References
crackle-mosaic-chaotic
breccia
spectrum
approximately
Figure 4. From Woodcock and Mort (2008). a) Thin section examples of crackle breccia, mosaic
breccia, and chaotic breccia from the Dent Fault Zone, NW England. b) Subdivision of fault
breccias by percentage of large clasts
Figure 5. Conceptual model of a fault zone showing fault rock location at depth from Sibson
(1977)
Figure 6. Model of principle slip zone architecture and associated breccia formation
from Sibson (1986)
what would be considered crackle to mosaic breccias by Woodcock and Mort (2008).
Texture is particularly important in implosion breccias as it acts as a record of incremental or
multi-episode formation. This, combined with the common presence of hydrothermal minerals
in veins or matrix, indicates that the common mechanism is hydraulic implosion due to rapid
generation of fluid pressure differentials during rupture arrest and enhanced fracture
permeability. Therefore, unlike attrition and crush brecciation, implosion brecciation is directly
associated with local extensional environments and often hosts extensive vein networks.
[Sibson (1986)]
Figure 9. Conceptual model of breccia generation on Zuccale Fault by fluidization from Smith et
al., (2008). (a) Precursors to fluidization: the Zuccale fault possesses a strongly foliated fault
core which acts as a low-permeability seal to CO2-bearing fluids migrating within the footwall.
The fault core is underlain by a high-angle footwall fault. Fluids infiltrate pre-existing frictional
breccias, leading to dissolution and a loss of cohesion. (b) Fluidization: periodic slip along
high-angle footwall faults leads to focused and rapid fluid flow, causing fluidization of clasts
within the frictional breccias. The fluid pulse spreads laterally as it encounters the fault core.
Ponding of fluids, and deformation of the boundary, may occur during continued input of
fluids. (c) Hydrofracturing: critical fluid overpressure leads to embrittlement within the core of
the Zuccale fault, allowing fluids to drain from footwall to hanging wall. The fractures undergo
healing processes returning to a low-permeability nature, allowing the fault-valve cycle to
repeat.
Figure 10. Fluid migration by fault valve model (Sibson, 1990) with (a) large fluid pressure
differentials in the inter-phase, (b) post-seismic upwards discharge of fluids
Caine et al. (1996) showed that the percentage of fault rocks, fault breccias included, in total
fault width relative to the percentage of damage structures (e.g. faults, fractures, veins) can be
used to qualitatively model fluid flow in and around fault zones. Caines scheme indicates that
well developed fault rocks without well-developed damage structures act as a barrier to fluid
flow but as a conduit-barrier in the presence of extensive damage structures (Figure
11). Gudmundsson (2001) reaffirms the idea that faults can act as barriers or conduitbarriers in small faults with breccia cores and demonstrates that the fault breccias act as
barriers to vertical groundwater flow. Furthermore, as breccia thickness varies along fault it
acts to channel fluid along the fault and into the footwall at thin breccia zones allowing deeper
crustal flow (Figure 12) or it can locally trap upward migrating fluids increasing fluid pressure
gradients across the fault. Breccia thickness, and any fluctuations in breccia thickness, will
therefore significantly impact the groundwater system around the fault.
Figure 11. Fault zone permeability structures and associated attributes from Caine et al. (1996)
Figure 12. Schematic model of the interaction between fault breccia and groundwater flow in
the vicinity of the fault from Gudmundsson (2001)
Transient Permeability in Fault Breccias
Several people including Sibson (1996), Micklethwaite and Cox (2004), and Woodcock
et al., (2007) expand on the transient nature of increased permeability from dilation
brecciation. Micklethwaite and Cox (2004) hypothesize that permeability is enhanced
immediately after fault rupture followed by a decrease in porosity on the main rupture surface
as fluid pathways are sealed and protracted permeability increase in aftershock
zones . Woodcock et al. (2007) present a case study from Dent Fault zone in NW England
demonstrating this transient permeability.
Dent Fault zone includes 10-100m, mostly single phase breccias in a near-random carbonate
cement sealed fracture mesh (Woodcock et al., 2007). The sealing cement is granular rather
than fibrous indicating that fractures opened faster than the rate of carbonate cement growth
so breccias are likely to have developed during seismic phases and resealed during the interseismic phase (Tarasewicz et al. , 2005). The large extent and single phase nature of the
Dent Fault breccias point to inter-seismic resealing hardening the breccia causing later
brecciation to occur in nearby weak intact rock, permeability would therefore be greatest at the
end of the post-seismic phase and progressively decrease from there as shown in Figure
13 (Woodcock et al., 2007).
Another case study on the Talhof fault (Figure 14), a 15 km long segment of the SalzachEnnstal-Mariazell-Puchberg (SEMP) fault system in the Eastern Alps, is presented
by Hausegger et al. (2010). The Talhof fault is in layered, anisotropic carbonates which
developed by layer parallel shear along the shear zone, forming a penetrative fracture cleavage.
Fractures in zones parallel to the shear zone boundary formed to accommodate strain and later
hosted cataclastic flow as shear became localised and the evolution of a fault core. Infiltration
of fluid into the fault zone lead to cementation of breccias with reduced porosity and
permeability (strain hardening) forcing shear localisation to adjacent zones (strain weakening).
As brittle deformation continues the fault breccias undergo cyclic healing (cementation) and
fracturing (brittle failure) which can be equated to a cycle of closed and open fluid systems
respectively. [Hausegger et al., (2010)]
Figure 14. Schematic model of shear zone evolution during layer-parallel shear along the Talhof
fault. (a) Formation of distinct cross-joints at high angles to the pre-existing bedding/foliation
planes. (b) Formation of joint-bounded slices, rotation of slices, reactivation of joints as shears
with antithetic displacement, and formation of secondary joints at the tips and internal parts of
slices. Widening of the fault zone is inhibited by external compressive stresses at high angles to
the shear zone boundary, stylolites are formed at low angles to the shear zone boundary,
perpendicular to maximum principal stress orientation. (c) Kinking, fracturing and
disintegration of slices by bookshelf rotation, developing into a cataclastic shear zone at
advanced stages of displacement. (d) Cementation of disintegrated slices and subsequent
formation of new high-angle joints. (e) Second cycle of brecciation. The newly formed
fragments consist of both slice fragments and fragments of sparitic cement. Effective normal
stress acts perpendicular to the externally imposed general shear direction. Effective normal
stress acts parallel to the externally imposed general shear direction. Hausegger et al. (2010)
Brechas de falla, o brechas tectnicas, son un tipo de roca cataclstica formado por
deformacin mecnica durante los movimientos de la corteza terrestre ( Glosario
de Geologa de 2005 ). Se clasifican adems como brechas catica, mosaico, o
crujido en base a porcentaje de grandes (> 2 mm) clastos ( Woodcock y Mort,
2008 ).
referencias
Clasificacin de rocas de falla con un enfoque en las brechas de falla fue revisado
recientemente por Woodcock y Mort (2008) . Aqu definicin de brecha de fallo se
aproxima uso para rocas sedimentarias, basndose en el tamao clast como el
criterio principal y la proporcin clast como criterio secundario en vez de la
diferenciacin por la naturaleza cohesiva y el porcentaje de la matriz ( Figura
3 ). La clasificacin por tamao clast es preferible debido a la dificultad en la
identificacin primaria vs secundaria (post-fallamiento cementacin) la cohesin y
el hecho de que las brechas de fallas cohesivas han sido ampliamente reconocidos
( Brodie, Fettes y Harte, 2007 ; Higgins, 1971 ; Killick, 2003 ; Sibson, 1977 ), pero
no encajan cmodamente en los esquemas de clasificacin anteriores. Proporcin
de clast o matriz es relegado a un criterio secundario, ya que es a menudo difcil
de determinar las proporciones en el campo. Los clastos se definen como> 2 mm
de dimetro. La (2008) Woodcock y Mort , por tanto, la clasificacin se puede
utilizar para brechas de falla que tienen cualquier combinacin de cohesin, la
cementacin, foliacin, y / o el tamao clast variable.
Al igual que Killick (2003) , el Woodcock y Mort (2008) la clasificacin del grupo
opta por Sibson (1977) brechas por aplastamiento con protocataclasites. El uso de
ningn
ajuste
geomtrico
con
clast
adyacente.Mort
Woodcock
(2008) muestran que el rea clast como porcentaje de la superficie total se puede
utilizar como sustituto de la teselacin clast ( Figura 4 b) aunque es importante
recordar que este espectro de textura es variable. Por lo tanto, el uso deWoodcock
y Mort (2008) sistema de clasificacin de rocas de falla, brecha de defecto se
define por tener al menos el 30% de sus siendo volumen clastos de ms
de 2 mm de dimetro y se puede subdividir an ms en el espectro de
brecha crujido-mosaico catico que corresponde aproximadamente a
grande (> 2 mm) porcentajes clast de 75% y 60% .
Figura 5. Modelo conceptual de una zona de falla que muestra la ubicacin de rock falla en
profundidad desde Sibson (1977)
describe
porSibson
incluye cizallamiento
frgil de
cataclstica
distribuida
de
trituracin . Cataclstica
brechamiento
de
trota
antidilational
para
producir
un
microbreccia
sin
ms
penetrante
medida
que
aumenta
la
presin
de
sobrecarga
combinado
con
la
presencia
comn
de
minerales
fluido son, por tanto, ntimamente ligados al ciclo terremoto como ciclos de presin
de
fluido
afecta
comportamiento
de
las
fallas
la
fuerza
( Sibson,
Figura 10. migracin de fluidos segn el modelo de la vlvula falla ( Sibson, 1990 ) con (a) las
grandes diferencias de presin de fluido en la fase inter, (b) hacia arriba de descarga despus de
un sismo de fluidos
Caine et al. (1996) mostraron que el porcentaje de rocas de falla, brechas de fallo
incluye, en total anchura de fallo en relacin con el porcentaje de estructuras de
dao (por ejemplo, fallas, fracturas, venas) se pueden utilizar para
cualitativamente el flujo de fluido modelo en y alrededor de las zonas de falla. El
esquema de Caine indica que bien desarrollado rocas de falla sin estructuras de
daos bien desarrollados actan como una barrera al flujo de fluido, sino como un
conducto de barrera en la presencia de estructuras grandes daos ( Figura
11 ). Gudmundsson (2001) reafirma la idea de que los fallos pueden actuar como
barreras o conducto barreras en pequeas fallas con ncleos de brechas y
demuestra que las brechas de falla actan como barreras para el flujo de agua
subterrnea vertical. Adems, como el grosor de brecha vara a lo largo de fallos
acta para canal de fluido a lo largo de la falla y en el muro inferior en zonas de
brecha delgadas que permiten ms profundo del flujo de la corteza ( Figura 12 ) o
puede localmente trampa migrar hacia arriba fluidos cada vez mayores gradientes
de presin de fluido a travs de la falla. Espesor de brechas, y las fluctuaciones en
el espesor de brecha, por lo tanto, tendrn un impacto significativo en el sistema
de aguas subterrneas en torno a la culpa.
Figura 11. Falla estructuras zona de permeabilidad y atributos asociados de Caine et al. (1996)
Figura 12. Modelo esquemtico de la interaccin entre brecha fallo y flujo de agua subterrnea
en la vecindad de la falla de Gudmundsson (2001)
Varias
personas,
incluyendo Sibson
(1996) , Micklethwaite
Cox
(2004) ,
cierre
entre
ssmica
endurecimiento
de
la
brecha
haciendo
tarde
un
ciclo
de
sistemas
de
fluido
cerrada
abierta
Figura 14. Modelo esquemtico de la evolucin zona de cizalla durante la cizalla capa paralela a
lo largo de la falla Talhof. (a) Formacin de distintas juntas transversales a altos ngulos a los
planos de estratificacin / foliacin pre-existentes. (b) Formacin de rebanadas-conjuntos
delimitada, la rotacin de las rebanadas, la reactivacin de las articulaciones como tijeras con
desplazamiento antittica, y formacin de juntas secundarias en las puntas y las partes internas
de las rebanadas. La ampliacin de la zona de la falla es inhibida por esfuerzos de compresin
externas a altos ngulos en el lmite de la zona de cizalla, estilolites se forman en ngulos bajos
en el lmite de la zona de cizalla, perpendicular a la orientacin de mxima tensin principal. (c)