Composite Materials

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
What are the classes and types of composites?
What are the advantages of using composite materials?
How do we predict the stiffness and strength of the various types
of composites?

Chapter 16 - 1

Composite
Combination of two or more individual
materials
Design goal: obtain a more desirable
combination of properties (principle of
combined action)
e.g., low density and high strength

Chapter 16 - 2

Terminology/Classification
Composite:
-- Multiphase material that is artificially
made.

Phase types:
-- Matrix - is continuous
-- Dispersed - is discontinuous and
surrounded by matrix

Adapted from Fig. 16.1(a),

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 16 - 3

Terminology/Classification
Matrix phase:

woven
fibers

-- Functions are to:

- transfer stress to dispersed phase
- protect dispersed phase from
environment
- separates the dispersed phase and
prevent propagation of cracks

-- Types:

MMC, CMC, PMC

metal

ceramic

cross

polymer

Dispersed phase:
-- Function:
MMC: increase sy, TS, creep resist.
CMC: increase fracture toughness, KIc
PMC: increase E, sy, TS, creep resist.

-- Types: particle, fiber, structural

Chapter 16 - 4

Classification of Composites
Adapted from Fig. 16.2,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 16 - 5

Classification: Particle-Reinforced
Particle-reinforced

Fiber-reinforced

Structural

Particles usually reinforce a composite equally in all

directions (called isotropic). Plastics, cermets and metals
are examples of particles.

The particulates can be very small particles (<0.25

microns), chopped fibres (eg. glass), platelets, hollow
spheres, or new materials (eg. carbon nanotubes).
Subclass of particle-reinforced composites
Large particles
Dispersion-strengthened
Chapter 16 - 6

Large Particle Composite

Examples:
- Spheroidite matrix:
ferrite (a)
steel
(ductile)

60 mm

- WC/Co
cemented
carbide

matrix:
cobalt
(ductile,
tough)
:

particles:
cementite
(Fe C)
3
(brittle)

Adapted from Fig.

10.19, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e. (Fig.
10.19 is copyright
United States Steel
Corporation, 1971.)

particles:
WC
(brittle,
hard)

Adapted from Fig.

16.4, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e. (Fig.
16.4 is courtesy
Carboloy Systems,
Department, General
Electric Company.)

600 mm

- Automobile matrix:
tire rubber rubber

(compliant)
0.75 mm

particles:
carbon
black
(stiff)

Adapted from Fig.

16.5, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e. (Fig.
16.5 is courtesy
Goodyear Tire and
Rubber Company.)
Chapter 16 - 7

Large Particle Composite

Concrete gravel + sand (the particulates) + cement (matrix)
+ water
- Why sand and gravel?

Sand fills voids between gravel particles

Reinforced concrete Reinforce with steel rebar or remesh

- increases strength - even if cement matrix is cracked

Chapter 16 -

Prestressed concrete
- Rebar/remesh placed under tension during
setting of concrete
- Release of tension after setting places
concrete in a state of compression
- To fracture concrete, applied tensile
stress must exceed this compressive
stress

Post-tensioning tighten nuts to place concrete under compression

9

threaded
rod
nut

Chapter 16 - 9

 Elastic modulus, Ec, of composites:

-- two rule of mixture extremes:

upper limit: Ec = Vm Em + Vp Ep
E(GPa)
350
Data:
Cu matrix 30 0
w/tungsten 250
particles
20 0
150
0

lower limit:
1 Vm Vp
=
+
Ec Em Ep
20 40 60 80

(Cu)

Adapted from Fig. 16.3,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
(Fig. 16.3 is from R.H.
Krock, ASTM Proc, Vol.
63, 1963.)

10 0 vol% tungsten

(W)

Application to other properties:

-- Electrical conductivity, se: Replace Es in equations with ses.

-- Thermal conductivity, k: Replace Es in equations with ks.
Chapter 16 - 10

Dispersion Strengthened Composite

The particles are normally much smaller, with diameters
between 10 and 100 nm, the strengthening occurs at the
atomic level.
The dispersed phase may be metallic or nonmetallic, oxide
materials are often used.
The mechanism of strengthening is similar to that for
precipitation hardening.

The matrix bears the major portion of applied load, the small
dispersed particles hinder or impede the motion of
dislocations.
Chapter 16 - 11

Classification: Fiber-Reinforced
Particle-reinforced

Fiber-reinforced

Structural

Fibers very strong in tension

Provide significant strength improvement to the
composite
Ex: fiber-glass - continuous glass filaments in a
polymer matrix
Glass fibers
strength and stiffness

Polymer matrix
holds fibers in place
protects fiber surfaces
transfers load to fibers

Chapter 16 - 12

Fiber Types
Whiskers - thin single crystals - large length to diameter ratios
graphite, silicon nitride, silicon carbide
high crystal perfection extremely strong, strongest known
very expensive and difficult to disperse
Fibers
small diameter
polycrystalline or amorphous
generally polymers or ceramics
Ex: alumina, aramid, E-glass, boron,
UHMWPE

Wires
relatively large diameters
metals steel, molybdenum, tungsten
Chapter 16 - 13

Critical Fiber Length

Critical fiber length for effective stiffening & strengthening:
fiber ultimate tensile strength

sfd
critical fiber length
2 c

fiber diameter

shear strength of
fiber-matrix interface

Ex: For fiberglass, common fiber length > 15 mm needed

For longer fibers, stress transference from matrix is more efficient
Short, thick fibers:

sfd
fiber length 15
2 c

Low fiber efficiency

Long, thin fibers:

sfd
fiber length 15
2 c

High fiber efficiency

14
Chapter 16 -

Longitudinal
direction

Fiber Alignment
Adapted from Fig. 16.8,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Transverse
direction

aligned
continuous

aligned
random
discontinuous
Chapter 16 - 15

Aligned Continuous fibers

Examples:
-- Metal: g'(Ni3Al)-a(Mo)

-- Ceramic: Glass w/SiC fibers

by eutectic solidification.

formed by glass slurry

Eglass = 76 GPa; ESiC = 400 GPa.

matrix: a (Mo) (ductile)

(a)

2 mm

fibers: g (Ni3Al) (brittle)

From W. Funk and E. Blank, Creep
deformation of Ni3Al-Mo in-situ composites",
Metall. Trans. A Vol. 19(4), pp. 987-998,
1988. Used with permission.

(b)

fracture
surface
From F.L. Matthews and R.L.
Rawlings, Composite Materials;
Engineering and Science, Reprint
ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL,
2000. (a) Fig. 4.22, p. 145 (photo by
J. Davies); (b) Fig. 11.20, p. 349
(micrograph by H.S. Kim, P.S.
Rodgers, and R.D. Rawlings). Used
with permission of CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Chapter 16 - 16

Discontinuous fibers, random in 2 dimensions

Example: Carbon-Carbon
-- fabrication process:
- carbon fibers embedded
in polymer resin matrix,
- polymer resin pyrolyzed
at up to 2500C.
-- uses: disk brakes, gas
turbine exhaust flaps,
missile nose cones.

C fibers:
very stiff
very strong
(b)

(a)

C matrix:
less stiff
view onto plane less strong
500 mm

fibers lie
in plane

Other possibilities:
-- Discontinuous, random 3D
-- Discontinuous, aligned

Adapted from F.L. Matthews and R.L. Rawlings,

Composite Materials; Engineering and Science,
Reprint ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2000.
(a) Fig. 4.24(a), p. 151; (b) Fig. 4.24(b) p. 151.
(Courtesy I.J. Davies) Reproduced with
permission of CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Chapter 16 - 17

Composite Stiffness:
Longitudinal Loading
Continuous fibers - Estimate fiber-reinforced composite
modulus of elasticity for continuous fibers
Longitudinal deformation

c = mVm + fVf
volume fraction

Ecl = EmVm + Ef Vf

and

ec = em = ef
isostrain

Ecl = longitudinal modulus

c = composite
f = fiber
m = matrix
Chapter 16 - 18

Composite Stiffness:
Transverse Loading
In transverse loading the fibers carry less of the load
ec= emVm + efVf

and

1 Vm Vf
=
+
Ect Em Ef

EmEf
Ect =
VmEf + Vf Em

c = m = f =
isostress

Ect = transverse modulus

c = composite
f = fiber
m = matrix
Chapter 16 - 19

Composite Stiffness
Particle-reinforced

Fiber-reinforced

Structural

Estimate of Ecd for discontinuous fibers:

-- valid when fiber length <
-- Elastic modulus in fiber direction:

Ecd = EmVm + KEfVf

efficiency factor:
-- aligned:
-- aligned:
-- random 2D:
-- random 3D:

K = 1 (aligned parallel)
K = 0 (aligned perpendicular)
K = 3/8 (2D isotropy)
K = 1/5 (3D isotropy)

Table 16.3, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

(Source is H. Krenchel, Fibre Reinforcement,
Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag, 1964.)

Chapter 16 - 20

Composite Production Methods (i)

Pultrusion

Continuous fibers pulled through resin tank to impregnate fibers with

thermosetting resin
Impregnated fibers pass through steel die that preforms to the desired shape
Preformed stock passes through a curing die that is
precision machined to impart final shape
heated to initiate curing of the resin matrix

Fig. 16.13, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 16 -

Composite Production Methods (ii)

Hand lay-up process:
Gel coat is applied to open mold.
Fiberglass reinforcement is placed
in the mold.
Base resin mixed with catalysts is
applied by pouring brushing or
spraying.

Spray-up process:
Continuous strand roving is fed by
chopper and spray gun and chopped
roving and catalyst resin is deposited in
the mold.

22
Chapter 16 -

Composite Production Methods (iii)

Filament Winding
Continuous reinforcing fibers are accurately positioned in a predetermined
pattern to form a hollow (usually cylindrical) shape
Fibers are fed through a resin bath to impregnate with thermosetting resin
Impregnated fibers are continuously wound (typically automatically) onto a
mandrel
After appropriate number of layers added, curing is carried out either in an
oven or at room temperature
The mandrel is removed to give the final product
Adapted from Fig. 16.15, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
[Fig. 16.15 is from N. L. Hancox, (Editor), Fibre
Composite Hybrid Materials, The Macmillan
Company, New York, 1981.]

Chapter 16 -

Classification: Structural
Particle-reinforced

Fiber-reinforced

Structural

Laminates -- a series of sheets or panels, each of which has a preferred

high strength direction. These sheets are stacked and then
cemented together such that the orientation of the highstrength direction varies from layer to layer
-- stacking sequence: e.g., 0/90
-- main reason: constructed in order to have a relatively high
strength in virtually all directions within
the plane of the laminate.
Adapted from
Fig. 16.16,
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 16 - 24

Classification: Structural
Particle-reinforced

Fiber-reinforced

Structural

Sandwich panels
-- consist of two outer face sheets of a high-strength material that
are separated by a layer of a less-dense and lower-strength core
material.
-- main reason: produce structures having high in-plane strengths,
high shear rigidities, and low densities.
face sheet
adhesive layer
honeycomb
Adapted from Fig. 16.18,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
(Fig. 16.18 is from Engineered Materials
Handbook, Vol. 1, Composites, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1987.)
Chapter 16 - 25

Composite Benefits
CMCs: Increased toughness
Force

PMCs: Increased E/r

10

particle-reinf

E(GPa)
10

ceramics

3
2

PMCs

10

fiber-reinf

metal/
metal alloys

un-reinf

0.1

polymers

0.01
0.1 0.3

Bend displacement

MMCs:

Increased
creep
resistance

10 30

Density, r [mg/m3]

10 -4

ess (s-1)

6061 Al

10 -6

10 -8

6061 Al
w/SiC
whiskers

10 -10
20 30 50

Adapted from T.G. Nieh, "Creep rupture of a

silicon-carbide reinforced aluminum
composite", Metall. Trans. A Vol. 15(1), pp.
139-146, 1984. Used with permission.

s(MPa)
100 200

Chapter 16 - 26

Applications of Composite Materials

1. Automobile industries (e.g. steel & Al body)
2. Marine applications like shafts, hull, spars (for racing boats)
3. Aeronautical applications like components of rockets, aircraft
(business and military), missiles etc.
4. Communication antennae, electronic circuit board (e.g. PCK,
breadboard)
5. Safety equipment like ballistic protection and car airbags

Chapter 16 - 27

Composites in Aerospace

Chapter 16 - 28

Summary
Composites types are designated by:
-- the matrix material (CMC, MMC, PMC)
-- the reinforcement (particles, fibers, structural)

Composite property benefits:

-- MMC: enhanced E, s, creep performance

-- CMC: enhanced KIc
-- PMC: enhanced E/r, sy, TS/r

Particulate-reinforced:
-- Types: large-particle and dispersion-strengthened
-- Properties are isotropic

Fiber-reinforced:
-- Types: continuous (aligned)
discontinuous (aligned or random)
-- Properties can be isotropic or anisotropic

Structural:
-- Laminates and sandwich panels
Chapter 16 - 29