Sie sind auf Seite 1von 532

GL^z

] **
Z

}p

13-1

)l

71-14

[ !*

14 { ^
,Y]g @*
-Z :BbgzZ<
q
:<
gzZbh
+]
.
15

w q
-Z :# bgzZ G

15

]~{y**
- ::
L wZzi|

20

Z <
:g y

20

BV ZP:]Ib

20

] xUg G0x Zzi M}i

21

? GgzZnzw}i

22

G:s Z%k
B ]:` V- g F

29

Zp]gm Gwg ZD
z

30

M %**

- G

30

G: ykZwDzc =

31

4Z ] !*
bh
+]
.: Zi M] G
5G3E

31

$ g @*
d
:[f

31

Z}
.' Z}
.

32
32

iq
Z xsZgzZZ |
E
"
56,
B] c*

kZgzZ G

46

! :e**
& zh
+ F,
` u

48

[ zZ~* :]c*
6Z M

50

GG3E
4E
?g

c*
:b

61

Z VzIe
$h
+]
.:
M %gzZb! f

62

$+F,
d
u \ g @*
$h
d
+]
.

67

}z]Z W,Z :tC1]


.

153-72

[!*
Zuz

72

?yZb c*
N CIe
$h
+]
.? Hb

74

7 D~zb
b

75

6,Vzi Z0
+ZgzZ] zG^ b

82

: Yq
-Z zcb

84

s Z Z .
$ :g**
gzZe
$z=

85

tzgd)q
-Z :}<
DT

86
86

}:7bc*
gy!*
ib
G
GG3.-8}
D{ Dz

91

@*
xw~D` uLZC

91

D` uZzbgzZ<

92 bwJ<
u
Z z<
q
-Z~}uz`uq
-Z:b
93

7e**
} ): i Z}

93

Z9:7~qZ 'Dbs

94

tzg)**
~
.Z }5 oZz

95

!*
i}M |b

100
103

g y: b q tlI
H
#
-E
4

gzZ
Z:[ zZ~* ] G
5G3E

108

egJ
-s ZskZj

109

&**
" zpLE
5G
w OE
|

11 0

,e
$f Z D - **
-

111

Zg fgzZwQ :c|

1 12

]gz$;f )a<
q

113

tq
-Z Zgz ]zGb

11 4

kZ7lC :~,zg VZ

11 6
118

|
M %Y VzIe
$h
+]
.
6,
yzkb

120

^|7|bh
+]
.

121

e)g f
g gJ
-|

121

$ :7e'Y|
.

122

76,|s Z Z| z

123

+ F,
h
Z & kZb

1 26

Z9:7Dzcb

229-154

[!*
Z

154

o Z EN{ Ze :{o .
HZ e & **
Z f[
EG
g{ Ze: G3$ c*
& )g fbh
+]
.yW

1 66

170

s **
^" `g

171

4E
5#AzZ h W
& **
Z f :7EG
=

176

? :V*
Kt WzZ

182

^zg ~(,

~]{@x:0
+
iih
+]
.

188

kZgzZ {E
+iZ%:y M

189

y M
:fgZz%J
-Za g Z`Z

193

bh
+]
.gzZy
KZ

202

?u 0*
V!Vz :bgzZyW

206

y q
-Z :]~Vb

212

:}u **
:{o .
H@z

212

~lWr
# & **
:nZ Z .
HZ e

214

]gzZy M

217

- <
J
[ Z :wq]g:xsZ

219

7y M
:f iZ%g Z<D

222

yW
]
.|kZ H : 0*
Zg Z0
+YC

223

{ Zer
# & **
:g ZZ6, s p~ | W
2 zG
t

226

$
0: e<
qJb H
4
k Z G3EZ uh
+]
.

229

Z t

237-230

[ !*
a

230

{^
,Yq
-Z :& **
Z f h

230

bgzZy M

224

231

$Wq
e
-Z6,
yW
}g7:@Z r
# & **

235

$ ZZ Z**
e
K:yW

235

G-4
& **
Z f :gG
Z e Z%
ZI Z L Lb Z W

262-238

[!*
VZv0*

238

{zt:b& *
* Z f :~gK-

239

bh
+]
.:xs Z :] gzZ] i M

240

? H~gBig BanggzZtC*

241

K- :] %)c*
%:]*D

241

& : Z]
.zD

242

K-gzZ]:k Z ]*h
+]
.

246

{ ] c*
h
+]
.z * : K -

26 1

?[gV Z}
.!*
yZb h
+]
. H

264 -263

[!*

26 3

{g e @c*
~
/c :xsZ

26 3

?c_yW
:] W6,yuyc*
Zx

271-265

[!*
VZ

26 5

t &Zp~xsZ

26 5

/Zz**
b Z e
$h
+]
.

26 6

~a#! fh
+]
.:e
$h
+]
.

268

~g Z **
[f:
c*
gg:xsZ

26 9

$ ZZgzZs zZm{ :e
e
$h
+]
.

287-272

[!*
VZ^W

272

t ]g~xsZ

272

g
Zp]gm:b6,
i 5]g
#

274

q~g !*
zg ]g

275

4Z z
7eu Z Z~] G
5G3E

276


g :{ .Zd ]
Z0` Zzi Z x Z/

277

s Zg Zq
-Z

278

yW
gzZ Z',
ug/]g

280

b [r
# & **
6,
W: { Z',
u]g

283

b&5& **
Z f :[ NZ kJZ

285

wZ]]:{ o

285

x Z kZgzZ? :~
%:VH

286

D:iVggzZg yyZ0
+{

294-288

[!*
VZ

288

t (]g~xsZ

291

g (ZgzZ h ~i y :]g

348-295

[!*
VZ

295

$e
e
$g/gzZr
# & *
* Z f

295

vZ f :VZx Zz ^zzVgv
Zwg

297

xyZ xsZ :t Vg

298

Z% Z %

299

I0
+
iw y]g

301

]Zz)]ggzZ%

302

xg6,]]g Zz
3C
!*
y

303

+F,
x:x ZgZwy:]g

304

g ],Z%gzZ]g:yW

310

Hg ],Z Z Z :%gzZ]g

312

Z<
L EZ :FZ *gZ ]g

313

XgzuV'Zzgx :zx

315

Zt x

316

nq
-Z t x
:b

317

]c*
Z@ M
J
-t : s %Zyxg~Vx

318

it :~] q ]Z

319

xi b :5Z Z$

323

2Z z] c*
Z@sZ0zuf

325

p zk0*
%zx gzZg yZ0
+{ :zuf

327

}] Z W,Z|:w+ Z6,e
$g/:& *
* Z f

327

?q
-Ze
$g/gzZ]gzxH

328

gzZx|Wz:e
$g/

328

~g Z 0*
e
$/:^m,

329

p zk0*
g ZZ ~g/L L:y

329

6, e
$g/L L:LZu ZyZg Zu

330
330

t zg ~g/L L:y]|
X
P-4Z',Z]|

~g/L LY Z e~z!g **
: G

330

~g/L gLzZ ]|x

331

Mg6,
e
$g/L L~3z

332

x Z Z
~g/L L:y

333

}~
.Z }6,
C] b

333

]o} :gzZe
$g/:Y 

333

s % Z[ x

I:I6,
46,
u*%{

334

s % Z[ x

I~uz :[Z

334

s % Z[ x

I~:?kyzg ;gzZ .]|

335

.~iz0
]
+Z {f :x?Zm- ]|

336

? qe
$g/r
# & *
* Z f

337

s Z@Zz:e
$g/

342

w [people]g/~e
$g/

345

zq

-ZV1:e
$g/gzZt ~
C

[ !*
VZg
H

385-349
349

` Z'
gzZV5[

381

}u **
:s ZZ & ~t]

[ !*
VZg !*

466-386

:]Ye
386
422
449

]%epZX} Z c !Nb,
Sciencey*Zg Mc Claude Alvares

]*Z/C
6,
zs Z@Zb

Seeking New Laws of Nature:y*}M 6


,
|b

% igzZ;*
% iv
TLG
@LG

: *qZ $
e+
h.
]gzZxsZ

xsZ ;gz - Z Z Ig .,f *Zszcy 0*


ZgZ e
y%gzZZ6,z! fg Z LZ\ W Cc*
sZg .gzZ !*
W
V6&NgzZ6f +4KZr
# Z e t ceu Zg Z kZ Z
/x
p yZ Official zyZ D
s~ z z! f
gzZ xsZ VU ZyZ
]
g Nr
# Z e ~ V',k
/
sZxE{ z s Z ZpQ6,T ;g*gzZW~ ` u: g Z sZ
Z + { z (7h6,gdQ s Z Z kZ n
pg 7
_ Vzk
,
r
# Z eX ,
){ $g" 6,]**
Z~ NZgzZ
z y!*
i! {z 7ZgzZ: Zr_yZ6,VUZxsZ @*
Y Zz
X 7g
Zg Z',yZJ
-g rsZ ~
C
) !*
TZz**
[ Z
~Vzk
,
KZr
# Z e6,gx X ~y!*
i! Z~
C6,kZ {z6,]**
Z
:_
ZgZ',Z
+zg Z sZgzZxsZX D{ .Z ~
. Zg}
[pyZ X g D ] Z gzZ x Z o Z ,k
,
r
# Z e
) !*
N
h
6,] gzZ g" ?!*
{z @*
Y HtZ
# Vzk
,
~ Zc]g
X CZ f ZtV
rgyZZ6,Z}
.~ **
t yZ }X CxEN{ ZeZ
c*
yZZ6,T {z 7~gzt ayZZ 0I**
zI y
KZ
~ pq
-Z Tg 7g Z
',~
q -Z KZ L<
Zt c*
X B
bg z ;g Y
E:Aamer \23072011Zafar\Intro1

GE
4O]t c*
kZ 7x w )gzZu Zz +
X 7 Cw<

~g7 i *gzZ gzZX g mZ q
-Z~ Vzk
,
ZgZ e ] %z ]Zg b
x Zi%p 7g a+ y
KZ [xY m
CZgzZ + vZxyW
J
I
" _
.~q
-Z r
# Z eJ, Z @*
Zgz!*
xsZ XL3WgzZ wg L ^ c*
Z
Z e Vx
/
ux t X V;Zp Zgz!*
sZ w zg ~, L L
X ag DWZ zg Zr
#
%i
w+ Z ~
. D u ]zg Zr
# ZgZ e~[ {LG
yZgzZX
HH7*WsZ){1: N yZ6,e
$ZzgsZ `
o
x x',g !*
ZgZ e~ T xsZgzZ Z zg i *L L
+zg ZsZ ~
Z
C~ c*

)gzZ e
$.VzIe
$h
+]
.
X
H1{ ^
,Yiq
-Z ]2] Z Z] Z VZ6,gZ gzZ ~ ZgzZ
:z:b)~P xsZ 2
Z e ~ [ kZ [ {g Z z ] Z gZ e [t
T H~ Zc: t ZgzZ e
$.g Z ]sZ)LZ r
#
myZ xE: p n
pg6,] v xE DL X3Z {zgzZ Mg x
) !*
~zg !*
w6,d
$gzZ y Z
+g Z sZ xsZ ~ [ kZ yZ Zz
xgzZ]+ Z [VA: bTZgZ eX: egJ
-Vu
kZX Hs B;6,
sZzu
c*
g]y
Wkz Z}
. q )Zg
$uyW
~[|Z
h V gzZ xsZ [ &~g X c*
g
q
-Z
L L[ kZ
b}gtda wZjZ b & ZgzZ " _
. Zp Z ~
Q
HHg Z gzZ}osZq
-Zq
-Z~[|Z: ~[kZq
E
}O!q
- [ kZ
Hc*
Z h Z5 x sZL LxsZ
Hc*
ep"
d qgzZ]g Zr
% iq
/I
kZy ZkZ~ G
# Z e~Qk
,
LG
E:Aamer \23072011Zafar\Intro2

eg J
-}n Z r
# ZgZ e} VzI e
$h
+]
. _
X n
?VY *
!yZZ,
6Y (gzZb: Zg Ztu 3
h S~g ZtugzZ Y (b { ^
,Y q
-Z Vz h
+]
.gzZ Zzg
b~Vz ~,,vp !* c*
VV *h
+]
.
4Z 5q
~ b Z& H ( ~ ] G
5G3E
-Z \ 5 ugzZ Y (
y 46,]gzZ ~I e
$ Z @*Y Scientism c*
Techno-Science
Y (=g f/bh
+]
.kZX c*
e~zr~ !*
',
gzZ n * kZ
i aTX agVZ
/
u~~ F,
(,u qz u F,

C
c*
consumer society} a Zy
T marketLg (g
] c o n s t a n t c o n s u m p t i o n swM i T
gT X z W Utilitarianism46,{ WgzZ Hedonism46,
f(,
gg F,
Y (gzZbg Q Y ` @*
Z swMn ] {
X YCe~^F,Wz~ Zi Wy
KZgzZ Y
:_qZ $
eZzgy
{ 4
Y
H
E4g + hZz kZgzZ e
4&Z VWsB
EG
V 3G
$Zzg y{

?e
$h+]
.c*
y)F,e
$Zzge
$Zzg {
_q
-Z g ZJ
-@
:{ ,
^ YVz,
^ Y:[ Z#QZzi 5
~g Y csgzZ )6,wZziz `zV ~
/
wZzi *h!N#
Q
H1 { ^
,Y ] !*
kZ~ T g mZ q
-Z ] gzZ

Hc*
et s wZzigz V ~ V- yZ ?GH[Z Zz
-
4):XG
{z a kZ H[ g Z Z
/
zg q k, gzZ w G
xE V
Z
/zggzZ nZ sV
/
u[KZ y
/ZX g D g !*
Zz wZzi
E:Aamer \23072011Zafar\Intro3

V- #
ZZzi @*
g z0*
4L LxsZ b[f` W D: >%

{^
,Y ]g @*
)Zq
-Z C
bzg U*
WwZZ gzZ ib~xsZ L ~ K
\
xZX Y (gzZbsgzZ s
! xgzZ WZ L Z F,
GL!Z ` W
Xg D qV1i0
) !*
:#
t I~ C
P s 6
GE
4O]z yW
gzZ Z
g gzZ K: e ~
. D uBgzZ s H
/Z ? Z 7 sB>p* C

b: 5 L L{ Ze H ?

+$ZxsZ L Dw+**
+]
h
. 6 Ze~(,Zs
ze
$ PgzZ {"
$U*
)R) H ?g DVY s[ ^
OZ CZ gzZ
PyZ c*
M
hY ZIx ZZ gB
) !*
` Zg0
+Z ~ V1: 5 #
Z
L
L ~ V1 g
$u bT YY H g w Q ]c*
z ] Z
E
G
!

gwZ Z / W - ) L L ~ V1 }gzZ f
L L ~ V1 ]P
z q
? s ` Zcg Z kZgzZ w] Zz q
- 4,
B H ? @*
Y c*

GG3E
4!*
%gzZ
B H ? Bw'gzZ ^
,Y^C
q t :Z Zx ZBx H
0*
',V;B(W, Zz Y~6,f iz~ yZ c*
g W,
O
h Wx **
sL LH ? x **
gp gzZ nZ *ZsH ?
Z }g7 kZ gzZ [z4gzZ ] }
.B 7"
$U*
g
$u z yW
t
~}gzZ g
$u yW
H ?tzgd
g *g Z Institution }g Z
DwEZ + L L]Zg y +**
q "
$U*
g
$uz yW
] q Z x
HwEZ]q Z {
z $zY  V
KZ yZasg Z
zF,
]$
+z uBx J
-
U*
Z ~
Z ]| H ? @*
Y
+ g H ? Z gL L<
gzZ + ~i Z L LgzZ Zz
GE
4O]z [
ssZ) ? 3k ~
CgzZ ,a
kZ c*
{ Zg ~i Z
E:Aamer \23072011Zafar\Intro4

# ZqgzZ
# Zq +**
ZgzZ* !*
z!*
] ZWF,
x KZ E
LE
E
LE
+F,
+
h
# Zq ? H: VYgst :Z
s yZ ' x~}g !*

E
LE
] Z ZgzZ FbkZgzZt $
Y7~]oZz s
*i]ZW: Z0
+h
+]
.6,szB] Z|gzZ]!*
Z ] 2] Z Z
gzZ zDbax **
+BgzZs~]Z ZgzZ]ZWyZ
$
X
HHyp $c*

E+G
?YS,
7sZ L g *
@ 7
E
E
+
+
G
G
" kZ6,sZ L g @*
LZ
LG
? H~ IwZsZ L g @*
_
E

/
%ZL L~Z KZ ` u}?K Za i Z0
+Z Z._` uz wZ LZ

M L X3Z c*
o z yZZ/
vZ**
V yZgzZ
` ug @*
u**
@',
kZX xsZ ` ZcgzZyZZ 0%i B/

" k Vzt X m,
L L**
!*
**
@*Zg7 Z',z b LZ LZ
LG
/Z L L~ g

E
^gzZZ8 }pV7 w+ Z uyZX D
7B V Zj
" kVzyZ
]| g @*
Z
` u Yg { L Lq
-ZB
LG
E
GE
4O]L 3X.
z
W!*
}x yZ Z96,xsZzyZZVz t
z]|gzZ
B zmvZ -vZ wg {z
/c*
,
/
%wg L L g @*
z D` u
))
GE
4O] L X3Z {z g Gz yZZ
]g @*
V; yZ X ggzZ x H klq
- 4,

: e gzZg Z Z kz 7Kp6,g Z zg Z
M L X3Z z/] c*
Zzg
~
L X3ZbcgzZ/
M
bc @*
YY76,

C] c*
Zzg]g @*

M L X3ZgzZ/V
GE
4O]zyW
q
-Z @*
YH*] c*
Zzg]g @*
~yZZ6,
] %Zz

Za o Kz Z 8 Z
+zg Z LZ LZZz ]g @*
X cS6,
] **
ZyZ~[ kZX @*

:#
t I~ C
P:g ZZzg Z! f:[fgzZxsZX 8
E:Aamer \23072011Zafar\Intro5

Vg WgzZ x xt c*
? 5Z'q
-Z Z% kZ H ? H[f
V! f) p"zu 5Z'[f T x **
Zz x o1%q
-Z
!)zb
~
CkZX 1 E3E
CZ~ Yq
- g ZgzZ gq
- g ZZ LZ
& 4ZyZX ] Zz)gzZ F,
zMy
KZy
KZg[f6,
CI
0WI
~ Zi WwZ
~g Upy
KZi egzZ 6,g ] Z!*
gzZ
~gza kZ ] Zz)gzZ ~ Zi WX ]Zz))i ~g Up ~96,e
$
:
g g ZZzg Z! fp n F,
{ c*
i { c*
iy
KZ @*

| Q ` W[fq
- 4,
+b { 14e
$.}g
) !*
wpwxs ZI b & Zq
-~g @*
V gzZxs Zg Z T x **
[fgzZ xsZ J
-Z +t }g X ;g @*
~ ]g Vl L L
V ` W|p
/Z sz^~h
+ F,
|~ K}Iyxg
gzZ Z kZ
/
u xq
-Zh
+ F,
kZa kZ sz^~ Vi s
d
$z! f ` WX 7]g |g Z ! f ` Wp7g Z wz
$h
+]
. qz y**
- *g ZZx gzZg Z {z : Z%
gzZ [ Modernism ] e
x Z x{LZg~ ]g [ Post Modernism ] e
$h
+]
.
&
7pwxsZ |s O? ~ T g Z Z}
.6,g[f ` W
kz
g Z}
.6,R~g ZZgzZ ~daV
KZgzh
+]
. [fkZ
L LkZp
/ZX _bZ~[f[Z|X c*
p" J
-u&5]y
ZgzZ
] d
$g ZZg ZX W,)gzZwd)u Zu{zp wq @*
z
yZx~ ^ [ Capitalism ] ~g Ztu L L e
$h
+]
.L(
L C

c*
g#

a +
M
KZ46,] gzZ 46,* kZX R,
g e t
KZ ~
C gZ L LT
%Ne
x kZ c*
4Z~C
0
+
i} ],Z LZ !*
gzZF
$.
V S{z
/
gzZ
C
Zzpg6,kzgzZ <
Z}
.**
C
ZZ}g7
E:Aamer \23072011Zafar\Intro6

{
zmvZ -vZwg ugzZ+F,
+gz kZt ~g Z)f
$
x
ZgZ',C
n#

c*
g] t Zg ZZ ` Z'
+
ogzZ
g~ iG
L .7k
B s [fgzZt
# I~
CyZ~[ kZ
X y
K

z ~ Z }g Z Z Soft Copy B8 ~ Z @', [


o: yZ`
@*ZX g Y
6,7 e
$.[ X YY Hq
E
E
|
M
{
tzg /c Z )f}g Z Z ay
u Z e Y c*
{s
g[ 2Zg Z
Nawadrat@yahoo.com

9 zg 150$Zgi
**

E:Aamer \23072011Zafar\Intro7

:<gzZb+
h.
]

[*
!

:<
gzZbh
+]
.
{^
,Y]g @*
-Z :BbgzZ<
q

<
~{gzZb,J
-~,gG [280 BC] x:t 280
yj}i6,g<
~{gzZb **
- y**
- a#X }i q )Z
E
"
56,
0kZ wgZD
z [Copernican Revolution] [zZ G
X b
& **
ZfgzZ q )Z @ZVbgzZ<
6,
TZgzZ.
g@*
wgZD
zX c*
wZ|k^kZ |k^L L~b Z r
#
@N*c*
kcVZ b I |g**
kZ }I^gzZ gZ " DgzZ
]Z@xzc*
,ZgzZ]!*
CMc*
g0l
/}i[Ptolemy]
kZ~
<
w0
+egzZ `g%Z ]
/
%t }i H"
$U*
gzZ d Geocentric Theory @N*
@*
C {@x
KZ X H
ig al
TgZ 7kZc*
Ygr H&gi6,gCMc*
g
H

k
4
5
[Saint Augustine, Anselm & k**
r Z Z EG M [Church Fathers]
~{
kZgzZ [g kZ : I {)z Aquinas]
6,}i x?Zm}]|~ GIZX }Wg$j}i x
}i ,TgZgzZbgy**
- X ]
/
% ]okZwz4,
[Theory
wtTgZJ
-wgZD
zX @*
J
-Z
wtTgZX
/
%
E
"
5

G
wHEgzZC3 [Copernicus] 6,

p
HHt~ * of Motion]
[Theory of sZt 6Z W wz
wgt X c*
*g *
X
H1wJ~* bgZ
wgzZ c*
Relativity]
14~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]

:w qZ :# bgzZ G
P % _r b g@*
+I e
$h
+]
.6,gx
X
Hx ~bgzZ G~ ~,, D Zgz!*
t x ZYZg
t |Z x ZZgzZ!*
t Zx **
+<
$
kZ b G
gzZ [ ]Z NZ ~{gzZ ]xI ~ gzZ b y G
, yb;g J
-w{gVZB!xe
$.t ;g7]
E
"

5
G
z d 6,
Gg {Z_}uz q
-Zx/ xJ
-V- F<
~{
E
"
5

G
}: [Z b dyZ 6,
c*
]!*
igzZbD[Z }
c*
b [ Z ]ZZb G Zzggh
+'
s kZZe
E
"
5

G
6,
CI ss 6,
Z t |c*
"
$U*
b "gzZ
E
"
5

G
Z k
B t 7k
B bgzZ<
k
B GgzZ 6,
X 7Zzgg
zby~{<
Yk
B bz,h
+]
.gzZbz,**
- *
c*
^ yh
+]
.gzZbh
+]
. |Z1g(Z6,gbzgq
-Z
C: wEZ~ hLZ b x gzZ C: B b|
/Z
: D` uI kZ t t|X $
: i Z0
+Z W,
Z6,kZ b

4
4

3
3
E
E

G
G
- xgzZ
]G
5 Z z ` uD ] G
5 Z X 1o ` uxE **
ZzgzZ oZz bZ{g7,gZz~yxq
-Z bTZ8
4Z
` u **
- : gzZ x ZM
h {g 7{0
+
i~ * DBq
-Z ] G
5G3E
D` uI |
) !*
`u ~} D` ugzZ I |
|7xt+Ie
$h
+]
.} '}gX
H3
gigzZbq~b| 7k
B b:
L
gzZb jxsZOr<
b|
/Z qJ
?gzZ] <
6,

C|C: {nL6,
wZ&<

X ~E| (,
x kZ=gzZ
:]~{y*
*- :L
:wZzi|
Tg Z X **
z Z
+ I VZ t~(,
|
**
- ~ x Z
+ |~ kZ ? HtVY = Z G]t
E-!
| bgzZ ? 4Z b]c*
{g G/BGW ygzZ b
James ' Essential Philosophy { ^
,Y kZ ?{g 3
15 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]

: 7,
~p ZMannion
Mankind assumed that he, second to God, was the
center of the universe. Earth was the center of it all, and the
sun and all celestial bodies revolved around it. The
Aristotelian view held that the heavens were immutable, or
absolute, and the moon, other planets, and stars were
smooth, pristine orbs. This view was the one adopted by the
Catholic Church.
The Heliocentric Theory
This long-held belief was eventually challenged by
Nicolas Copernicus 1473-1543 and mathematically
confirmed by Johannes Kepler 1571-1630. Their theory was
called heliocentric, meaning that the sun was the center of
our solar system, and Earth and the other planets revolved
around it. This theory was regarded as poppycock and
ultimately turned into heresy. Great controversy surrounded
the hypothesis while it was still only mere speculation.
When Galileo invented a telescope and was able to prove the
theory via empirical and indisputable observation, things
really hit the fan.
Galileo Galilei

1 5 6 4 - 1 6 4 2 w a s a n I t a l i a n

mathematician and scientist who proved the heliocentric


theory. His telescope also showed that the moon had peaks
and valleys, crags and craters, and that the sun had spots
that appeared and disappeared, disproving the
Aristotelian/Christian belief of pristine heavens. In 1616, he
was called before the Inquisition and forbidden to teach the
heliocentric theory. Knowing what fate befell those who

16 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]
defied the Inquisition, he sensibly consented to this demand.
You cannot keep a good scientist down, however, and in
1623, he published a work called "The Appraiser," which
reiterated his heliocentric belief. He was tried and found
guilty, but he recanted, and his life was spared.
Legend has it that Galileo offered the then-pope the
opportunity to look through his telescope and see for
himself the true nature of the cosmos. The pope refused. He
had no need to look through the telescope because his mind
was already made up.
The Catholic Church ultimately suffered as a result
of their s tubborn condemnation of the Copernican
heliocentric view of the cosmos and the persecution of
Galileo, not to mention the murder of Bruno and numerous
other "heretics." In 1993, Pope John Paul II more or less
apologized for past indiscretions and acknowledged that the
Earth did indeed revolve around the sun.

4Z h
g @*
g6,k Z ] G
5G3E
+]
. | ^g ke !*
h
+]
.
I think : *
@Y Hgw $;f kZ ` M ~ ] +F,
g ,
"Cogito, :t] H Z V ~a kZ V ~L L therefore I am
^g ke)g f ~ Z u **
gzZg Ze
$.1{ C
kZ ergo sum"
4Z

KZ]Z f s c*
wZ.
C
Z
KZzgzZ c*
yv)] G
5G3E
I
-dz
kZ 7Z}
.p7 {
/q Z kZ !*
?XE
g6, O
CDgzZ Zk
,5
+g` C
)g f
thinking of the thinkers .
zC
ZkZgzZy
KZ ~

1. James Mannion, The Scientific Revolution in Essential Philosophy, U.S.A.:

David & Charles,2006,pp.69-70.

17 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]

c*
C t ^g ke YY H7 6,
gzZ: nZg **
kZ G @*
b b~0
+
z Z}
. z kZBBkZ are
:
/{~k]yZZ kZ
French philosopher Ren Descartes 1596-1650 is

wherever you go there you

often called the Father of Modern Philosophy. He started out


his career as a mathematician and is credited with
discovering the concept of Analytic Geometry. He also was a
physicist of great repute. Descartes was a faithful Catholic,
but he privately knew the Church was wrong-headed in its
resistance to and persecution of men of science. He knew
that these men and their philosophies were the way of the
future, and if the Church did not adapt, it would suffer as a
result.
Doubt Everything
Descartes sought nothing less than the formidable
task of a radically revisionist look at knowledge. He started
with the premise of doubt. He decided to doubt everything.
He believed that everything that he knew, or believed he
knew, came from his senses, and sensory experience is
inherently suspect. This is the classic Skeptic starting point.

h
e Ga
)
Z LZ kZ M f e
$.^g ke
[ KZ kZ c*
/
)
Z kZ ~ 46,
u kZ gzZ G O
^g keBIgzZlp~g 0*
c*
x **
V- g 0*
[^
OZ Meditations
I think therefore I amx9kZ^g ke { z
H` @*
qx qJ
[thinking]13g6
,yZy
KZ kZ g
/~uu g
Zc*
g Z
z DgzZuZz Z}g Z
F,!*
z nC
kZ y

1. Ibid.,p.75.

18 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]

} ],
ZD M ~} ],
Z Z}
. jkC)gzZ c*
0*
gZ
Z}
.y
KZ

3
wZ] G
5GEZ ^g ke)g f q
-Z kZ 0*
7t {zX
Hc*
`g {
~kZq)g fD ~sp~
CD%gzZ c*

G ^g ke ? Y{ .Z p
CT ? Y Za
: 7,,kZ c*
s z" b
Descartes was hesitant to publish much of his work
because it supported the findings of Galileo. He eventually
"hid" his controversial theories in a philosophy book called
Meditations, which he dedicated to the local Church leaders
in an effort to curry favor.
Des ca rtes qu ic kly dis c overe d t hat to dou bt
absolutely everything is to be poised on the precipice of
madness. Is it real, or is it a dream? Descartes came to
believe that he could not even know if he was awake or if he
was dreaming things. There is no absolute certainty, not
even in the realm of mathematics. This was called the Dream
Hypothesis and is radical skepticism taken to the max.
Descartes went on to speculate that there might not
be an all-loving God orchestrating things from a celestial
perch. Perhaps there was an Evil Demon who had
brainwashed us into believing that all we see and sense is
reality, but is really an illusion devised by thisdiabolical
entity. This is called the Demon Hypothesis.1

~ l{Z tZg i^g ke~xsZVyZ[f


G
C-!}g VY
V {Z tZg [f z!*
~I e
$h
+]
.F,
x KZ + E
Vf {g !*
z ~ xsZ [f { i @*
pXn:
/
g { c*
i a
" [fgzZk{ KZ f{Z tZg ;gx 6,
: c*
~gZh
+y

1. Ibid., p75.

19 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]

u Zg ZkZXf{ztD MVut F,
~ { C
c*

~}g !*
LZ zmvZ -[ $
g~T g
$u{zg"T
` M {z YH F,
~ q y
kZ
/Z o ] n:
z ]: Hc*
g %: V,Z1 d6,g%x Z/ : t
~ i Z :gz K XZ c*
z}g ( }g p: } &
+
e }f **
Z gzZ

wJxsZ * ~g7 gzZ ] + Yp%/~ * ~g7zmvZ -vZwg
f *
*: F,
~ b /:
L ~ z xs Z Z "
$U*
: g
$h
e
+]
.~gz e
$ kZgzZB
gyZ yt X v!*
%N Y ([fgzZ

6,* ]y
M t w kZ T e **
F
uF,* ~g7{+ {zaZ
@*
* {z4
M [ Zz w Zg7 CZ6,ut{z!Z Z g & 1Z ]|
sy
kZ Z hg7 ZwgkZgzZvZ~ y c*

~[ ZgzZ
[ $
g
/Z {m{ 0#
Z **
g (Z m,
/ e

$ gzZ 'H * g
~zc [fQ Yx
) !*
a+#
ZL~g (Zp zmvZ X CYk
,
/**

e
:Z <:g y
[sZ
# go
/kZg6,
Vz
C{b|J
-Z
#

3
E

;
X
W
G
| Fz ] *ZZgzZ] G
5 Z ] G
5 Z |P : gzZ xz

/
gzZ VS: G x-[A C
6,x **
<
X Cgzi
Za wq ]gd
$z qz Z i Z G~ b)gzZ ] 5zgZ
7g~\g- A 7wq]g0Z]+Z~gz g @*
sZv:ZX
X
:BV ZP:]Ib
I Z F,
gzZb ZX W,Zu" 6,g @*
~ G ig al

c*
g Z
.
ggzZg Z: z G~ ~,gG [fgzZ\ggzZ D% ~ gZ -gzZ [ ~g 0*
Z X Z 7,**
o bzg: g" GZ
E
-!
G
B
/
G
:}D~
.Z }d
$z MbzgZgzZTg]!*

] xUg G0x Zzi M}i


* kZK ~
.Z }t _ gZ Ussher Z u ag M 1
yZ b q
-Z 6, kZ Z y W ~ [I4004',
ZB23g Z Z i M
20 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]

_gzZ }@x[Fossils]VvJ e ZgzZ ng Z ] 4DWycliffe


} g
/ wgZD
P i M}i H7tt u ag M
ZdGV- A kZgzZ Hg Z V h
+6,bkZ VZ bxj% G
n: { M}iuu 0*
kZ{iZ`
t
Hc*
N~g Z} }
Bishop
H{isp G c*
Mt g ZtX_x?Zm}]|V
:kZ ZDbkZZ of Worcester
Descended from the apes! My dear, let us
hope it is not true, but if it is, let us pray that
it will not become generally known.

X 7G?YYzg^b Vzig WgzZ]Zp H


Vz],Z @ZgZyZ G t :
L ?
Z<
gzZspWZukZ G
Rdm{q
-Z
/Z ZtX0) ` u<
Z{ Z ({ Zp~xEgzZ
d dzBzgzZSg6,
+gtp: `wA
h
$C6,
g /E
~]5-z [k
,5
+pC
W,Zk
,
iy.zxE **
- GaX [ ] !*
.
_
G

p~ ] 5k
,
+pyZ G
5
0 xE Z~4Z6,g]ZmI Zg M KZ
;gK]!*
t GX @*
Y `G k(,
G Zg5$
) !*

E&

3
Zz Za ~ G gzZ r<
GgzZb,y~ ~{<

E&

3
zp Y H6,& wZuF,
G z rwZti ib)
{g ) ]yZ qZ
+Z G rwZ kZJ
-wg ZD

g] ] zGt J
-wg ZD
z @*
Za wZt i ~ VdVY
g Z kZ Z: { C Y a al
~ ]q yZ ?g 4Z ~ <
VY6,
Z u **
spypz v M
)g fInquisition ~ M VVzg ZD
X
Hc*
}g Z
V*
/z YVgVzg ZD
}g vVzg ZD

:? GgzZnzw}i
G~}g !*
gzZ ng Zz w}igZ
}i 2
kZ"kZg Z Hg mZ Zg M d
$z Z6,Vz
CI{ Z ({ Zp

1. Ashley Montagu, Man's Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race,

California: Altamira Press, 1997, p.99.

21 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]

bZ Z { Z ({ Zp G ~ gZ A V- !*
M kZgzZ V4
Y
4H
5k M
7 z~ !*
M
KZ~ng Z #
H3g {otJ
-V- F~ EG
7y
KZV;z
rg z}i [opposite side of earth]
/ZgzZ B
bg
I 6 g Z Zg 5q
-Z6,ZkZ Procopius of Gza ~ ~X
V;z x?Zm}]| VY $
7 }i # }i H b
kZgzZ ~i0
+Zg ~ ] DBB ]Mg Z DX 7 p=
X tzg
:G:s Z%B
k ]:` V- g F
I
-d ~g FD 3
z gzZ ~g F C
gzZ Zwq
-Z +
$Y \vZ >XE
0
+
ig { k
HgzZ ~)k
B ]y
KZZ
# CwqZ
KZW
V- g F u **
BBVZeZ6,g Zw
8 [ZLZgzZ @*

:
[fVc*
g Fh
+]
.x uZiW} @*
Y c*
c*
@*
Y 2~
p [ Z\vZgzZx { k
H ZwwqZ
KZii
+ZX Za ~p
**
ZgzZ **
` V- g F yZ t w GX C ~gzZ !*
z Vc*
g F >

X >% ~i Z0
+Z 4 ~ ! Z}
.{z ;g ` V- g F gzZ 7
g
A V- g F yZgzZ{ 0
+
ig { k
HBB [ Z Z V- g F
~V- g FVz {zt<
L \vZX ;g7q N~<
gzZd
$L`
VZ w[g LZ" ~y
KZ @*
d
$
\ WLZ2
kZ3k~!*
kZ [Y1 y
KZC
CZkZg t @*
g
}vZ)g f1z~g FX hZz bzgzVYzkZgzZ3 Zg W~
[g"
$
~g FX @*
z6,wqZ LZgzZ izgz
LZ 0
+
i KZ
a LZ Vzg F gzZ ~g Zg a kZg ?WgzZ =
/Z $
0=g f
D ~g F Zz Za ~ Vk
H GpX "
$U*
~
t<
L **
Z
VX, N Zw S Z}g Z
~i Z0
+Z 4 ~ ~0
+
z Z}
.! `
z wgzZ x **
Z +Z 0X
Hc*
:
KkZ ~ { C~ yLZ
X
8tzg~
cu b yp7
-e Z g 0*
~ Vz \g- ~ Y 1770 4
VZ b q
-Z yi
+ c*
gZ
Wrath of God wq ]gkZ G
Vh
+6,
kZG 7 =gzZ cu0*
Linnaeus
22~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]

~ }g !*
C o m e t s
HHS a t a n i c A b y s s } yZ Hg Z
7 ] Zz ] xZ G~ }g !*
]+C
gzZ Astronomy
4 d)gzZ } &
+
kZ V ~i Z0
+Z 4 ~ gZ , Z ] xE
X : ]gz~i Z0
+Z
y]zGk ] c*
[Geology] ]Mg Z D 5
kZgzZ [t~ GDt Z Z Z
+ GgzZ } i Z0
+ZgzZ
internal artillery DkZ G 0*
gZ
[rgzZ I Y
6,"
$ uq
GY DkZ Dark Art gzZ not a subject of lawful inquiry
X c*
g Z
impugners of the sacred record
gzZ s Z Z G~gZ 0 !*
z t',S0
+M 6
Hz YgzZ V**g y-s
% N*
y6, Pope Gregory XIII X
Pope Y 1484cB7 'Y O V ^ Z~ Ga h gzi kZgzZ1 zg
X,lVE
/z Y yQ {z c*
GI Z *`
gzZ H~g Y y
q
-Z VIII
Z g{ nVgzZ r !*
S0
+M ygzZ g M Vp CA V
kZ
HHuhZ}tf ZJ
HZwZ
# }gZ

/z YVgVzg ZD

G
G

Thunder B
/z Y VgKZ 5 Zz
!*
Z zm, yZ ~g

XVk
HgzZ Z`
ZsgzZst w al
~}g !*
bolt
~ V1 :
L Z kZ w G~}g !*
i Y 1755 7
bg pVg q M wEZ Franklin's Rodes 6,e } (,
B
kZ Z
# pc*
g Z z kZ ~ qz # XZ kZ GX
x !Z~,,
Hc*
C:
L i Z Zx wEZ kZ(C
gzZ S(,|
# z

X ~}]i YZ wEZkZgzZ c*
w' XZkZ GJ
~ G I Z x H~ k
,
q
-Z KZ g Z zNebula .
$ 8
gzZ S p e c t r o s c o p e pX Z Za g h
+ s e
$C
L L kZ .
$
LZ GgzZ }zG @*
w.
$] Z XZ Spectrum analysis
X Z 7,**
qg
kZyzg Z eJ
-Z G z!*
V|V;g Zt 9
B ~\g- gzZM%Z
k
Hgzi 6,Vz
C s 2 zGgZ
6,g D
+ g Zt~ V2c*
g M%Z ` M X 7KZ Gg ~g Y
23~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]


H1z g D
+ # kZ V;z @*
Y J 7, Z V gzZ ~0*
zg
gzZ ng ZD Tq
-q
-Z x **
Creationism~ ilg**
hZ
Z g YKu **
e
$.6,gzZwzu Astronomy
:t T y*q
-Z~ iZBraswell Dean.Jr.Q
"Monkey mythology of Darwin" is the cause of
permis s ivenes s , promis cu ity pills , propphylactics,
perversions, pregnancies, abortions, pornography, pollution,
poisoning and proliferation of crimes of all types.

6C 3 ~ x bh
+]
.gzZ b ~{I **
- G
Pope y Zgz d
$Sq
-Z ~ z Y 1983#B 9 X
HH OyZ b
H ~g Y)**
]gm~g u +
$Y G6,Ou Z kZ% John Paul II
: 7,p ZkZ
The Church's experience, during the Galileo affair and after
it, has led to a more mature attitude The Church herself
learns by experience and reflection and she now under stand
better the meaning that must be given to freedom of research
one of the most noble attributes of man It is through
research that man attains to Truth This is why The
Church is convinced that there can be no real Contradiction
between science and faith, [However]; it is only through
humble and assiduous study that [the Church] learns to
dissociate the essential of the faith from the Scientific system
of a given age, especially when a culturally influenced
reading of the Bible seemed to be linked to an obligatory
2
Cosmogony.

1. Jon P. Alston, The Scientific Case Against Scientific Creationism,Nebraska:

iUniverse.inc, p.17.
2.Henry Nargenau, Roy Abraham, varghese, [eds.], Cosmos, Bios, Theos:

Scientific Reflect on Science, God and The Origins of The Univers, life and
homo-sepiens, Open cort Publishing, 1992,pp.96-7.

24~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]

bh
+]
.Zz
3 h
+]
.~ ~,,gzZb ~{I1**
- G
sp~ k
B bz<
!] %Z t
) !*
]%Z~]zG
$ uD
@*
: _C~ \ 5 r{ Z ({ ZpbgzZ <
G
/Z
X ;g { V**
]gmu **
k\ZgzZVZenkZxsZ v:Z Y
: sf `g Z ] Andrew Dickson
The doctrine of the Spherical shape of the earth,
andthere fore the existerice of the that of antipodes, was
bitterly attacked by theologians who asked: "Is there any one
so senseless as to believe that crops and tress grow
downwards? .. that the rains and snow fall upwards?"
The great authority of St. Augustine held the Church frmly
against the idea of antipodes and for a thousand years it was
believed that there could not be human beings on the
opposite side of the earth - even if the earth had opposite
sides. In the sixth century, Procopius of Gaza brought
powerful theological guns to bear on the issue: there could
not be an opposite side, he declared, because for that Christ
would have had to go there and suffer a second time. Also,
there would have had to exist a duplicate Eden, Adam,
Serpent, and Deluge. But that being : clearly wrong, there
could not be only antipodes. QED!
Ecclesiastics and theologians of the medieval Church
vigorously promoted the view that comets are fireballs flung
by an angry God against a wicked world. Churchmen
illustrated the moral value of comets by comparing the
Almighty sending down a comet to the judge laying down
the sword of execution on the table between himself and the
criminal in a court of justice. Others denounced people who
heedlessly stare at such warnings of God and compared

25 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]
them to "calves gaping at a barn door". Even up to the end of
the 17th century, the oath taken by professors of astronomy
prevented them from teaching that comets are heavenly
bodies obedient of physical law. But ultimately, science
could not be suppressed. Halley, using the theory of Newton
and Kepler, observed the path of one particularly
"dangerous" comet and predicated that it would return in
precisely seventy-six year. He calculated to the minute when
it would be seen again at a well-defined point in the sky.
This was incredible. But seventy six years later, when Halley
and Newton were both long dead, Halley's comet retuned
exactly as predicted.
Christian ohrition orthodoxy held geology to be a
highly subversive tool in the service of the devil. Not only
did geological evidence refute Archbishop Usher's assertion
of the earth's age, but it also showed that creation in six days
was impossible. The orthodox declared geology "not a
subject of lawful inquiry", denounced it as "a dark art",
called it "infernal artillery", and pronounced its practitioners
"infidels" and "impugners of the sacred record". Pope Pius IX
was doubtless in sympathy with this feeling when he
forbade the scientific congress of Italy to meet in Bologna in
1850.
During the Middle Ages, the doctrine of the
diabolical origin of storms was generally accepted, receiving
support from such unassailable authorities as St. Augustine.
Storms, it was held, were the work of demons. Against this
supernatural' power of the air various rites of exorcism,were
used the most widely used being that of Pope Gregory XIII.

26 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]
Whereas in earlier times the means of exorcism amounted
simply to various chanting and ringing of church bells
during storms, in the 15th century there evolved a tragic
belief that certain women may secure infernal aid to produce
whirlwinds, hail, frosts, floods, and like. One the 7th of
December 1484, Pope Innocent VIII issued a papal bull,
inspired by the scriptural command "Thou shalt not suffer a
witch to live". He exhorted the clergy of Germany to detect
sorcerers and witches who cause evil weather and so destroy
vineyards, gardens , meadows, and growing crops.
Thereupon thousands of women found themselves writhing
on the torture racks, held in horror by their nearest and
dearest ones, anxious only for death to relieve them of their
suffering.
The thunderbolt, said Church dogma, was in
consequence for five sins: impenitence, incredulity, neglect
of repair of churches, fraud in payment of tithes to the
clergy, and oppression of subordinates. Pope after pope
expounded on this instrument of Divine retribution, calling
it the "finger of God". And then in 1752 Benjamin Franklin
flew his famous kite during aanelectrical an electrical storm,
discovering in this dangerous experiment that lightning was
but electricity. Immediately there followed the lightning rod,
a sure protection from even the most furious storm. At first
the Church refused to concede its existence. Then, as the
efficacy became widely recognized and more and more were
installed, the orthodox took up cudgels against them. The
earthquake of 1755 in Massachusetts was ascribed by them

27 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]
to the widespread use of Franklin's rods in Boston, and
preachers fulminated against those who attempted to control
the artillery of the heavens. The opposition would
undoubtedly have lasted longer but for the fact that
churches without lightning rods were frequently devastated
by lightning. In Germany, in the period between 1750 and
1783 alone about 400 church towers had been damaged and
120 bell ringers killed by lightning. On the other hand, the
town brothel , with its protruding I lightning rod, stood
smug and safe even in the worst of storms. The few churches
which had installed rods were never touched. And so,
grudgingly to be sure, lightning rods received the Holy
Sanction and were used to protect most churches by the end
of the century.
When Immanuel Kant presented the theory that
there exist nebula as well as stars, throughout the theological
world there was an outcry against such "atheism". The
rigidly orthodox saw no place for it in the Scriptures. Hence
nebula should not exist. These opponents of nebular theory
were overjoyed when improved telescopes showed that
some patches of nebular matter could indeed be resolved
into stars. But with time came the discovery of the
spectroscope and spectrum analysis; the light from the
nebula was clearly from gaseous matter. And so the
orthodox were ultimately forced to retreat.

1.www.alislam.org/egazette/articles/Andrew-Dickson-White-200907.pdf

[29-03-2010]

28 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]

Zz Y ~~ 46,
u Gyxgbh
+]
.gzZb~{**
- I
History of :[6
,Vzz Andrew Dickson Whitey *Z u k
B
t $
Y S7,~ the Warfare of Science & Theology in Christendom
:t
z}p ZP[ Eje- g hZX k,
~Y 1896[
1- From Creation to Evolution. 2- Geography, 3-Astronomy,
4-From "signs and wonders" to law in the Heaven, 5- From
Genesis to Geology; 6-The Antiquity of man, Egyptology
and Assyriology

z
a Za r~bgzZxs Z i aVyZ_[ kZ
C1X V
izg
q
- 3rbgzZ <
Z x Z yZ vZ6,xsZ
GaX Z | @*
x Z z xsZ :gzX ~} 6,Vz
Cd
] c*
**
- Z ] c*
IkZ Zq ] c*
Ip
X xBq
-Z GgzZb **
- g y
MgzZgx bh
+]
.
: Zp]gm Gwg ZDz
-wg ZD
z
a z kZ r<
~{ ygzZ bJ
~ t ZgzZ
/ ~g Y ]gm{z xz w0*
yY \7 A
$0 {
}o x kZ @*
x CZ gzZ iC
Hs Z Z~ T
* z + Z gZ *Q%q
-Z G bkZ Xce xg Z G
City of MangzZ City of GodGV- Zg Z&
gzZ ! ~z* ~ H Z *+~ V Zz * qzggzZ * ~
Gs~ ]5 qzggzZ b ,
$]Zg (Z x Z G
%zg ~ gZ ~gZ * Gg
u~
QX c*
0*
gZ
*u~y
WgzZuZz

Z * Z
# gzZ 1
~ |bgzZ y *gzZ Z
C3X c*
7Z vZT+
M GgX g (Z e * {g !*
z ~}
A kZ G
/Z x g ZzZg M LZtzg G0 M
I ~A kZ: :B p
8{ ^
,Y6,g
/
u Cc*
gzZ - [q
-Z

X [
7a_6,www.archive.org c*
www.questia.com [ t C1
29 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]

t \7 ~**
]gmLZX K6,Vz
C **
- {{zgzZ
: 7,p Z\7Q%q
-ZggzZg ZG H7t
"The Church learns to dissociate the essential of the faith
from the scientific system of a given age".

)kZ 7Zz ]gmZ


# 7wk &]gmt
Z)q
-Z G~ [fa * kZgzZ b
) !*
bzg )gzZ: ZqZ
GX * Zq
-Zt7m<
gZ* kZt]!*
t
H{g Z Z
X 1wJ zV'9g9KZkZ
:M
%*
*- G
K6,
C W,O **
- Tg Z o Z o Zc ig al

E
E
a+ YVC
0iCil s Zgz ]Z f kZ
Y e )g f =s 3Z 6,zZ y kz y i ] Z f KZ ~ y**
Ob {V,Z ZCgsE MgzZ [Objectivity]zc
)kZ Y 1qD
/Z)g f= H7g6,wZkZ1~E b [
Z =` u kZC
? Hg gzZ ` u: e iY
ZgzZ ~g ZY
[Revealed Text] kz 0*
g Z
=B { e
$.~gZ I

:
W
X
~z ~p
/Z 0*
g Z
=!*
9 Z kz ngzZ [Self] (
X 4" d
$gzZ]|kz6,Rip~Ekz6,R ZgzZ
:G: ykZwDzc =
Dzc)gf = w ig al
~ yZgzZ y**
- a#
LZg@*
KZ
q
-Z)gf`u[kZ ew [objective knowledge]
kZgzZ Y a [neutral] g ZY)gzZ Zgz ]!*
.gzZ d
_
$Vkz yi
E
G
Zzgxz!*
0$kZ~}g!*
=YuZgZ {Z|zc
[Greeko Roman Thought]^ zg r
/[traditional thought]

3
E
q}n u] G
5G Z D Scholistic ThoughtgzZ
gzZ [purpose] b ~ V'yZ n
pg 7g

3
E

] G
5G Z ,
CTC B [Tilos]w2
Z% kZ @*
]!*
[Observational Analysis]b CZ@xZ
# TgZ
Final :
L ~y
MgzZ b plurality of causation { z @*
7D ] b

30~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]

4Z purpose & Z
@*M ] G
5G3E
Cause

3
7g Y )zb% ] G
5GEZ ~ V'Zzgx 7 Tg Z s
Y
&zX @*
4E
._]c*
CZ@xTg Z @*MC
!*
~p Z 5HkH
Yc*
0*

; %xEgZx LZ*x YY 7 u] G
5G3EZ

X x Z~zg{q ] G
5G3EZ jg0
+
i

:b+
h.
]: Zi W] G
5G3EZ ] *
!

] !*
6,g: Z Zi M?
] G
5G3EZ {z bh
+]
.
tX
Hg~[fg y
M N*
q
-Ztq Cq }~
.Z] Z@x
Cy 6,g ? + F,
gz
Dz cL Z bh
+]
.z G
gzZs Z@Z m d
$z g @*
m{ **
!*
**
@*
Zg7 bh
+]
. N*
q
-Z "Z
4Z
gzZ [Freedom] ~ Zi M Z M ', ] G
5G3E
=g &
+[Development]F,
4Z bh
C
/] G
5G3E
+]
.twX @*
Z e [Capital]tu

4 Z kZ
~ [Implicit] yzg0
+Z ] G
5G3E
k ~ !*
kZ p C M 7

3
E

G
]G
5 Z V'Zzgx Tg Z 7C
~[Explicit] yz {7

3
E

G
bkZ~!*
kZ] G
5 Z bh
+]
.1 $
Y3gzZ@
bkZX x +F,
a VyZ **
3gzZ 9 Z gzZ pz
Xg7.
Zgz VkzV ig V
:$
d g *
@:[f
g z ZZ V- g F 7
- 0*
!% C;{ c*
i
~ g @*
*
)]kZgzZ ~g Ztu=g &
+F,
" ~ Zi MtX~[f
) ~) KPh
+]
.yZ 0
+
i h
+]
.kZX$
+ F,
gzZ 0
+
i
V- g FyZX $

~ Vw ZVEgzZ V0*
DuF,
g ZZ
[Thearapeutic X ~ [f Z ~(
,
] ;+C
Z e { c*
i
[Agony of g Zi M ~ Zi M V V Z ] ;t [f # Culture]
+'
h
~ Zi W [More Freedom] ~ Zi Mh
+'
x ] Freedom]
X DWz [more resources for Freedom] Zg f
:Z.
}' Z.
}
g Zg~ kZ 7 eg~ ) F,
gzZ ~ Zi M g! fh
+]
.
7g Z F,
gzZ ~ Zi M %[Capital] tuV Lg : ]g q
-Z
31 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]

Zg { Z',~ Zi MgzZtu [0 gzZ h s gz kZ [Capital] tu Z Y

T~ Zi M +ZgzZ M7tu%~ Zi MgzZ Q7~ Zi M%u


p

x ~gZf ~
C
C
* Z 7~ Zi M:tuaVZ
wtubgzZnZ~ ]gzZ ~ Zi M {z @*

*
* tu
X~(,

g Y 6,6,` ubusgzZ sx ] gzZ gx


ygzZwjZ g {g~Lg ;g6,b q zb mC

:
zC
gzZ D 0
+
i ~ Lg ] a J
-{ [Zp ~g
@*
D: kZp sz^~ ~/&gzZ h
+y
c*Tg gzZ Dh
+y

b ZY {g8
- }gy
KZ 'g+Z +Z kZX { i Z0
+Z:
i C {z wq c*
~i
HZ ~ Vzi zgz ~ttgzZ
X
:i q Z xsZgzZZ |
, **
- )g fChurch Fathers tZ |
|X _ 4Z ~ ]Z NZ z ]x ~{~ Zc I b *gzZ
m
)ggzZbf Z: Za Z x Z V;z t:
L 6 gz
] Z W,Z kggzgzZkZgzZ zg ~ o: z z =+ Z
+Z Z yZgzZZ
+Z ~g gzZg | w@*
gzZb @*
{ M
~g O wZ X
H sp~ }g h
+g y
M ; g W,
J
- V- {gVZ {],
Z
wi Z i Z6,
C Utilitarianism gzZ Pragmatism }Z
+
Z B |X @*
Y 0wZp<
@*
6,VZeu **
y
s !*
bh
+]
.zb *k
B Z7 bgzZ<
k
B ~| Z
G

M % xE[gzZ 70
+Z **
E ~i !*
q j G~G
0xE
gzZ Z x Z t yZ \vZ6,#
Z kZX sp~ k
B bz <

) !*
J
-#
3 Zg 4Zc*
,,zb~ sZ
0Zq
X c*

E
"
5

G
:B] *
c
kZgzZ ,
6
E
"
5

G
g bg Z

]
/
%Z ' }i 6,~ ~,,
}i ~ w kZ `g Z
# l
/"}i 7id
32~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]

kZ HiZ
HY7 kZ Z
# 7W,@*
CM c*
g
t kZX gx
/
kZ}i ]
/
%zg"`g7g"}i c*
C
I
kZ M x gz kZ gt p"
$U*
c*
g
C
X s ]c*
bz,gzZ ]Z@x] !*
gz kZ
] Z@x]CX ;gkC }igzZ Dl
/
0
+egzZ `gWKZ
E
"
5

G
Bold 6
,
p }i Z Z @*
x ]!*
gzZ
] [Causious Conjecture]
kZ)g f Conjecture
E
"
56,
kZ Z9 t gzZ I:
kZ G
X ~ ]gi I
E
"
5

G
6,
BG V ZbkZ h
+ F,
}i
E
G
} Hg b I gzZ [ x ~g E
547Z id ! ZVz dyZ
7Ig6,}i Z
# ,q I
/,q
Hc*
[Wheel Argument]
E
E
"
"
5
56,

G
6,
{@x ?VY,q ~
w}i
/Z
HY7 G
,
/
) ~Dq6,
C}@xs Zx kZ;gi}
E
"
56,
{ {zgzZ]c*
{z6,1 kZp;g]!*
9G
X @*
)gzZ
"
$U*
C~(, q
-Z 7 [complex structure] J e
E
"
56,
:gzg
/7,qakZ Z (,}ia G
X Dg ga
E
"
5

G
Tower & ? + F
,o~uz ~ g 6, X g l
/}i "Z
! Ka kZ g f zZ q
-Z X ~)g f Foot Argument
E
"

5
G
~
w}i
/Z
HY7 6,
Z
/6,[Foot] xg f {z
H 6,}i
X 7
w!*
}i Z "
$U*
:Xce **
/76,[Foot] xg f

E
E
E
"
"
"
5
5
56,

G
G
6,
ZX
H l{ 6, Z
/VY6,[Foot] xg f
HY7 G

{~
.Z x
kZ 76, } @xgzZ" y=
E
"
56,
zDLZ [Fact]|T G
X ~} ]!*
gzZg Z]c*
] Zg
kZDgkZX ;g y6,R]!*
Z ;gy6,
C
o hLZp!*

kZX : }W x

LZz!*
s s kZpB
bg b IgzZ: xgzZ [ d
wgZD
zt wZX Z 7,**
g OZ HE ahohkZX e7"
$U*
\W
H6,g g g @*
gzZ6,V
KZ kZ ;g @*
#
6,* ~g7 t!*
-Z
q
wJ
7t kZ n Y: c*
3n YH: "
$U*
q
/Z Zxt kZ ?Z 7,
t

33~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]

@*
"
$U*
t kZX C 7| |{z c*
bg 7 z {z @*
B

g ZkZJ
.
-um{s @*
7g Z.
D{q6,

C] Z@x
{z"Z q MJdYc*
wZ e~k0*
/Z } YY

Y 7
g w J
-|/z {@xs @*
J
+'
h
A kZ V X Dx ~} ],
Zze
$.kZjgzZ/=D y
KZ
E
E
: 7,
~p ZA.F. ChalmersgzZ c !b 0i,
It was generally accepted in mediaeval Europe that
the earth lies at the centre of a finite universe and that the
sun, planets and stars orbit around it. The physics and
cosmology that provided the framework in which this
astronomy was set was basically that developed by Aristotle
in the fourth century B.C. In the second century A.D.,
Ptolemy devised a detailed astronomical system that
specified the orbits of the moon, the sun and all the planets.
In the early decades of the sixteenth century,
Copernicus devised a new astronomy, an astronomy
involving a moving earth, which challenged the Aristotelian
and Ptolemaic system. According to the Copernican view,
the earth is not stationary at the centre of the universe but
orbits the sun along with the planets. By the time
Copernicus's idea had been substantiated, the Aristotelian
world view had been replaced by the Newtonian one. The
details of the story of this major theory change, a change that
took place over one and a half centuries.
When Copernicus first published the details of his
new astronomy, in 1543, there were many arguments that
could be, and were, levelled against it. Relative to the
scientific knowledge of the time, these arguments were
sound ones and Copernicus could not satisfactorily defend

34~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]
his theory against them. In order to appreciate this situation,
it is necessary to be familiar with some aspects of the
Aristotelian world view on which the arguments against
Copernicus were based. A very brief sketch of some of the
relevant points follows:
The Aristotelian universe was divided into two
distinct regions. The sub-lunar region was the inner region,
extending from the central earth to just inside the moon's
orbit. The super-lunar region was the remainder of the finite
universe, extending from the moon's orbit to the sphere of
the stars, which marked the outer boundary of the universe.
Nothing existed beyond the outer sphere, not even space.
Unfilled space is an impossibility in the Aristotelian system.
All celestial objects in the super-lunar region were made of
an incorruptible element called aether. Aether possessed a
natural propensity to move around the centre of the
universe in perfect circles. This basic idea became modified
and extended in Ptolemy's astronomy. Since observations of
planetary positions at various times could not be reconciled
with circular, earth-centred orbits, Ptolemy introduced
further circles, called epicycles, into the system. Planets
moved in circles, or epicycles, the centres of which moved in
circles around the earth. The orbits could be further refined
by adding epicycles to epicycles etc. in such a way that the
resulting system was compatible with observations of
planetary positions and capable of predicting future
planetary positions.
In contrast to the orderly, regular, incorruptible
character of the super-lunar region, the sub-lunar region was

35 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]
marked by change, growth and decay, generation and
corruption. All substances in the sub-lunar region were
mixtures of four elements air, earth, fire and water, and the
relative proportions of elements in a mixture determined the
properties of the substance so constituted. Each element had
a natural place in the universe. The natural place for earth
was at the centre of the universe; for water on the surface of
the earth; for air, in the region immediately above the
surface of the earth; and for fire, at the top of the
atmosphere, close to the moon's orbit. Consequently, each
earthly object would have a natural place in the sub-lunar
region depending on the relative proportion of the four
elements that it contained. Stones, being mostly earth, have a
natural place near the centre of the earth, while flames, being
mostly fire, have a natural place near to the moon's orbit,
and so on. All objects have a propensity to move in straight
lines, upwards or downwards, towards their natural place.
Thus stones have a natural motion straight downwards,
towards the centre of the earth, and flames have a natural
motion straight upwards, away from the centre of the earth.
All motions other than natural motions require a cause. For
instance, arrows need to be propelled by a bow and chariots
need to be drawn by horses.
These, then, are the bare bones of the Aristotelian
mechanics and cosmology that were presupposed by
contemporaries of Copernicus, and which were utilized in
arguments against a moving earth. Let us look at some of the
forceful arguments against the Copernican system.
Perhaps the argument that constituted the most

36 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]
serious threat to Copernicus was the so-called tower
argument. It runs as follows. If the earth spins on its axis, as
Copernicus had it, then any point on the earth's surface will
move a considerable distance in a second. If a stone is
dropped from the top of a tower erected on the moving
earth, it will execute its natural motion and fan towards the
centre of the earth. While it is doing so the tower will be
sharing the motion of the earth, due to its spinning.
Consequently, by the time the stone reaches the surface of
the earth the tower will have moved around from the
position it occupied at the beginning of the stone's
downward journey. The stone should therefore strike the
ground some distance from the foot of the tower. But this
does not happen in practice. The stones strikes the ground at
the base of the tower. It follows that the earth cannot be
spinning and that Copernicus's theory is false.
Another mechanical argument against Copernicus
concerns loose objects such as stones, philosophers, etc.
resting on the surface of the earth. If the earth spins, why are
such objects not flung from the earth's surface, as stones
would be flung from the rim of a rotating wheel? And if the
earth, as well as spinning, moves bodily around the sun,
why doesn't it leave the moon behind?
Some arguments against Copernicus based on
astronomical considerations have been mentioned earlier in
this book. They involved the absence of parallax in the
observed positions of the stars and the fact that Mars and
Venus, as viewed by the naked eye, do not change size
appreciably during the course of the year.

37 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]
Because of the arguments I have mentioned, and
others like them, the supporters of the Copernican theory
were faced with serious difficulties. Copernicus himself was
very much immersed in Aristotelian metaphysics and had
no adequate response to them.
In vi ew o f th e s t ren gth of t he c as e aga ins t
Copernicus, it might well be asked just what there was to be
said in favour of the Copernican theory in 1543. The answer
is, "not very much", The main attraction of the Copernican
theory lay in the neat way it explained a number of features
of planetary motion, which could be explained in the rival
Ptolemaic theory only in an unattractive, artificial way. The
features are the retrograde motion of the planets and the fact
that, unlike the other planets, Mercury and Venus always
remain in the proximity of the sun. A planet at regular
intervals regresses, that is, stops its westward motion among
the stars (as viewed from earth) and for a short time retraces
its path eastward before continuing its journey westward
once again. In the Ptolemaic system, retrograde motion was
explained by the somewhat ad hoc manoeuvre of adding
epicycles especially designed for the purpose. In the
Copernican system, no such artificial move is necessary.
Retrograde motion is a natural consequence of the fact that
the earth and the planets together orbit the sun against the
background of the fixed stars. Similar remarks apply to the
problem of the constant proximity of the sun, Mercury and
Venus. This is a natural consequence of the Copernican
system once it is established that the orbits of Mercury and
Venus are inside that of the earth. In the Ptolemaic system,

38 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]
the orbits of the sun, Mercury and Venus have to be
artificially linked together to achieve the required result.
There were some mathematical features of the
Copernican theory that were in its favour, then a part from
these, the two rival systems were more or less on a par as far
as simplicity and accord with observations of planetary
positions are concerned. Circular sun-centred orbits cannot
be reconciled with observation, so that Copernicus, like
Ptolemy, needed to add epicycles and the total number of
epicycles needed to produce orbits in accord with known
observations was about the same for the two systems. In
1543, the arguments from mathematical simplicity that
worked in favour of Copernicus could not be regarded as an
adequate counter to the mechanical and astronomica;
arguments that worked against him. Nevertheless, a number
of mathematically capable natural philosophers were to be
attracted to the Copernican system, and their efforts to
defend it became increasingly successful over the next
hundred years or so.
The person who contributed most significantly to the
defence of the Copernican system was Galileo. He did so in
two ways. Firstly, he used a telescope to observe the
heavens, and in so doing he transformed the observational
data that the Copernican theory was required 'to explain.'
Secondly, he devised the beginnings of a new mechanics that
was to replace Aristotelian mechanics and with reference to
which the mechanical arguments against Copernicus were
defused.
When, in 1609, Galileo constructed his first

39 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]
telescopes and trained them on the heavens, he made
dramatic discoveries. He saw that there were many stars
invisible to the naked eye. He saw that Jupiter had moons
and he saw that the surface of the earth's moon was covered
with mountains and craters. He also observed that the
apparent size of Mars and Venus, as viewed through the
telescope, changed in the way predicted by the Copernican
system. Later, Galileo was to confirm that Venus had phases
like the moon, as Copernicus had predicted but which
clashed with Ptolemy's system. The moons of Jupiter
defused the Aristotelian argument against Copernicus based
on the fact that the moon stays with an allegedly moving
earth. For now Aristotelians were faced with the same
problem with respect to Jupiter and its moons. The earthlike
surface of the moon undermined the Aristotelian distinction
between the perfect, incorruptible heavens and the changing,
corruptible earth. The discovery of the phases of Venus
marked a success for the Copernicans and a new problem for
the Ptolemaics. It is undeniable that once the observations
made by Galileo through his telescope are accepted, the
difficulties facing the Copernican theory are diminished.
The foregoing remarks on Galileo and the telescope
raise a serious epistemological problem. Why should
observations through, a telescope be preferred to naked-eye
observations? One answer to this question might utilize an
optical theory of the telescope that explains its magnifying
properties and that also gives an account of the various
aberrations to which we can expect telescopic images to be
subject. But Galileo himself did not utilize an optical theory

40~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]
for that purpose. The first optical theory capable of giving
s u ppo rt in this dire ctio n was d evis ed by Gali le's
contemporary, Kepler, early in the sixteenth century, and
this theory was improved and augmented in later decades.
A second way of facing our question concerning the
superiority of telescopic to naked-eye observations is to
demonstrate the effectiveness of the telescope in a practical
way, by focusing it on distant towers, ships, etc. and
demonstrating how the instrument magnifies and renders
objects more distinctly visible. However, there is a difficulty
with this kind of justification of the use of the telescope in
astronomy. When terrestrial objects are viewed through a
telescope, it is possible to separate the viewed object from
aberrations contributed by the telescope because of the
observer's familiarity with what a tower, a ship, etc. looks
like. This does not apply when an observer searches the
heavens for he knows not what. It is significant in this
respect that Galileo's drawing of the moon's surface as he
saw it through a telescope contains some craters that do not
in fact exist there. Presumably those "craters" were
aberrations arising from the functioning of Galileo's
far-from-perfect telescopes. Enough has been said in this
paragraph to indicate that the justification of telescopic
observations was no simple, straightfoward matter. Those
adversaries of Galileo who queried his findings were not all
stu pid, s tubborn reactionaries . Ju s tifications were
forthcoming, and became more and more adequate as better
and better telescopes were constructed and as optical
theories of their functioning were developed. But all this

41 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]
took time.
Galileo's greatest contribution to science was his
work in mechanics. He laid some of the foundations of the
Newtonian mechanics that was to replace Aristotle's. He
distinguished clearly between velocity and acceleration and
asserted that freely falling objects move with a constant
acceleration that is independent of their weight, dropping a
distance proportional to the square of the time of fall. He
denied the Aristotelian claim that all motion requires a cause
and in its place proposed a circular law of inertia, according
to which a moving object subject to no forces will move
indefinitely in a circle around the earth at uniform speed. He
analyzed projectile motion by resolving the motion of a
projectile into a horizontal component moving with a
constant velocity obeying his law of inertia, and a vertical
component subject to a constant acceleration downwards.
He showed that the resulting path of a projectile was a
parabola. He developed the concept of relative motion and
argued that the uniform motion of a system could not be
detected by mechanical means without access to some
reference point outside of the system.
These major developments were not achieved
instantaneously by Galileo. They emerged gradually over a
period of half a century, culminating in his book Two New
Sciences which was first published in 1638, almost a century
after the publication of Copernicus's major work. GaIiIeo
rendered his new conceptions meaningful and increasingly
more precise by means of illustrations and thought
experiments. Occasionally, GaIiIeo described actual

42~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]
experiments, for instance, experiment involving the rolling
of spheres down inclined planes, although just how many of
these Galileo actually performed is a matter of some dispute.
Galileo's new mechanics enabled the Copernican
system to be defended against some of the objections to it
mentioned above. An object held at the top of a tower and
sharing with the tower a circular motion around the earth's
centre will continue in that motion, along with the tower,
after it is dropped and will consequently strike the ground at
the foot of the tower, consistent with experience. Galileo
took the argument further and claimed that the correctness
of his law of inertia could be demonstrated by dropping a
stone from the top of the mast of a uniformly moving ship
and noting that it strikes the deck at the foot of the mast,
although Galileo did not claim to have performed the
experiment. Galileo was less successful in explaining why
loose objects are not flung from the surface of a spinning
earth, With hindsight, this can be attributed to the
inadequacies of his principle of inertia and of his lack of a
clear conception of gravity as a force.
Although the bulk of Galileo's scientific work was
designed to strengthen the Copernican theory, Galileo did
not himself devise a detailed astronomy, and seemed to
follow the Aristotelians in their preference for circular orbits.
It was Galileo's contemporary, Kepler who contributed a
major breakthrough in that direction when he discovered
that each planetary orbit could be represented by a single
ellipse, with the sun at one focus. This eliminated the
complex system of epicycles that both Copernicus and

43~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]
Ptolemy had found necessary. No similar simplification is
possible in the Ptolemaic, earth-centre system. Kepler had at
his disposal Tycho Brahe's recordings of planetetry
positions, which were more accurate than those available to
Copernicus. After a painstaking analysis of the data, Kepler
arrived at his three laws of planetary motion, that planets
move in elliptical orbits around the sun, that a line joining a
planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times, and
that the square of the period of a planet is proportional to
the cube of its mean distance from the sun.
Galileo and Kepler certainly strengthened the case in
fav ou r of t he C o pe rni ca n th eor y. H owe ve r, m ore
developments were necessary before that theory was
securely based on a comprehensive physics. Newton was
able to take advantage of the work of Galileo, Kepler and
others to construct that comprehensive physics that he
published in his Principia in 1687. He spelt out a clear
conception of force as the cause of acceleration rather than
motion, a conception that had been present in a somewhat
confused way in the writings of Galileo and Kepler. Newton
replaced Galileo's law of circular inertia with his own law of
linear inertia, according to which bodies continue to move in
straight lines at uniform speed unless acted on by a force.
Another major contribution by Newton was of course his
law of gravitation. This enabled Newton to explain the
approximate correctness of Kepler's laws of planetary
motion and Galileo's law of free fall. In the Newtonian
system, the realms of the celestial bodies and of earthly

44~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]
bodies were unified, each set of bodies moving under the
influence of forces according to Newton's laws of motion.
Once Newton sphysics had been constituted, it was possible
to apply it in detail to astronomy. It was possible, for
instance, to investigate the details of the moon's orbit, taking
into account its finite size, the spin of the earth, the wobble
of the earth upon its axis, and so on. It was also possible to
investigate the departure of the planets from Kepler's laws
due to the finite mass of the sun, interplanetary forces, etc.
Developments such as these were to occupy some of
Newton's Successors for the next couple of centuries.
The story I have sketched here should be sufficient to
indicate that the Copernican Revolution did not take place at
the drop of a hat or two from the Leaning Tower of Pisa. It is
also clear that neither the inductivists nor the falsificationists
give an account of science that is compatible with it. New
concepts of force and inertia did not come about as a result
of careful observation and experiment. Nor did they come
about through the falsification of bold conjectures and the
continual replacement of one bold conjecture by another.
Early formulations of the new theory, involving imperfectly
formulated novel conceptions, were presevered with and
developed in spite of apparent falsifications. It was only
after a new system of physics had been devised, a process
that involved the intellectual labour of many scientists over
several centuries, that the new theory could be successfully
matched with the results of observation and experiment in a
detailed way. No account of science can be regarded as

45 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]
anywhere near adequate unless it can accommodate such
factors.

E
E
"
56,
C+Z y [ Z wZ VZ kZgzZ2 zG{y G
[ Z E

E
E
"
5

G
]g ' CMc*
ggzZ DLZ 6,X Z7Za HEJ
-
z kZp Y}
]gzZ
H| m
M {zX c*
g Z / kZ ;g 6,kZ H~
.Z 6,.

xt 280r
# & *
* Z f
/Zt wZX U7} LZpwJ
E
"
5

G
{zX D
h
+ F,
6,
{zGD YZa ~ iyxg~,gG
yW
| b } , Z |t }i
Z |k^{"
$U*
-Zts kZC
q
/ 7e
$W+Z ~
6,eC
yc*
g= {"
$U*
wg ZD
z |+Z } 7,'
yZ yW
c*
7|x c*
g 7 {z c*
CF,Z Zg7
Y X 7|t A
$g J
-wgZD
k |t X 7m b)
$U*
"
**
xgzZ h kZ %$
+: ~ wg ZD
z CY w$
+L|
7` Zi Z }uz a LZgzZ $
7w$
+L {z |X @*
7
X C
:! :e*
* & z+
h ,
F ` u
[Kuhn]gzZ [Lakatos]lI |gzZq
-ZbW
gzZ {} (,` u Structuralist +Vzg Zz D C
D6,[Complex Paradiagms & Structures]VvJ egzZ o
[Falsification Method] e
$h
+ F,
,6,
0*
w Vz yZX
**
D` u6,
CkZp YY Hg" "q
-Z
X 7
g a"
$U*
b}g7/q
-Z t7 e
HwJ :b~ * D z!*
e
$h
+ F,
z ` Z 5Z Z
kZ} h
+ F,
gzZ }bX e**
: YY
D [probably falsify]gzZ [probably verify]h
+ F,
c*
.
}.
6,g

1. A. F. Chalmers, What Is This Thing Called Science?: An Assessment of

the Nature and Status of Science and its Methods, U.S.A.:Open University
Press , 1988, pp. 67 -75.

46 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]

LakatosgzZ KuhnX : YY H"


$U*
s|:6,
CyZX
hY6,
M
Yg0
+Z` um{ Z} kZgzZ
Z|~ w
I
E
g!
B
gzZ g0
+ZJ e Zstructually determindCkZgzZ
{g 7CC
3C
!*
} ],
ZgzZ ` uJ e mkZ X $

] G
5G3EZ bv!*
X C7CC
!*
` uLZ CX CY
` uLZC
X ~ ] *ZZ YYH7ts Z %K wJ
wg ZD
z bT @*
x[)w+ Z [Yw$
+` uX @*
W
g~
[zdI*
Hw$
+D` uwg ZD
zpg }igzZu`gJ
X b
{ q
-Zt t0q
-ZtgzZ gl
/}i @*
Y Z
#
-Z tt X F
F6,/Zz**
b y
[theories]V- F7q
E
-/BG!
G
ZX Zg kZ W yZ $ igzZ
k ~ kZ D o FX
{ F 75y%t{ st `g
/
%z g" ] b
sx `g ZW', \ 5 [complex structure] VvJ e
V- Fa + Y Z g" ]
/Z `gX 7 l
/}i
E-!
:}X **
g
/
[combinations] G/BGW
Law of Inertia, Laws of Mechanics, Laws of Energy, Laws of
Statistics, Laws of Gravity, Laws of Optics, Law of
Gravitational Forces, Laws of Thermodynamics, Laws of
Quantum Electrodynamics.

YY J
- ~}g !*
]g" `gA
$ ]c*
x t Z
#
gzZ [relative]Z~ D` u tX
t e~ o6 gzZ wZ 6 c*
g 5~ wY 7~$
+Z
x 6 gzZK6 Z5] gzZ }g (gzZ `ggzZg: !*
g
X Yw$
+|tgzZC
!*
k, Dz}g wZ Y6,
*gzZ Tg ZJ
-wg ZD
z @*
7,7t
% $
+: c*
%$
+|
HEQ ?
H7,t
H kZ
HHt~ * ~g7 t~}g !*

wVE**
Za ]Zp~
C~ ]ZggzZ ]c*

w~ wz J
-6Z M
*{zt wZ ,gzZb ?
H7,t
H6,Vz]~kZ
47 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]

C
Xg _(,
W{WgzZTg _(,
Wg] !*
z]c*
zg Z
~gZz Zz ,gzZ D
~y
W kZ6,Zgz Zuz later gzZ early @*
WgzZ qg g Zg ZbkZ @*
Y a kZ`
~y
WLZ {z e Q0
+
i Z
/ZqX
8a1 Z ]X e7
E
G
$E
WkZ
8 qg 0G
c*
`~y
W ]Z0$ later~y
X 7w "gzZDkZ "t ]tX 7gzZD
:[ zZ~* :]*
c 6Z M
[Time,
wgzZ yk z y i kZ sZ 6Z M
V H7tZ8 ]c*
zz%0 Space & Motion]
6Z M~w+C
c*
gg ZHEb6Z M ~w
M Hp @*
: 6Z M @*
: HE
/Z W] c*
HEsZt
c*
?
HH76,Vz
Ci C!*
tt HgzZ ?H7~h
+ F,
HEsZt 6Z
4Z Z]
G3E
H ?
Hc*
t 6,R: gzZ ~ C G
5E
.ztt 6Z M "Z
"G
5
/

% }igzZ `g 6, bT t bZ !*
sZt
g@*Bold Conjecture H 7 ~ ~ ,, 0 ]
Z q f
$Z e Cg ;gE- ag- i ~ Y 1905 6Z M ?._
4]t Z
] G
5G3E
]g e LZ~ gdz*`
kZ w
O n t h e :! q
-Z ~ ] yZ g ] Z yZ ~ yZy
t 6Z M ~ T
Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies
4._ g @*
!yZt Zz Za [ zZ~ * ] G
5G3E
c6,sZ
General theory of 6Z M ~ / w! 6Z M
tX k',a s/kZ Z
# c*
Z
~ Y 1913!Sq
-Z6,Relalivity
The :! z CZ kZ Z
# Z k
,5
+~ Y 1916 x 6Z M 6,sZ
-
J
z kZ H k
,
Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity
~ 7Z m{ ] gzZg Z ,
M [ zZ 6Z M ~ * b
~1919#Z
#
z kZ
/
%zV Zbt6Z M ~y
ZzZY 1919
/`g
-Z V Z b HzV Z b [total Solar Eclipse]
q
bZg~ Y 1919gzZ H~ zg ] c*
6Z M {@x
/`g { z
/
} }{7V Zb~ zg b 6Z W ys M
: q cgq
-Z0 }gzZ]Z@xyZV Zb c*
yZg
These studies among other things showed Einstein's

48 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]
prediction of cosmic significance, particularly the one
relating to the bending of the ray of light when it passes near
a massive star turned out to be true.

] /a}z& sZt6Z M T{z


/V Zb
4gzZ VZ c*
]G
5G3E
g] C
i Z',
ukZK [requisit data] g z ZZgzZ
sZt% V2X g Sir. A. Stanley Eddington VZ
y p
~ Y 1918 i
+Z c*
x Z9
v~ y!*
i ~ m,Z
~uz kZ6,qkZ~ Y 1923[ q
-Z6,sZt 6Z M6,
Zpg
D{6,T M6,x Mathametical Theory of Relativity:[
:6Z M
It is the finest presentation of the subject in any language.

6R]zGsb} (,} (,
,
**
Zz] !*
t ckZ
t 6Z M D YK 7~
.Z6,
C } ]Z@x] !*
D
gzZ tX m~y
ZzZ Y 1919G @*
z & kZgzZ c*
M 6,x ~ Y 1913 sZ
W~ 2Z HEX V Zb}uz }zG @*
kZgzZ H7
{t LZ T causious
t 6Z bold conjecture ]c*
conjecturei kZ k0*
kZ H7tt 6Z WZ
# p c*

] /{ z: 7]o[data]YY Y+
M bkZ6, Tx
`gq
-Z
) )q
-Z V Zbwb gzZ H7~Y 1913 kZtX
WX c*
0*
g ] c*

6Z W6,g Z yZgz }@xz _


/
K
M F,
}}@xkZ V Z b {@x
/`gyZ]
.z 6Z
] Z
tm bgzZ"kZ { .Z ]c*
6Z W
4
ZQgzZ @*
W', jZ z bX
HW[ zZ~ * ] G
5G3E
] c*
kZgzZ **
k6,<
bp Lg m$
+gzZ @*
Y w$
+ j
4X3 c*
$h
e
+]
.
8x yz ] G
5E
yW
[Modernism] **
gt ZX
bgzZDk
,
+g]!*
5
gzZ]Z@xsb

1. M. saeed shaikh, "Allama Iqbal's Interest in Science", in Iqbal Review,

vol.30,No. 1, April-June, 1989, p.34.

49 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]

4Z c*
zt %] G
5G3E
]zG 7 Cg
/
"x

3
%] G
5GEZ ~ |A
$} g Z gZ yZ yZb
/ZX
rg 7
w CZ f kZ ~}g !*
TsZt 6Z M p @*
7 z b

# 6Z M ~ Y 1921 7g Z ] G
Z
5G3EZ ~ yz bkZ
Zz Lord Haldane kZ c*
M [q
-Z ~ yKing's College
:~p Z
He did not believe that his theory had any metaphysical
implication.1

t 6Z M ~ Reign of Relativity :[ KZ Lord Haldane


:Z7CMc*
gV UPsZ
Haldane H76
,ga compendium of Idealistic Metaphysics
: !Zj WKZgzZ6Z M~Y 1921~Z
)
Z ~[ KZ
Revised a few of the unphilosophical paragrahs in the book.2

GG3E
4E
:?g
c :b
*
H]ZW,
Z ~fz:]yZZ e W,
Z H6,
b6Z WgzZHE
G
!
4

3
E

3
G
gzZ G ~ ] G
5 6Z W H ? DgzZ }]c*
Vz H ?
;g^ VhbZgzZ Vzi Z0
+Zy kDt J
-Z c*
e Za KD
eh
+ F,
: TD(Z q
-Z ? h
+ F,
**
.
ZgzZ /Zt H ? m{b H
b ? 7t
~Dz Yi
ZgzZD H ? YBDH& :
b H $
hz% ~gZtu Hb ?
rgztgzZgK
7,y %e b, ?gzZ c*
y * ~ s
:VZ{6,
If Einstein's theory is applicable to the world, then

under a wide variety of circumstances Newton's theory is


approximately applicable to it. For example, it can be shown,
within Einstein's theory, that if the velocity of a system with
respect to a set of frames of reference is small, then the value

1. Ibid., p.35.

2. Ibid., p.36.

50 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]
of the mass of the system will be approximately the same,
whichever reference frame in the set it is evaluated with
reference to. Consequently, within that set of reference
frames we will not go far wrong if we treat mass as if it were
a property rather than a relation. Similarly, under the same
conditions it can be shown from within Einstein's theory that
if we treat mass as a property then, within a particular
reference frame from among the set, the sum of the product
of mass and velocity for each part of the system will remain
constant to a high degree of approximation. That is, from the
point of view of Einstein's theory, we can show that the
Newtonian law of conservation of momentum will be
approximately valid provided velocities are not too great.
Again, we are forced to conclude that Newton's
theory cannot be adequately characterized in instrumentalist
terms. On the other hand, it cannot he construed in typical
realist terms either, since, from the point of view of
Einstein's theory, it does not correspond to the facts.
2. Unrepresentative realism
The physical world is such that Newtonian theory is
approximately applicable to it under a wide variety of
circumstances. The extent to which this is so can be
understood in the light of Einstein's theory. The approximate
validity of Newtonian theory is to be tested under
experimental conditions, although, if the world is such that
Newton's theory is applicable to it, it will continue to be so
outside of experimental situations. Newton's theory cannot
be constru ed as corres ponding to the facts but its
applicability to the world must be understood in a stronger

51 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]
sense than is, captured by instrumentalism.
I suggest that all of these comments on the status of
Newton's theory must be accepted by a realist who
subscribes to the correspondence theory of truth. Given this,
and given the difficulties associated with the correspondence
theory of truth discussed in the previous section, the path to
my own position is fairly straightforward. In involves
treating all physical theories in the way that the above
discussion had led us to treat Newton's theory.
From the point of view I wish to defend, the physical
world is such that our current physical theories are
applicable to it to some degree, and in general, to a degree
that exceeds that of its predecessors in most respects. The
aim of physics will; be to establish the limits of applicability
of current theories and to develop theories that are
applicable to the world to a greater degree of approximation
under a wider variety of circumstances. I will call such a
view as this unrepresentative realism.
Unrepresentative realism is realist in two senses.
Firstly, it involves the assumption that the physical world is
the way it is independently of our knowledge of it. The
world is the way it is whatever individuals or groups of
individuals may think about the matter. Secondly, it is
realist because it involves the assumption that, to the extent
that theories are applicable to the world, they are always so
applicable, inside and outside of experimental situations.
Physical theories do more than make claims about
correlations between sets of observation statements.
Unrepresentative realism is unrepresentative in so far as it

52~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]
does not incorporate a correspondence theory of truth. The
unrepresentative realist does not assume that our theories
describe entities in the world, such as wave functions or
fields, in the way that our common sense ideas understand
our language to describe cats and tables. We can appraise
our theories from the point of view of the extent to which
they successfully come to grips with some aspect of the
world, but we cannot go further to appraise them from the
point of view of the extent to which they describe the world
as it really is, simply because we do not have access to the
world independently of our theories in a way that would
enable us to assess the adequacy of those descriptions. This
clashes with our common sense notions, according to which
talks of cats and tables includes what is taken as descriptions
of such things. However, I would remind those defenders of
the applicability of the correspondence theory of truth to
physics that they, too, are obliged to render Intelligible
Newton's, to some extent successful, talk of-light particles,
and of mass conceived of as a property, Maxwell's talk of the
aether and Shrodinger's talk of wave-functions.
My characterization of unrepresentative realism in
terms of the applicability of theories to the world, or their
ability to come to grips with the world, might well be
objected to on the grounds that it is too vague. Part of my
response to that charge is to admit that my account is vague,
but to insist that this is not a weakness but a strength of my
position. The ways in which we are successfully able to
theorize about the world are sornething we have to discover
and not something that we-can establish in advance by

53~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]
philosophical argument. Galileo discovered how it is
possible to come to grips with some aspects of the physical
world by way of a mathematical theory of motion, Newton's
theories differed from Galileo's in important respects, whilst
quantum mechanics comes to grips with the world in ways
that are fundamentally different from classical physics and
who knows what the future has in store? Certainly not
philosophers of science. Any account of the relationship
between theories within physics, and the world that those
theories are intended to be about, should not be such as to
rule out possible future development. Consequently, a
degree of vagueness is essential.
My own account of the relationship between
physical theories and the world draws on two general
features of physics since Galileo. One is that physics involves
experimentation, which provides me with a basis for
rejecting instrumentalism. The other is the fact that physics
has experienced revolutionary changes, a factor that
constitutes part of the grounds for my criticism of the
application of the correspondence theory of truth to physics.
More details can certainly be added if we wish to
characterize two hundred years of physics more precisely.
We can say that physics involves universal generalizations
formulated in mathematical terms, that systems of theories
form something like Lakatosian research programmes, and
that their development has taken place in conformity with
the objectivist account of change presented in Chapter 11. In
this kind of way we can fill out an answer to the question
"what is this thing called physics?" However, we cannot be

54~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]
sure that physics will not undergo some drastic changes in
the future. It has already been noted that modern quantum
mechanics differs from classical physics in fundamental
respects, and it has also been suggested that the character of
physics may be changing due to the social changes
accompanying the growth of monopoly capitalism.
This talk of judgements about the status of areas of
knowledge decreases in significance in the light of
non-relativist aspects of my position. The, objectivist thrust
of my own stance stresses that individuals in society are
confronted by a social situation that has certain features,
whether or not they like it or are aware of it, and they have
at their disposal a range of means of changing the situation,
whether they like it or not. Further, any action that is taken
to change the situation will have consequences which
depend on the objective character of the situation, and may
differ markedly from the intentions of the actor. Similarly, in
the domain of knowledge, individuals are confronted by an
objective situation and a range of methods and theoretical
raw materials at their disposal for contributing to a change
in the situation. One theory may, as a matter of fact, meet
certain aims better than a rival, and the judgements of
individuals and groups may be wrong about the matter.
Looked at from this point of view, judgements made
by individuals concerning the character and merits of
theories are of less significant than is frequently assumed.
My objectivist account of theory change was designed to
show how the development of two hundred years of physics
can be explained in a way that does not depend crucially on

55 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]
the methodological judgements of individuals or groups.
Aims need not be analyzed in terms of the aspirations of
individuals or groups. Take, for example, the aim of
increasing technological control over nature. That aim has
greater significance in capitalist societies than in the feudal
societies they replaced. Within a capitalist economy
increased technological control is a necessity, in so far as
capitalists who fail to achieve it will be forced out of the
market by those who do and will consequently become
bankrupt. The situation was not the same in feudal society.
Communities centred around neighbouring manors were
not obliged by the nature of the economic system to compete
in this way. A feudal community which failed to match the
technological advances of its neighbour would not go broke,
but would simply experience a lower standard of living than
its neighbour. Such talk of aims does not involve the
judgements or values of the individuals involved.
In retrospect, I suggest the most important function
of my investigation is to combat what might be called the
ideology of science as it functions in our society. This
ideology involves the use of the dubious concept of science
and the equally dubious concept of truth that is often
associated with it, usually in the: defence of conservative
positions. For instance, we find the kind of behaviourist
psychology that encourages the treatment of people as
machines and the extensive use of the results of I.Q. studies
in our educational system defended in the name of science.
Bodies of knowledge such as these are defended by claiming
or implying that they have been acquired by means of the

56 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]
"scientific method" and, therefore, must have merit. It is not
only the political right wing that uses the categories of
science and scientific methods in this way. One frequently
finds Marxists using them to defend the claim that historical
materialism is a science. The general categories of science
and scientific method are also used to rule out or suppress
areas of study. For instance, Popper argues against Marxism
and Adlerian psychology, on the grounds that they do not
conform to his falsificationist methodology, whilst Lakatos
appealed to his methodology of scientific research
programmes to argue against Marxism, contemporary
sociology, and other intellectual pollution!
As will by now be clear, my own view is that there is
no timeless and universal conception of science or scientific
method which can serve the purposes exemplified in the
previous paragraph. We do not have the resources to arrive
at and defend such notions. We cannot legitimately defend
or reject items of knowledge because they do or do not
conform to some ready-made criterion of scientificity. The
going is tougher than that. If, for example, we wish to take
an enlightened stand on some version of Marxism, then we
will need to investigate what its aims are, the methods
employed to 'achieve those aims, the extent to which those
aims have been attained, and the forces or factors that
determine its development. We would then be in a position
to evaluate the version of Marxism in terms of the
desirability of what it aims for, the extent to which its
methods, enable the aims to be attained, and the interests
that it serves.

57 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]
Whilst one of the objectives of my book is to
undermine illegitimate uses of conceptions of science and
scientific method. I also hope that it will do something to
counter the extreme individualist or relativist reactions
against the ideology of science. It is not the case that any
view is as good as any other. If a situation is to be changed
in a controlled way, whether the situation involves the state
of development of some branch of knowledge or the state of
development of some aspect of society, this will best be
achieved by way of a grasp of the situation and a mastery of
the means available for changing it. This will typically
involve co-operative action. The policy of "anything goes",
interpreted in a more general sense than Feyerabend
probably intended, is to be resisted because of its impotence.
To quote John Krige again, anything goes. means that in
practice, everything stays".

Marxists are keen to insist that historical materialism


is a science. In addition, Library Science, Administrative
Science, Speech Science, Forest Science, Dairy Science, Meat
and Animal Science and even Mortuary Science are all
currently taught or were recently taught at American
colleges or universities. Self-avowed "scientists" in such
fields will often see themselves as following the empirical
method of physics, which for them consists of the collection
of "facts" by means of careful observation and experiment
and the subsequent derivation of laws and theories from

1. A. F. Chalmers, What is This Thing Called Science? U.S.A: Open

University Press , 1988, pp. 162-170.

58 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]
those facts by some kind of logical procedure. I was recently
informed by a colleague in the history department, who
apparently had absorbed this brand of empiricism, that it is
not at present possible to write Australian history because
we do not as yet have a sufficient number of facts. An
inscription on the facade of' the Social Science Research
Building at the University of Chicago reads, "If you cannot
measure, your knowledge is meagre and unsatisfactory". No
doubt, many of its inhabitants, imprisoned in their modern
laboratories, scrutinize the world through the iron bars of
the integers, failing to realize that the method that they
endeavour to follow is not only necessarily barren and
unfruitful but also is not the method to which the success of
physics is to be attributed.
The mistaken view of science referred to above will
be discussed and demolished in the opening chapters of this
book. Even though some scientists and many
pseudo-scientists voice their allegiance to that method, no
modern philosopher of science would be unaware of at least
some of its shortcomings. Modern developments in the
philosophy of science have pinpointed and stressed
deep-seated difficulties associated with the idea that science
rests on a sure foundation acquired through observation and
experiment and with the idea that there is some kind of
inference procedure that enables us to derive scientific
theories from such a base in a reliable way. There is just no
method that enables scientific theories to be proven true or
even probably true. Later in the book, I will argue that
attempts to give a simple and straightforward logical

59 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]
reconstruction of the "scientific method" encounter further
difficulties when it is realized that there is no method that
enables scientific theories to be conclusively disproved
either.
Some of the arguments to support the claim that
scientific theories cannot be conclusively proved or
disproved are largely based on philosophical and logical
considerations. Others are based on a detailed analysis of the
history of science and modern scientific theories. It has been
a feature of modern developments in theories of scientific
method that increasing attention has been paid to the history
of science. One of the embarrassing results of this for many
philosophers of science is that those episodes in the history
of science that are commonly regarded as most characteristic
of major advances, whether they be the innovations of
Galileo, Newton, Darwin or Einstein, have not come about
by anything like the methods typically described by
philosophers.
One reaction to the realization that scientific theories
cannot be conclusively proved or disproved and that the
reconstructions of philosophers bear little resemblance to
what actually goes on in science is to give up altogether the
idea that science is a rational activity operating according to
some special method or methods. It is a reaction somewhat
like this that has recently led philosopher and entertainer
Paul Feyerabend to write a book with the title Against
Method: Outline of an Anarchistic Theory of Knowledge and a
paper with the title "Philosophy of Science: A Subject with a
Great Past"; According to the most extreme view that has

60~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]
been read into Feyerabend's recent writings, science has no
special features that render it intrinsically superior to other
branches of knowledge such as ancient myths or Voodoo. A
high regard for science is seen as the modern religion,
playing a similar role to that played by Christianity in
Europe in earlier eras. It is suggested that the choice between
theories boils down to choices determined by the subjective
values and wishes of individuals..
Francis Bacon was one of the first to attempt to
articulate what the method of modern science is. In the early
seventeenth century, he proposed that the aim of science is
the improvement of man's lot on earth, and for him that aim
was to be achieved by collecting facts through organized
observation and deriving theories from them. Since then,
Bacon's theory has been modified and improved by some
and challenged in a fairly radical; way by others. An
historical account and explanation of developments in the
philosophy of science would make a very interesting
study. For instance, it would be very interesting to
investigate and explain the rise of logical positivism, which
began in Vienna in the early decades ot this century, became
very popular and still has considerable influence today..1

:Z VzI$
e+
h.
] :M
%gzZb! f
G-!
C }g V}',
B {zt ]o+ E
k
gzZ6Z M [f
*h
+]
.x M 6 ~ N d
$! f5ZzZ W \g- wzZx
r y
KZ J
-.
$ Tg Z gNg U*M q 0
+
i 5q
-ZgzZ
YH

4
5
5
G

q
-ZJ
- ` MwiZy
KZt[categories]m, G {as

1. Ibid., pp.xvi-xviii.

61 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]

YH
45105
5G
={ c*
i~y
KZ 6C
gzZm,G
KZf~w
HZa!Zzt~f VzIe

$h
+]
.
) !*
~zcgkZ @*
uk
,
igzZq
G

y
KZ *w ZIq
-Z~q)gfbgzZ ~d
$ xkZ
]Z|t Z e W,
Z )6,q g@*
C1]
.
HZ9
V ]Z|yZ g y
KZ h
+]
.Zn JZ : 6,
zZ L
/ W,
Z
g @*
KZ ._g C1]
.kZ g @*
@*
M ', u { Historicism
{ c*
i y
KZgz
/y
KZ *C
gzZ 4gzgz ZC
g| (,
M
Synthesis~Anti ThesisgzZ Thesis uk
,
i { c*
igzZq={ c*
i4
\ M LZ g @*
g* g @*
LgVZz VZzg g @*
)g fkZ @*
M',
y
KZ)g f C1]
.kZ g @*
7
ggI ~{ g @*
c*
CZC

M { z gzZ gF,
gzZwD Z `z ~ Z ~ lVg

KZ=f f(,
M g @*
D YZ {x M `z ;g| (,

/
*
@Y^ ~Anti thesisX CYCq~
D YZz~gz Zg@*
[gzZVc*
gzi Vx{ skZ;g7s[Z s i
6 6 }gZ Z6 6 @*
gZ fgzZ=s:~gZkZg@*

]q :gzZ LgVZz VZzg+


$Y gZy
KZgzZC M~z]Z XZ55j
O 4gzgz ZC
~ Hegelian Evolution @*
Y ` @*
Z h Z _6,
x x Zm
CZ6,}i Z gZ
F,
+ i` M gZzZx g@*
$

y
KZ qD 0*
gZ
x **
gzZ
g ] n VV gzZgZz Z
{ c*
i4 x ZY m
CZx y
KZh
+]
.x Z xgZ dZ 4 V
KZx a
#
+4
KZg@*
y
KZqZX ^e D YgZ{ c*
i !*
{c*
iq=
X y
KZ
:$
d+,
Fu \ g *
@$
d+
h.
]
A+F
G
F

.
kZ HOVhz [g Zq
-Z~ w& T y
KZ {zt
L~
KZ g @*
p H Za ~ Y 2008 % gpgzZ { c*
i
~
KZ g @*
kZ
) !*
k z mw y
KZ xkZ
HH7|
# z
ZgzZ % gp

KZ g @*
uh\G,
\ G,
) !*

uv70~y
ZzZ~,
xz Kzga kZ y
KZ qp ;g 7xz Kzg M L~ V'{,
kZ]Z{z
/Z7b k0*
kZ a h
+y

1
62~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]

GJacques Diouf{ Z',


u[FAO] c^
,k
Hg W~v Z hZ e @Xgl
~b X gg D k#Z z uwkZ Z
Zt
) !*
y Zd h+]
. H
New av wq]gu kZ X gxz kZ Z Wq
-Z
{ Z',
u [ WFP ]x Z
/z6,e gz UN X ]gz World Food Order
] Z Y
) !*
u Zgp~ VCc*
F,F c*
c*
Joselte Sheevan
)f
**
!Zi Z u ZX * u **
e
$. * q
-ZX } 7,^Y
g Y @g g Z ~!~ ZkZ 7 Z Z
ZtX ~g Z
v265 D Y 0*
~ Z WZ', Z
Z 642 ~ Z
ZtyZX

2 gzZM% Z H 53~ Sub Saharan i


.G
gzZ z t52gzZ ~ G
Z
1C
X g D u Z
Z 15 ~ Cc*
F,
X D Y 0*
~i
Z ! gzZ
{ c*
isgzZ szz ~ VkZ 7kZ:
L z kZ Z
X **
Yh
+y

] VgzZZ $g"a o{ c*
i
{ VZg Zz yZ g @*
~g7 ~ wk
/'Zg Zz p
y
KZ kZX 7 0*
v M T H XZ/ kg` y
KZh
+]
.kZ
~ Z~(,Z],
{ fZng "gzZV~C
Vzg F
F6,VN`
C
M * e ^
,
t YY H !*
',z { n% Vz% * { ],
{ f yZ K
{gzZsp ]Z ? VYg ZpypgzZ {0
+
g z Z [Modern man]
tt | ap],{ fZ HV1g Za v }kZ kZ
%Z Le ]ha]ZpKZt 7`{ y
KZ
* y
KZ kZX g Z s@ Z ]hZ (~ * 7e
~} ]Z XZ yZ ] ~g7 XZ ,q &
h +Z~
]
KZ ;gh
+y
a ;g
@a y
KZ +F,
g @*
y
KZ q
kZ C
Capital tu gq
-Zs ;gw$
+~[comodities]ZgzZ g
M
;g] C7 k e\ !*
g Y6,gzZY g 6,
gzZ U ] ~ [fX g ZgzZ d
W V X ; g^z',M
x q
-Zm!*
] Zz)Z
# [Value] g ~ Zi Wt X ] !*
u **
VZim]gbZ 7t
',Z',

X Y 2009yB19 DAWN, AFP C1


63~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]

Zx lZ z q Z Zx~ yO ay

b a ~g Z',i **
gzZVc*
gF
t ~
C +I e
$h
+]
.}g ?Y H: { .Z VY Vz
} h %% g~
]g]gX ~xsZ] Zz)gzZ ~ Zi W
~uz g Y 96,Vv Za a ;g Y [ Z!6,]g g 0
tN Yg ~qg]^
,Y**
VgVzg ZD
p q N6,g ~

a 5Z Z
A zi h }uz q
-Z ~ c*
~ [f
C
g !*
@*
Bhidden hurtgzZ [Marital Rape]x`
t x`
.
**
gzZZ (,
v Marital Rape X{w] ~ X J ZwT
Intimate Partner Sexual gzZ Partner Rape Statutory Rape
kZ,TZ`
Z Zx lZt **
i $i [ISPA]Assualt
i x`
6Zi z Zi { b X 7
o6,
Spousal ~ [f b Z **
] [freedom] ~ Zi W] ^
,Y**
b %V [f{zt X @*
B Rape
H
E
8
~I+
$Y ~uz Z ~ Zi Wt X @*
Y c*
g Z
h~
C {g C F {'
[pleasure]
yLZa~g7 j^
,Y ZpKZ {~

/Z t
b VgzZgzi ~"g: w %
**
i Rape Z }{C
E
it X @*
~gzZ [Equality] ]Zz) ~
C, [freedom] ~ Zi W **
i 0E
Y
[self autonomus g Up V ~ gzZ [body is my property] !
Human being is a pleasure seeking 0
+
i ~ gzZ being]
E
-!
G
B
/
G
**
i% b ~ [ft kZX
HH> WgzZ}W animal
0
+
i~ b gzZ + F,
mY Zz Zi Z ^
,Y b 1+F,
y W~g
~
KZ g @*
X ZIx`
+F,
+6~g **
$
i **
%g kZ/
$z^q
-
gaZXH !*
',bkZ}g Z Zb T7Za Ld
$+F,
? f +Z
gzZW ~
Y c*
uF,**
~
Vz%Vg~[f~
X
H {g Z Z yZ0
+{~[fZ7 Zg y
X hZzg%~gzZ ~ Zi Wrx t Marital Rape
C
W V : e\ !*
d
: ~C
: Y7 Z~ ~ Zi WZX Zi W

~ Zi W\ WX M
h7x s } Zg ZgzZ %a LgLZ \W
qz \ M s0
+
i CZ ft zJ
- [private life] 0
+
i CZ f \ Ws
kZ [other being] z Zq
-Z {z Zuz Z\ M CY 6,\ M
64~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]

\ M t ~
C& [own personal life] 0
+
i CZ f K Z
vg )
,
gzZ \ !*
V x *Y
Hc*
pgzZ ~i Z0
+Z W,
Z gk,S
n
`f
$Z6,~V/}uz
HHpkZ VZD',
Y &
}uz ~ Zi Mt ,e ~ ]gzZ]KZp\Wt s
z+Z \ M : x Z
+ x : Zg ZtugzZ: bq~ ~ Zi M ~ ZZ
~ 0
+
i CZ f \ M private spherep Zi Wa 0
+
i^Z6,
@*
YW~other Public{z
Z\ W7
Zz ya ~\W
$ ZZx **
Z
C
s~ Zi M~[f [Individualism] 46,e
CY a]z s Z ~ Zi MtC7\gzZ {z
/Z
Z gC

c*
g ZN YZ Y Zi M gzZ
C
@*

T C Z
D~ Zi M ]z n +
$Y
s { z
/
~ a \W
/Z 7yZ0
+{ X CY Z x Cg Cg ~
+Vc*
Z
0*
,uIuzg6,V
/
u Z)kZ , Z~~ Zi WC
gzZ
~T [public sphere crime] x`
:7~i Z0
+Z
.
~[ft,
gW VW {g!*
]Zg ? Yb77 eKZ\!*
Z
N Zw: `
gzZ{
~ ZiW~C
.x *
*tVY ?g YV]Zg ? Yb7 d
Wwb:
q6,gze
$.} ],
Z*ZzZz wZ { +
$Y
c*
g
pX
Hc*
D ~ Zi WI~gt ~
C ',
Z',**
: **
~ Zi WkZX
]!*
.I }uz M /zg bZ ~ Zi M I CZf
_
C
s7Z
~0*
a kZ 6,~ y0*
sgeZ ~ Z
bTV: bz
yiV] IzZ~Zi M gW,
O~ Zi M Vzuz
KyZf Z ~^ C1Vzuz kZ : ]iYZ yZ f Z Y c*
w$
+
]g~ V e $
Y 7DIZC
!*
$
Y ~g0
+Z
qJ
-ukZ s\ M ~ Zi M I +F,
z{z \ M ~ V/}uz wq
gD .lpkZD~ Zi WI\W}X: s gt ~
C{z
Z7,i U~/w]a \W: ]i YZ V-
ge~[f\WV:
LZ \W: M
hZz ) ZgZ% %kZ ~ KZ \W: M
h
s ~ Zi W M
hJ 7,y M
UV: M
h 6,gZzWV
}uz ~ Zi W CZ f kZ \ W
/Z X a \ Ws ~ Zi W+F,
z \W
65 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]

~g eg W **
6,VFyZ0
+{ 6, ZLZ [other]
X Yt~ Zi W\W Z
-Z*X Q7}~ g @*
q

KZ wg ZD
] x lZ8
-g g +Z **
i
gZ
x/
$c*
{ ZpZzkZ%gy~ g e
~ VxZ
# $
Y ~
z kZ Zwx`
kZ V , Z g e s
Hc*

724X x`
nm{q
-Z **
ik~ 32X Bg (Z e6,
g
@*
%>% **
i ~
KZ g @*
X @*
Y Hg**
ix`
2Z x **
it ~
G

N
&
[abnormal y " kZX $
]g[g Z **
i 2Z ! fp
-Z ~ x ZZ **
q
i ]g%7W,Z p ;g ` Z ~ [f6,logic]
c*
]g { ] ?f kZ g @*
*X M
h],Z] ls }uz
} Z{)g fy c*
} {e b g6,]!*
kZsyLZ%
VY ]g gzZ
HHVY% zig W Zp g ~=
-0
q
+
i KZ~ yLZgzZ ]gz Zp~
# q ~ <kZ ?q
kZ [tolerance] ~g Z Zzg ~ [fx **
kZ X ZIx`
**
Zg7 c*
V ^
*gZkZgzZ d
$t ~g ] gzZ
Z',]X @*
Y ,g
/
g
tolerance b Z kZ "Z X g} $ tolerance
ug I~gzZC
]ZpVzuza ZpKZ **
:
Z',ZLZ
b Z kZ ZkZ ; g Y H~[f6,T by!*
Vg+F,

bq e
$Zzg c*
kz <y itzg /_
. ~ { Zg ~ Zi W7 Zuz
E
kZ
@*
6,kZ [fZ
# 9
i q
-Z tolerancegzZ ~ Zi W0Ei**
~igz s t ~
CgzZ ; g76,wZ LZt +sZ}g
Russel, Diana E.H. X/Zzx [f`t X ;g
:._Rape in Marriage. [Macmillan 1990][
That rape in marriage was the most common yet most
neglected area of sexual violence.
License to : [ Kersti yllo gzZ David Finkelhor

~ eS

:._ g
L gLzZg **
Rape,[New York: Free Press, 1985]

10 to 14 percent of all married American women have been or


will be raped by their husbands.

66 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]

gZ2Zm #( c*
( ~ y[f
/Z d
$t
4
R,}gZ

gZ L LyZ m,
/

z6, 0
+
ig **
igzZ 7
}g7 2 ~LZ }uz q
-Z Zh { ~
q
-Z Z
# ~ [fZgzZ @*
Y c*

X @*
76,gx`
+F,~g **
i[fmw'kZ iz~
i **
[fz!*
kZX W7~{d
$
KZg@*
+ZgzZ ~+Z
$+F,
d
dZgzZ F,
',
!*
*d
$gzZ
Hk
,
+x !Z6,
5
$kZ^ g@*
d

BVgVzgZD

~qg!*
~[fZ t \[fT
6,h
e L Zy

% gY9~x3,
\!*
V gzZ h~g **
i izgz
\ !*
;gYH~
Z\!*
6,e
$D e d
W ~ g :'g
]Zz) ~ Zi M ~ yq
-Z g `g ] l:7 s d
W ~ V 6,e
$D
V7&
[gJnq
-Z6,x **
]zpFreedom & Equality
ggzZ,gzZ g
/
g!*
OZZ

# ? Y{g {gZ Z y~
qkZ
{gzZ Zw)gfyq
-Z
z gzZ Y mZ
# g: !*
]c*
Zzg
Tg^I g V;z $
7Za ]gzZmW,
Zk
,
isp e~
g L
~ Z
V LZ ]g[fX
HyZ0
+{a kZ ~ [f
M V Vzg6 Z`
6 gY !*
',V)gf /~ m,
e
V1gZ M kZNkZC
i]{gVh
+]
.guh
{h
+]
.qY bgZ
q g+4gzZ.
h
+]
.y
KZ, ZX g !*
',]
X
u o*
*gZz Zc*
] n:i Zy
KZ?f kZ
KyZ ZD M wZ [ wa#} (,vgzZy**
- a#
C1]
.p$
YA
$%] ZKgzZ2Z M~zgVZ [
~sZt6Z MgzZqJ g Ztyzg Z eq= g @*
g
Zg "gzZ!*
-Zg~[f~k
q
,
+W,
5
Z [Relativity]s
g Z7zZf(,
M)g fsZgzZ g Z,q c*
0*
gZ
gwJ.
**
gzZg "YD{ z7eY g Z~DgzZT Lg m$
+x|zpz^
ZVzq
) !*
`zsZX 0*
gZ
/ZY g ZgzZ
wZ
X g7 |
:}z]Z ,
WZ :tC1.
]
Hg6,

C= VZ M6,k Z
67 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]

*g Y g Z wZ kZ X k
*
,5
+p)g f g Z =Y
KgzZ: eg ` u=
H| (,
M: i[ Z s itce
fa YY 7wZgzZ ~$
+Z =k
,
+pkZ z!*
5

ws Z s agz kZss gzC
Zgw$
+
KZ=gzZ
KZ
= Zz0*
z ~g @*
kZgzZ g @*
KZ
zs Z Y Z nyZZ
t s$
+
zgzZ g @*
V 7 g @*
Zgz ] Z wZK Z
g
/a Dg
/
gz kZhs gz }g
/
N Y w$
C
+wZ
] c@*
KZ ]Z|yZ Z 7,W,
Z Z6,+sZh
+]
.gkZ Y
7I Zx kZ] Z|t 7,I ]gC1]
.((~
xE Q:gzZ Zzy!*
i! # ] ^^ ]e
$Z yZVY
V,Z Dg(Z]Zgz!*
dkZp qg6,
sZ
~y
M
zmvZ-g tsZgzZ x~[}o]t
g

KZ =
H a kZx !Z ~zx 6,y M
gzZ p=a kZ
C
9L L !*
9L L y
KZ[ ZX VwLZ~zmv-[
^ g @*
X V `zLZ { gzZ: i g @*

=X g7]gz
O
kZ X
Hc*
{ i Zzg ]t ZX
H 4Z ~ w2
) & y
KZ X
Hk
,5
+x !Z
w[q
C
~ Vs}uz X ]t Zg 7 ]gz}g Z Z
kZ = wr
# C
[ZX g: !*
i ]gzCc*
w[ Z
) !*
y
KZ g @*
zgt =
Hp~ zg=y
KZgzZ
C
M6,x
xz
) & =y
KZJ
-Z
# g7 ]gz9[ Z Z: q bkZ
C
9L L a b &Z [Prophet of innerself] !*
9L L kZ
B}g
z!!*
9Zga~gzg[ZpgC7,
]gz
E
G
a igzZ]q s$
+
t `z0$ gZ a}g=
gzZ4gz[
$
gy
KZ qYggQ $
+<$
+
F,
',aZ x Z/gzZ[
$
gy
KZt~V/s Xq={ c*
i
Wz{c*
i yzZ {],
Z ]_gzZ]!*
kZY v!*
fgzZ.

=gzZ: iy
KZC
Zz M~
) !*
gzZgZDkZXZ DtZ
tkZ q
A &+ T[yZgzZ n C6,g4Vx{V
68 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]

y
KZ Zz M ~ V i { M }t i: i Zz Y {g Zx
gz kZ v .Y }c*
g VgzZ Vx{ x
J/gzZ x Zm
CZ
gz ZZg@*
{zY
}gZ ZyZgzZ/DyZ y
KZh
+]
.
~ g@*
gkZgxz gZ [)gf]!*
gzZ Za ~
gzZd
',
ix ZZgzZC
UsgzZ CYe**
Z%syzZ
]]g@*
gzZgU*M ]g@*
]c*
Zzg KZgzZ C M x g@*
KZ C Za Z'
i
q Ce}z &bCHw~T @ M
$! ft {z
d
8tzg ~FZ kZ Z VzI e
$h
+]
.
kZ}gZZ kZ ZX /Z ht C~$
+ZgzZ @ M
g@*
+]
h
.kZ Z4i yzZ]c*
ZzggZZd
${kZD{

M f+
M#Ze
$h
+]
.sZx **
]Zg yZX Y c*
wJ e<*._
wD Z c*
g Z +sZIe
$h
+]
.~qx **
Z ZgzZe
$ sZ
X:
~t ZLtL ~p Z
G
C-!] nkZ
{C " i Z c*
/Zz ~g Z gzZ b + E
kZgzZ g@*
bh
+]
.gzZ G~ [f ]Z|t X D Zz
M %
b & Z q
-~#xi Z 7xt Z Zz**

gzZb **
- | 7g ]ZZwd|~ rz

gz C 30y
KDZw{gI
) !*
x ~bh
+]
.
g kCZ Vz
CKZ Z
+ | c*
3 D
w}i
kZ[Zb [kZ g C0*
rz
b [ig al
J
-V-F |
6,
zZ kZ Cg~VkzV id
$ g@*
KZY q
bh
+]
. C s gzC
{z C Zgz Vkz V i kzp$
JZ 7
Zg \7 W,
Zk
,
i xi Z z6,Zg} b *t6,|
[Book of Nataure]][ah,
C{gI|gzZ 0*
a "7,][
HH c*
g [God] ]{)g f

DY ]gzDa kZ 7 [Book of God] :XZ [


gzZt Yq Z jV7(C
C
[objective]zc
~ z b~ ] kZ Y Z @*
{@x ] !*
kZ s @*
7s@
69 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]

kZDt How things happen in the world Cx b C M


g ZY)Dt Zgz [purpose] e
$t 7HgzZce **
H @*
7c
E
G
$
gzZ Zszc~ * D x **
Positivism0t Value Neutral
t
HY 6,]c*
d}g7 kZ b !*
z t', S0
+M
yZZ6,kZ~ ~,g VZp: mgz } kZ |zG
w a#} (,x J
-~,gVZX g M ~], M |} kZ
e[Discovery of Truth]|l)g fD Z@x]!*

X
H1tW,
gzZ ~g ZZ) M Positivismg~!*
4X
~VdEZgzZE M D W,
Zk
,
i Naturalistic gzZ Positivistic
E

-H
E
" ZikZ ^g ke wJ6,g |0q
-g gzZ /B .
J
$ E.2EG
-Z
!*
g z
/
tbD M D M~,Zp Ze
$.g T
4g T kZ H Z Zg Z~
C~s g z
/kZ wgD
;g:
6,g yZd xq
-Z bzg- Vzz [)gzZ d) e
$K
~ X kZ )g f [Phenomnology] ]c*
1, LZ
The Crises of European Sciences and : [ KZ 0
+
Kd]Z
Transcendental Phenomenology: An Introduction to
Phenomenological Philosophy,[Evanstn: Northwestern

Vd` M ]g @*
kZ wgD
~University Press,1970.]
:~q
-Z ` M kZ ~
e
$K 4 D b xi Z Wi 0*
gzZ xi Z woL L
X ~^ y
/b K7y
/s }
y
KDZ
M %gzZ zcE M D8 g- ! f [wgD

Z Vkz V i m{pd
$y g @*
m{q
-Z O D M ZgzZ c*

T h e Q u e s t i o n ~ Y 1926 v;
/
kZ 6,g D Zz
Concerning Technology in Martin: Heidegger's Basic
Writings,[Ed.,David Farrell Krell,New York: Harper Collins

gzZb Za ]Z6 ~}g !*


b Publications, 1970.]
gzZ wgD
M t 0 |q
-Z ~ V',k Z ~ y
K]ZyZ
70 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]

,Z W,O6,gh
+wz gzZ D
) !*
]_yZ v;
7 |l)g fb } (,[fJ
- ` M ~
)g fbx [f~,Z YY t ~V/ H
scienticization a#x ~,g ZS
n} |l
X { [freedom]~ Zi Mt wyZ #
',i

71 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

:<gzZb+
h.
]

7 2~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb

[!*
Zuz

? Hb
?yZb c*
N CIe
$h
+]
.
g : ek0*
}g aiYgzZ + YKkZ ?7HgzZ Hb
7] zg Z VzI e
$h
+]
.yZgzZ y; ',y
Kg wZ ` u
4

3
E
G
] ( Z Z gzZ i ~xE a#gzZ VZb{z[f
gzZ {zXzVZz VZzg g @*
zd
$gzZbzg"z DXb Zz
G-!
C k\Z yyZqZ H~}g !*
b+ OE
bVZb
b <[z [% bT{zVY 7t x ] %=I
kZ Z
Hc*
Z~[fs bkZw>zbzgzZ[zz
D~zb
zb
{z C7DgzZLbX 7e7,~0
+
i
R. P. Feynman } VZ bCc*
,Z6,.
^
gzZ 6Z M ~kZ X
: q~
Each piece, or part, of the whole of whole nature is
always merely an approximation to the complete truth, or the
complete truth so far as we know it. In fact, everything we
know is only some kind of approximation, because we know
that we do not know all the laws as yet. Therefore, things must
be learned only to be unlearned again or, more likely, to be
corrected. The principle of science, the definition, almost, is

7 2~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
the following:
The test of all knowledge is experiment. Experiment is the sole
judge of scientific" truth." But what is the source of
knowledge? Where do the laws that are to be tested come
from? Experiment, itself, helps to produce these laws, in the
sense that it gives us hints. But also needed is imagination to
create from these hints the great generalizations

to guess

at the wonderful, simple, but very strange patterns beneath


them all, and then to experiment to check again whether we
have made the right guess. This imagining process is so
difficult that there is a division of labor in physics: there are
theoretical physicists who imagine, deduce, and guess at new
laws, but do not experiment; and then there are experimental
physicists who experiment, imagine, deduce, and guess. For
example, the mass of an object never seems to change: a
spinning top has the same weight as a still one. So a "law"
was invented: mass is constant, independent of speed. That
"law" is now found to be incorrect. Mass is found to increase
with velocity, but appreciable increases require velocities
near that of light. A true law is: if an object moves with a
speed of less than one hundred miles a second the mass is
constant to within one part in a million. In some such
approximate form this is a correct law. So in practice one
might think that the new law makes no significant
difference. Well, yes and no. For ordinary speeds we can
certainly forget it and use the simple constant-mass law as a
good approximation. But for high speeds we are wrong, and

7 3~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
the higher the speed, the more wrong we are.
Finally, and most interesting, philosophically we are
completely wrong with the approximate law. Our entire
picture of the world has to be altered even though the mass
changes only by a little bit. This is a very peculiar thing
about the philosophy, or the ideas, behind the laws. Even a
very small effect sometimes requires profound changes in
our ideas.

:7 D~z
bb

A & kZ {z M
hN 7~ ]uz c*
=q
-Z ] yZ b
[whole] {z Z .
$!*
~VzgzZ Z b
ZV { VZ] {z
: H i Z0
+Z}uz] !*
}n
pg7
A &qD
If our small minds, for some convenience, divide this glass
of wine, this universe, into parts

physics, biology,

geology, astronomy, psychology, and so on

remember

that nature does not know it! So let us put it all back
together, not forgetting ultimately what it is for. Let it give
us one more final pleasure: drink it and forget it all!

:N~zb
6,
CkZ @*
q Z EE
e
$. zb
q
-Z 6,D~zb
kZ
: @*
s Z Z}p q
-Z **
+ T]gzZ]
KZ
In the cells of living systems there are many elaborate
chemical reactions, in which one compound is changed into
another and another. To give some impression of the
enormous efforts that have gone into the study of

1. Richard P. Feynman, Six Easy Pieces: Essentials of Physics Explained by Its Most
Brilliant Teacher, USA: Helix Books,1995,pp.2-3.
2. Ibid., p.67.

74~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
biochemistry, summarizes our knowledge to date on just
one small part of the many series of reactions which occur in
cells, perhaps a percent or so of it.1

]!*
Ze
$.g p[{P}0|b
: a% @ M +Ie
$h
+]
.
There is a popular misconception that science is an
impersonal, dispassionate, and thoroughly objective
enterprise. Whereas most other human activities are
dominated by fashions, fads, and personalities, science is
supposed to be constrained by agreed rules of procedure
and rigorous tests. It is the results that count, not the people
who produce them.
This is, of course, manifest nonsense. Science is a
people-driven activity like all human endeavor, and just as
subject to fashion and whim.2

:,
6Vzi Z+
0ZgzZ] zG^ b
X k(, M ^ b )g f Vzi Z0
+Z gzZ ]zGy k
Quantum Electro DynamicsX @*
7tgzZ }VZb
tt Zg~}g!*
TX { i Zzg *VZzgD~* b

rg
A & )z2Z zwZgzZ yC
ZC
b
kZ X Lg gt ~gZ gzZ ]5 z!*
kZp
X D Y K 6,ygzZ k } i Z0
+Z gZ z!*
y
;gLOggzZH~[Nucleus]
/
% [Atom]C
7xtVZb
?H]HwkZgzZ
We have a new kind of particle to add to the
electron, the proton, and the neutron. That new particle is

1. Ibid.,p.52.

2. Ibid.,p.ix.

75~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
called a photon. The new view of the interaction of electrons
and protons that is electromagnetic theory, but with
everything quantum-mechanically correct, is called
Quantum Electrodynamics. This fundamental theory of the
interaction of light and matter, or electric field and charges,
is our greatest success so far in physics. In this one theory we
have the basic rules for all ordinary phenomena except for
gravitation and nuclear processes. For example, out of
Quantum Electrodynamics come all known electrical,
mechanical, and chemical laws: the laws for the collision of
billiard balls, the motions of wires in magnetic fields, the
specific heat of carbon monoxide, the color of neon signs, the
density of salt, and the reactions of hydrogen and oxygen to
make water are all consequences of this one law. All these
details can be worked out if the situation is simple enough
for us to make an approximation, which is almost never, but
often we can understand more or less what is happening. At
the present time no exceptions are found to the Quantum
Electrodynamic laws outside the nucleus, and there we do
not know whether there is an exception because we simply
do not know what is going on in the nucleus.1

D 7 ]!*
] c*
x yZ b
+ZgzZ yZ]
.z y k ] c*

Z Yukawa 6 D YK 6,} i Z0
X ~g7 7~}g !*
[particles]] Zg f
b z!*
"(,
Mp f(,
M)g f]Z@xz]!*
b
:B
bg7
A &t

1. Ibid., p.37.

76~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
Whether it is right or wrong but we do know that it is a little
wrong or at least incomplete

},p ZyZ 6Z M~kZ 7gkZ Zgp Zt


: 7,~p Z

It would be impossible to predict exactly what would


happen. We can only predict the odds! This would mean, if
it were true, that physics has given up on the problem of
trying to predict exactly what will happen in a definite
circumstance. Yes! Physics has given up. We do not know
how to predict what would happen in a given circumstance,
and we believe now that it is impossible, that the only thing
that can be predicted is the probability of different events. It
must be recognized that this is a retrenchment in our earlier
ideal of understanding nature. It may be a backward step,
but no one has seen a way to avoid it.1
What are the nuclei made of, and how are they held
together? It is found that the nuclei are held together by
enormous forces. When these are released, the energy
released is tremendous compared with chemical energy, in
the same ratio as the atomic bomb explosion is to a TNT
explosion, because, of course, the atomic bomb has to do
with changes inside the nucleus, while the explosion of TNT
has to do with the changes of the electrons on the outside of
the atoms. The question is, what are the forces which hold
the protons and neutrons together in the nucleus? Just as the
electrical interaction can be connected to a particle, a photon,
Yukawa suggested that the forces between

1. Ibid.,p.134.

77~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
neutrons and protons also have a field of some kind, andthat
when this field jiggles it behaves like a particle. Thus there
could be some other particles in the world besides protons
and neutrons, and he was able to deduce the properties of
these particles from the already known characteristics of
nuclear forces. For example, he predicted they should have a
mass of two or three hundred times that of an electron; and
lo and behold, in cosmic rays there was discovered a particle
of the right mass! But it later turned out to be the wrong
particle. It was called A mmeson, or muon.1
However, a little while later, in 1947 or 1948, another
particle was found, the p-mneson, or pion, which satisfied
Yukawas criterion.. Besides the proton and the neutron,
then, in order to get nuclear forces we must add the pion.
Now, you say, "Oh great', with this theory we make
quantum nucleodynamics using the pions just like Yukawa
wanted to do, and see if it works, and everything will be
explained." Bad luck! it turns out that the calculations that
are involved in this theory are so difficult that no one has
ever been able to figure out what the consequences of the
theory are, or to check it against experiment, and this has
been going on now for almost twenty years!
So we are stuck with a theory, and we do not know
whether it is right or wrong, but we do know that it is a little
wrong, or at least incomplete. While we have been dawdling
around theoretically, trying to calculate the consequences of
this theory, the experimentalists have been discovering

1. Ibid.,p.38.

78~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
some things. For example, they had already discovered this
m-meson or muon, and we do not yet know where it fits.
Also, in cosmic rays, a large number of other "extra" particles
were found. It turns out that today we have approximately
thirty particles, and it is very difficult to understand the
relationships of all these particles, and what nature wants
them for, or what the connections are from one to another.
We do not today understand these various particles as
different aspects of the same thing, and the fact that we have
so many unconnected particles is a representation of the fact
that we have so much unconnected information without a
good theory. After the great successes of Quantum
Electrodynamics, there is a certain amount of knowledge of
nuclear physics which is rough knowledge, sort of half
experience and half theory, assuming a type of force
between protons and neutrons and seeing what will happen,
but not really understanding where the force comes from.
Aside from that, we have made very little progress.

J ` M ZZ] Z|Ie
$h
+]
. bakZ Zjt}
] Z ZyZb ~LyZykZ Zx
o Z W,O b

kZgzZ ? y} X N Yb7~ #
}
.V% 2~ -6,b
)**
g Z } 7,
sg sf `ga+ Y Z ? x H~bh
+]
.
? H
Initially, Feynman made a name for himself from his
work on the theory of subatomic particles, specifically the
topic known as Quantum Electrodynamics or QED. In fact,

1. Ibid. p.39

7 9~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
the quantum theory began with this topic. In 1900, the
German physicist Max Planck proposed that light and other
electromagnetic radiation, which had hitherto been regarded
as waves, paradoxically behaved like tiny packets of energy,
or "quanta," when interacting with matter. These particular
quanta became known as photons. By the early 1930s the
architects of the new quantum mechanics had worked out a
mathematical scheme to describe the emission and
absorption of photons by electrically charged particles such
as electrons. Although this early formulation of QED
enjoyed some limited success, the theory was clearly flawed.
In many cases calculations gave inconsistent and even
infinite answers to well-posed physical questions. It was to
the problem of constructing a consistent theory of QED that
the young Feynman turned his attention in the late 1940s.
To place QED on a sound basis it was necessary to
make the theory consistent not only with the principles of
quantum mechanics but with those of the special theory of
relativity too. These two theories come with their own
distinctive mathematical machinery, complicated systems of
equations that can indeed be combined and reconciled to
yield a satisfactory description of QED. Doing this was a
tough undertaking, requiring a high degree of mathematical
skill, and was the approach followed by Feynman's
contemporaries. Feynman himself, however, took a radically
different route so radical, in fact, that he was more or less
able to write down the answers straight away without using
any mathematics.
To aid this extraordinary feat of intuition, Feynman

80~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
invented a simple system of eponymous diagrams. Feynman
diagrams are a symbolic but powerfully heuristic way of
picturing what is going on when electrons, photons, and
other particles interact with each other. These days Feynman
diagrams are a routine aid to calculation, but in the early
1950s they marked a startling departure from the traditional
way of doing theoretical physics.
The particular problem of constructing a consistent theory of
quantum electrodynamics, although it was a milestone in
the development of physics, was just the start. It was to
define a distinctive Feynman style, a style destined to
produce a string of important results from a broad range of
topics in physical science. The Feynman style can best be
described as a mixture of reverence and disrespect for
received wisdom.

wykgzZV iz}ib{ Z F,

b **
- gzZTgZJ
-wg ZD
z
q ) Z6,kZ gzZb<
wVd * ~g7 gz 0
E
"
56,
z b **
- 0 Vkz V igzZ
wD M D M HE gzZC 3 G
p ;g
p ~ w$
+g @*
wg ZD
z
w2Z HE ] zGx
kZ H"
$U*
2Z HE sZt 6Z M wz s
: 7, [Feynman]}a=
Having described the idea of the electromagnetic field, and
that this field can carry waves, we soon learn that these
waves actually behave in a strange way which seems very
unwavelike. At higher frequencies they behave much more
like particles. It is quantum mechanics, discovered just after
1920, which explains this strange behavior. In the years

1. Ibid.,pp. x - xi.

81~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
before 1920, the picture of space as a threedimensional space,
and of time as a separate thing, was changed by Einstein,
first into a combination which we call space-time, and then
still further into a cu rved space-time to represent
gravitation. So the "stage" is changed into space-time, and
gravitation is presumably a modification of space-time. Then
it was also found that the rules for the motions of particles
were incorrect. The mechanical rules of "inertia" and "forces"
are wrong - Newton's laws are wrong - in the world of
atoms. Instead, it was discovered that things on a small scale
behave nothing like things on a large scale. That is what
makes physics difficult and very interesting. It is hard
because the way things behave on a small scale is so
"unnatural"; we have no direct experience with it. Here
things behave like nothing we know of, so that it is
impossible to describe this behavior in any other than
analytic ways. It is difficult, and takes a lot of imagination.

Another most interesting change in the ideas and


philosophy of science brought by quantum mechanics is this
: it is not possible to predict exactly what will happen in any
circumstance.

:: YqZ : zcb
)g f" uZg Z DCZ@xxkZ tzGq
-Z~}g !*
D
(C
~ *"B_ ZgzZ[ Z] q4Z @*
q
Y~
.Z } z kZ gzZ Y ZC
8
-g gzZ y!*
i <
p
kZ Feynman pK ~
.Z ~ WZ',gzZ jZ VZ b}uz
: @*
C~}g !*

1. Ibid.,p.33.

2. Ibid.,pp.34-35.

82~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
For example, it is possible to arrange an atom which is ready
to emit light, and we can measure when it has emitted light
by picking up a photon particle, which we shall describe
shortly. We cannot, however, predict when it is going to
emit the light or, with several atoms, which one is going to.
You may say that this is because there are some internal
"wheels" which we have not looked at closely enough. No,
there are no internal wheels; nature, as we understand it
today, behaves in such a way that it is fundamentally
impossible to make a precise prediction of exactly what will
happen in a given experiment. This is a horrible thing; in
fact, philosophers have said before that one of the
fundamental requisites of science is that whenever you set
up the same conditions, the same thing must happen. This is
simply not true, it is not a fundamental condition of science.
The fact is that the same thing does not happen, that we can
find only an average, statistically, as to what happens.
Nevertheless, science has not completely collapsed.
Philosophers, incidentally, say a great deal about what is
absolutely necessary for science, and it is always, so far as
one can see, rather naive, and probably wrong. For example,
some philosopher or other said it is fundamental to the
scientific effort that if an experiment is performed in, say,
Stockholm, and then the same experiment is done in, say,
Quito, the same results must occur. That is quite false. It is
not necessary that science do that; it may be a fact of
experience, but it is not necessary. For example, if one of the
experiments is to look out at the sky and see the aurora
borealis in Stockholm, you do not see it in Quito; that is a

83~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
different phenomenon.1

:s Z Z $
. :g*
*gzZ$
ez=
Critique of Pure Reason [New York: [ KZ .
$
4

z=z~ Zzzu] G
5G3Egz Z=~Dolphin Books, 1961]
Zz **
=s gz Z **
= Zgz X $
0*
7gZ = Zgz gz Z ]
kZ
H { ],Z =V @*
V gz Z @*
q z V { ],Z =X gQ
e
$zK Z V X {g **
gz Z { 0
+? {0
+ g b
=~ gZC
!*
} ],Z
)t p } g Z
=s gZC
!*
} ],Z L Z=
/Z Os Z Z

kZ ~gZ C G
5G3EZ $
7~z q6,gZ x * A=X t zg [
} {~
.Z ] Z@xzgz Z ] !*
=z w e**
~i Z0
+Z 4
iZ D 7
g !*
gzZ X D
g6,[partly correct] e z
*N Z @*
l
/
V- 0
+egz Z `gX M
h [probably true]
g
X gl
/0
+e gz Z `g g CCt 6, ] Z@xJ
-w ; g ZD
b
E
E!
"

5
O
G
4

3
E

G
]G
5 + I e
$h
+]
.pX c*
w Znc 6,bkZ } i
4Z )g fbgz Z
y Z sz^~ x kZ i] Z C G
5G3E
yxs ZzbW] c*
{ { z [ ~ \g-
!*
] !*
t ] Z|y S ? q bH sz^~ ~/
q C
!*
} ],Z b C W q [Self] b
~ } g !*
Y ~ bX Y Y 7Y ~ { / ZY
kZ X n
pg m ` u~ gz Z [] !*
gz Z } x t 1 Cgz}
4Z gz Z +
a Z| Wq
$
-Z 0
+i b { z X 7m ] G
5G3E
M qzg
zb
|X B
bg D~z b
z b
z |X B
bg 7D
* e } *
@YgzZ { z @*
[not reality] 7|Zg [part of reality]
/Z p D Zg* e # [NaCl] X ~ :W [Cl] +ggzZ [Na]

pX Y;
h Ku **
q
-Z +g Y c*
Z +g* e
X CY w$
+z gzZ z Z : z |KkZB * e
gzZ |
bzg KZ {z @*
Y H~ [parts] Z b
Z [whole] q
-Z Z
#

1. Ibid.,p.35.

84~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb

esz w } % b zgX @*
$
Ygz Z { z [essence] C

kZ Y h ~ Z b
Z Z Z
# gz Z C ~ = e
$sX 7
:
L z ~g +
M qzgfI e
$h
+]
.~ q) C Yte
$s
|kZ Z =gz Z kZz b
X ~zc g i Z
~g +
M qzg d)s: t Y c*
:6,z b
q
-Z Z
# i Z0
+Z
X okZ
:tzgd)qZ :}<DT
D
/Z tzgd)
8x }zh
+ F,
<
DT
+I e
$h
+]
.X 7D{z 7t kZ n: "
$U*
6,Vz
C
Z kZgzZ ~) ~zb
q
-Z xE[bZ
# BDbs
X 7
Theory of Subatomic Particles or QED T }
G
c*
^
,Z6,.
Z6,T Hx w ZI~ Quantum Electro Dynamics
: @*
CV ZzKDbs~Six Easy Pieces[ KZ
H
If a thing is not a science it is not necessarily bad, for
example love is not a science so if something is said not to be
a science, it does not mean that there is something wrong
w i t h i t , i tE
J just means that it is not a science.

-#
H
#
-E
4Z (,
wzZ+ ) Z ezZ ZgzZVZ] G
5G3E

LZ)q
-Z
kZ a gzZ d Z q {z 7[% b VZ b
b~ xsZ+sZIe
$h
+]
.}g pX &7~gz**

yQ B7edxsZ% = {z [%z [Zg kZ


-f yZ h
+]
.YX ,gxsZ yZ
HH: (Z
/Z w
J$
tX 7]Z Z L gzZ **
] Zgd*xsZaT x! ~ Z
-t ZZz**
J
fq
zt }g i ] !*
kZy
Z {znJ Q6,
zZ R]ZgzZ{z Lg7.
kZfIe
$ Z7x
X
A &VQwZgzZg6,
b)

1. Ibid.,p.84.

85~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb

:}:7b*
c gy *
!ib
H7"
$U*
" ZY Dt7b woVZ bc*
g
:~p ZFeynmanX YY
Mathematics is not a science from our point of view in the
sense that it is not a natural science. The test of its validity is
not experiment.1

c w bc*
*
g
/Z Zzg "p y!*
i b c*
g
c*
g b)6,gg Z b Y ~6gzZ S0
+Z ~b Y
g.
?n ^xsZ%b~q)t VzIe
$h
+]
.X 6,
~b6,D, Zq
-Za=gzZ )F,
g Z LZbt] !*
` ub D, Z ? F,
bZ DkZ HpX )
)p ')gzZd) Z C~}g !*
Tb c*
:D._
Ht pVZ b Z (,q
-Z q) Z
#
z kZ6,gm{ X tzg d
X c*
~',q[ Zy

t7t kZ 7b
G
GG3.-8}
:D{ Dz
sgzZ )z ) }t p $
0*
g J
- } ~ b
GG
E
$
S
4

yZ Z Di Z0
+Z W,Z 5G 6,] gzZ z bzg y
KZ }~ X D} i Z0
+Z
&
O
kZ gzZ V
/
u [ V
KZ <
~g Z f <
**
yZ
8{ ^
,Y

W x kZ O h
e {^
,Y: Z**
Y (gzZ b ]Z XZ ~ ] & q
+]
h
.gzZVzi Vzg Z
# wg
a}X wgu **
t}
[fgzZ @*
p
',i {)z ,*Z eg ] Q F,Q
@*
t {z \vZ ~g kZX a xsZ N F,Q
g| (,y/y zz Vk
H}g ]ugzZ]vZ} Z
ih
+]
.mZ ] @*
Y wt {z @*
'!*
z {z Z g p
uF
F6,s ZuZ p ]z H ]hwZ ] 0
+
i
Y
E
4

E
n
.
[Green House Gk ; +
/g ZzZa [Co2] GM Z e 0g
-4$
X u **
{ c*
iVuv ` Zy
Z [Methane] E G
gzZGases]

1. Ibid.,p.47.

86~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb

`g {
) !*

Z s',V;z[ Zu **
x t Zz ~ \g ZgzZS
-g W
:
L Z kZX gZ
',
i~ /g Zz .
gzZ g
~c
kZX F,QF
F6,
]@D
+
6,x **
]hgzZ Z}
." [f
G
(
X
4
<
X I GVzg ZD
s', V- ~ \g ZgzZ S
-g W~
Vpu **
{ i Z0
+Z" )7
-e Z~ gzZ wj gzZ I h ,
~!h
+'
* abrupt and irreversible climate shifts X g
>6,V Z b ZhZz UN X g Y s ; n
^g7g Intergovernmental Panal on Climate Change IPCC
:._
PARIS, June 18: The world faces a growing risk of "abrupt
and irreversible climatic shifts" as fallout from global
warming hits faster than expected, according to research by
scientists released on 20 June 2009. Global surface and ocean
temperatures, sea levels, extreme climate events, and the
retreat of Arctic sea ice had all significantly picked up more
pace than experts predicted. Only a couple of years ago
report said
The stark warning comes less than six months before
an international conference aiming to seal a treaty to save
the planet from the worst ravages of global warming. A 36
page document summarised more than 1400 studies
presented at a climate conference in March in Copenhagen,
where a United Nations meeting will be held in December to
hammer out a successor to the Kyoto Protocol that expires in
2012. The report said greenhouse gas emissions and other
climate indicators are at or near the upper boundaries
forecast by the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), whose 2007 report has been the scientific
benchmark for the troubled UN talks.

87~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
There is also new evidence that the planet itself has
begun to contribute to global warming through fallout from
human activity. Huge stores of gases such as methane an
even more powerful green house gas than carbon dioxide,
trapped for millennia in the Arctic permafrost may be
starting to leak into the atmosphere, speeding up the
warming process.1

z kzggzZ ~Cc*
F,
O X kZ *gzZ1zg nu +pkZ
0 3 *t Z
# %dt g " 6,bz ~ kZM%Z
? Hx Z ZtqbzyZ Y
{ i Z0
+Z ^g7g Y 2009y 22 Alister Doyle Z Reuters
Zg f bz kZ yxgM%Z kzggzZ Arctic Nations @*

~ Antartica gzZ Artic _[Cold War]k


B ua6,],
{ fgzZ
gCgCg k
B ul{~ lV2Zg ~d 6 gzZc*
g ],{ f %
90 ~ Arctic X Y { s'
,
Zg7 t
) !*
/g Zz .
{J
- 2050
] Z^g7g kZ a]c*
gzw& * p%Z et
:sf `g{ ZPD{ M yZdC1j 6 q
-Z *
ARCTIC nations are promising to avoid new "Cold War"
scrambles linked to climate change, but military activity is
stirring in a polar region where a thaw may allow oil and
gas exploration or new shipping routes.
The six nations around the Arctic Ocean are promising to
cooperate on challenges such as overseeing possible new
fishing grounds or shipping routes in an area that has been
too remote, cold and dark to be of interest throughout
recorded history. But global warming is spurring long
irrelevant disputes, such as a Russian Danish stand off over

1. AFP DAWN 19, June 2009.

88~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
who owns the sea bed under the controls the Northwest
passage that the United States calls an international water
way. It will be a new ocean in a critical strategic area said
Lee. Willett, head of the Marine studies Programme at the
Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security
Studies in London.
Many leading climate experts now say the Arctic
Ocean could be ice-free by 2050 in summer, perhaps even
earlier, after ice shrank to a record low in September 2007
amid a warming blamed by the UN Climate Panel on
human burning of fossil fuels.Previous forecasts had been
that it would be ice-free in summers towards the end of the
century. Among signs of military concern, a Kremlin
document on security in mid May said Russia may face wars
on its borders in the near future because of control over
energy resources- from the Middle East to the Arctic. Russia,
which is reasserting itself after the collapse of the Soviet
Union, sent a nuclear submarine in 2008 across the Arctic
under the ice to the Pacific. Canada runs a military exercise,
Nanook, every year to reinforce sovereignty over its
northern territories. Russia faces five NATO members- the
United States, Canada, Norway, Iceland and Denmark via
Greenland - in the Arctic. In February, candadian Prime
Minister Stephen Harper criticised Russia's "increasingly
aggressive" actions after a bomber flew close to Canada
before a visit by US President Barack Obama. And last year
Norway's government decided to buy 48 Lockheed Martin
F-35 jets at a cost of 18 billion crowns ($2.81 billion), rating
them better than rival Swedish Saab's Gripen at tasks such as
surveillance of the vast Arctic north. The US Geological

89~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
Survey estimated last year that the Arctic holds 90 billion
barrels of undiscovered oil- enough to supply current world
demand for three years.And Artic shipping routes could be
short-cuts Atlantic Oceans in summer even though
uncertainties over factors such as ice bergs, insurance costs
or a need for hardened hulls are likely to put off many
companies. "The Arctic area would be of interest in 50 or 100
years- not now", said Lars Kullerud, President of the
University of the Arctic. "It's hype to talk of a Cold War."1

~ F,
kZyb!*
Vzg ,*ZgzZ F,Qh
+]
. \vZ
&4Z~ 0
+
i] c*
gz
` M Zz ] ZxgzZxi ZzC
bgzZ
CFC ~ c)g f , *ZgzZeg @
*
Y wVYt _
[Ozone]yzizZ W Zz J
-wz [Chloroflurocarbons]
-V- zX CX ]uz ]u **
J
`g * ~g7 c*
h kZ
e
$Z * ~g7 gzZ VZ}'
uQ ,*Z VZ P

/u **
kZ ZZtp[ Z vd
$s:X c*
4Vx
/u **

[zeVzg ZD
J
-~kZ gR 0*
gs',X y.6,
t {zX Y ~aw0*
B K ~gzZ Za 0*
k
N Y
YC
i yZ Vh
+]
.~ [ Z Z
/h
+~ wj @*
Y w
g @*
+F,
u **
Zz YK wEZ +
$Y [f~ VlVlK Vz
q
A & ~C
xsZ a{ n[f{zX
W,Z H Vz
G l o b a l
/
u [KZ ] y
KZ ]!*
X @*
N
[)q
-Z { z } ~pgzZ
/]ukZ Z}
.gzZ} Za Warming
D I e
$h
+]
.Z }g X sz^6,gZ **
~
/
u ) d)
b{z Zz**
|Z Vzq {zY D x yZ
X `g 6,
+Z g kZgzZC
Z
kZ]Z XZ
[personal
A CZ f gzZ ] ~ ZZ KZ
C
t Z kZ
~ [collective hell] 3Z * kZ a z z y paradise]

1. Reuters, 22 June 2009, Dawn 23 June 2009.

90~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb

g a g ZS
n ]gzZ Vz'
]z Hx Zg W
1X ;gsp
+
M
KZZp ] Z W,Z$V
/
u~)kZ {z Le Z}
.p7
ZpnZ ZptgzZ iZt yZt t zig Wt t X} p] kZgzZ
d{zhZ 3g6,kZ
Z O\!*
V LZ xq
-ZZ
#
kZx@, Z
ZHX f~ Zwd~ y gzZ
{z6,k Z T c*
:| V; LZ
CkZ T ? $
} e
$g
IZ T @*
?wZ kZZg ]igzZ`t X ;g iZ 3g
X WP\]|]y
WpT e y
0
+
i
: *
@xw~D` uLZC
4Z KZ ` uCZ DC
{z~} ],Z ZgzZ CgzZ] *ZZ] G
5G3E

k0*
m
CZ sX i Z CZ {zC
!*
} ],Z kZ X Y"
$U*
CZ D
& T D(ZtX @*
C
Zgz ykzV igzZ W D(ZX @*
Dzc
{z X YB ] ZgzZ ] !*
. "=f LZ y
_
KZ
6Z W c*
HE Tg Z\ WZ
# X Y {eak
,
] Zp
] *ZZ KZb)LZ]zGLZ ~z LZ` uC
V} 9~ ` u
Za xEyZXN Wg7 \ W} t g0
+Zg ykZgzZ V
-Za kZX Vig0
q
+Z Vz],
Z 0 xE4Z ])] Zb) Zz
] !*
Z ]Z: M
hYK 7iZ D` u}uz wZ D` u
kZ ,g (Zg T t \ M
/Z $
Y
g V:gzZ M
hYb
~ V@{)r~bgzZ <
S V Za yZd u **
~
bkZ @*
x g @*
}i
wX 6 <
yv
| m: ~9{g !*
z6,Vzc LZ |J
- ` MgzZ c*
gh Vz
C|
b *~~,Ie
$h
+]
.gzZ c*
g @*
Z~| rb **
- gzZ
g @*
<
] Z|t @*
Y Zz T g Ci{r<
gzZ
E+G
X 7Zz! p/b L g @*
gzZ
:D` uZzbgzZ<
b ` uq
-ZgzZZ q
-Z } ],
Z ZzgzZ DZz bgzZ <

d) ~* bgzZ,<
tzg ib)` u}uzZ ~uz
4 6Z WZ ] G
4HE X tzg
5G3E
5G3E
sZ bZ X M
h 7i ] G
kZ
/ZX }kZgzZ sZ] !*
Z] Z ZzZa ~D` u
91~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb

} 7[Z ]DZgzZ ]2 ]Z Z ]ZyZ gz$ Z _g Zz gzZ


` usZ Z
# N Y 0 y
KDZ hard core D~
. D` ukZ M
h
}uz {z 7x~ D` u \W[Z ugzZnZ Z wZ ZzZ ~
xsZ
/ZX D` u}uz7\WgzZE ~ F,
', ;g Y c*
D` u
kZ YHwEZbuF,
j Y m
CZa + gzZ gz

gzZE ~kZ Z W,
)~q)i Z i m
CZ @*
szt~
# DwJ.
Z

z Zb {tX7+ C"
$U*
b ~ F,
',
{z
/
% Z}
.cg 0
+iyZ C+
M qzggzZ Z Zz7byZ
*gzZ Le *
C
~ *a V ]y
M
V:
* ]
A yZgzZ]y
M @ yZ 8 , Z Z
# p
rg6,R: Zpzig M
? {gzZ ~~? it &7F,
* kS ~ * k QyZZ6,
.
Z}
.

:XE
bT bkZ ~ *p]y
M
q
-Z X e[L
A gzZ]y

M t*I ZZ
# 6,g{: @*
W,O6,g[:Vtzgt* I Z
V * * ]
g Z * { c*
i yZpvZ Y
k Zz s
4

3
E
G

_g ZzY m
CZ fX C7wJVz I G3 GgzZ=f yZ ~
# 7Zg kZg Zt
b=xsZ E
LG
/Zce **
b m
CZ g Z yZ Z
Di [religion] <
X 7wJ.
Lay
KZf )g fgzZ

4Zi [Religion of Science]b E


X
4
] G
5G3E
L X L)yZZ
Tg s$+BbgzZ"6 C
X ]Z@x gzZ ]!*
]zG} i Z0
+Z
X
gzZ fg ~ F,
',=i [Religion of Philosophy] , E
L 4 X
X Z Z wZ <
Z V @* 6,Z gzZ @*
qz
: bwJ<Zuz <q
-Z~}uz` uq
-Z :b
H7li b) <
}uz)g f <
q
-Z bT
7X qZzW~ ` u}uz ` uq
-Zb bZ!*
YY
W~ ` u}uz ` uq
-Zb~p Z[T.S Kuhn]X
-Z bT bZ!*
q
pz~pt ~V/}uzX $
Y ~ 7? [
C1
X} g (Z<
}uzhg<

:
5a, C1
Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Chicago: Chicago
University Press,1970,pp.154, 200.

92~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb

lI @',
kZ Relativist {z1 Structuralist
$E
@7t Z 0G
*
@*
~ Objectivist g kZp 7 Z
Dzc={z C,
C[~` u}uz ` uq
-Z~wkZ
z.
iZ{ c*
iD` u ~wkZ &=g f w
X D Y ~}uzuF,
` uq
-Z6,
CZvgzZX g[ xD` u
J e Tg D
W[scientific structure]J e ~wkZ
[De xz 0
+
i J e ib) Z { z D [generate] {0
+
i
Bg
/
zgzZD Y W,Og y
M oD~
.$yZ D generate]

WVvJ e D Y W,
)~ib)J e tB
[Dynamics of Generation & Degeneration of Scienctific ] Hw
p f
eg(Z Zuz uF,
` uq
-Z b v Structures]
lI 7D M z zcq
-Z=gzZb e
$Z ~(, V Z b
$E
zcgzZ E M ba# } (,x [fX C 7t Z 0G

m{q
-Z Z {z 7b [Objectivity & Universality of Science]
X Bg ZzZa]qgzZpd
$g @*
:Z9:7e*
*} ): i Z}
Gr
# & *
* Z f @*
]!*
Zq
-Z [P.K. Feyerabend]
) z: i Z [scientific claim] } H{z ~g
/7
Idea of {z , Z X YY H 7 [non scientific claim] }
}uz i b) VZ ~ D` uq
-Z X H Incommensurable
C1
X YYH7l~VhD` u
:Z9 :7~qZ 'Dbs
: {z @*
Y y) F, g **
Z [Feyerabend]Z9
z @*
VZ wZt {z
rgm [Postmodern Philosophy] e
$h
+]
.
0*
_~ Vz
C Z yZ ~gz a .
gzZ i Z Vzq

: YYJ 7,
,6,
],[gzZy*sf `gt Z9 C1
M. Ray [ed.],Distinction Between Crank & Responsible Man Realism and
Instrumentalism Comments on the Logic of Factual Support in the Critical
Approach to Science and Philosophy, NY: Free Press, 1964, p.305.

93~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb

c*
Z yZ ~ V/}uz Y 7.
yZ V Z,
C Vzq yZ
/Z Y
Grand narvatives c*
Meta Ethical Narrative VvJ e c*
] c*

g g M r
/Z y
KZ } e.
{)z ] c*
Z V V7
VY 7et Y Y~ Dualistic gzZ Physicilist a.
6,
$
H
Z gzZ [Cause] :
L iG

gzZ B [Physical] Am [Effect]W,


Vz yZ Z DW,O}uz q
-Z B z fy
KZ Dualistic
] Zgy
KZ~ oZz yZ Z Z Grand NarvativesA
$k
Z9 7
g .
z:i Z b z YgzZ <
bZ X 7e_
" b~ * Z
H0q+F,
Z
c*
gC
b~* ` M~w
~} ],
ZzcF,
izgz
kZ
) !*
46,
u4c*
gVz
ZizggzZ { C
D}uv Z}:g Z ?gzZDLZ j4q
H1: e
w)gzZ /gq
- d)kZ 7g.
Z f
e y D
/ZgzZ 7
Y M{z~T g| (,+
$Y +
M 7 d+F,
u +p *
) !*
bzg
$ g f s g: !*
D0G
iw Zuz + T|~ * Z
#
|D~ | Y 0iuZz ggzZ |
# gzZ yT |
E
H
4
&
5 EZ9 X h
w G
+ F,
z [ y k Z
z! ~ kZ 7iuZz + T
$
0Gg f s:ce xg {0
+
i
yZ jd+ Y|
q
-Z s bzg kZY Y HD Zg f x } F,
D
| yT [Truth] s {z , ~ ]!*
kZ Zz + Db
$U*
"
|gzZ s Z
# X YYH"
$U*
: YY**
Y:6,gd [Truth]sgzZ [Reality]
kZ tzg d) **
U6,*b s c*
g c*
D n q
-Z M
h 7
q J1 ~ * W,O~g UpgzZ ~ Zi M y
KZ~gzZ bzg
X Y{ [Diversity]g ggzZ
:tzg)*
*.
~ Z }5 oZz
4E
&Z9
5E
] c*
W W
~ zg ._j C H
G
zg b yW
.
]c*
W W
] c*
}z ]
.
x)gzZ [)d)q
-Z ~bp{ ^
,Y ~ zg yW
b c*
{^
,Y~

3
E

G
gzZ j ~
.Z }KyZ ] G
5 Z @Z VzYXtzg
36,~ D` uLZ sgzZ s6,
CKZ C
a X Z!*
o
gzZ, ` uwZ Vz p
C
/
6Z M gzZ HE X YY
4Z
_!*
_
6Z M ~ zg VZHE Z] G
5G3E
94~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb

4Z gzZ \ g yZ Z wZ **
Z ] G
5G3E
- w Z
tzg){tYYH7$iV Y~D` uLZyZ_yZ
kZ kZ`
ZkZ`
KZ !% ` i~ wZa ZX
yY kZ Y H (Z
/Z Y7wEZ Zz c*
{zx !ZgzZyZgz
wEZ] c*
z Z \ g}uz\WXuwZ X p{zg Z)f s Z
jZ \ W Dg (Z ` T wZ \ WZ
# X } 7]i YZ
] ZZ FyZgz ~`

u^g ; 6zZ s
# Z`
~ y 0*
X V **
wEZ] c*
z Z
_ ypX ;g c e ug 7 c6,Wyp !%N Zz
) !*
Z s
a yp!% Z x6,? VY ~ !%
A&
gzZ<
r
# & **
ZX
H1Zc6,WyZgz ZgzZDwEZ]c*
z Z~
Xtzgd)tM
h7_ yZ ` u gzZZb
Vzg ZD
~ * 9vZ zmvZ -vZ wg vZ {Z |
G[ Z zwqZ ]Z NZ ] *ZZ 4z]
. yZ ]uZz Vz9 W9
& z =] c*
WVzg ZD
yW
0 ] !*
.] C
_
ciz z
A
X 7Zz yW
c*
Zz**
b c*
{z &(Z 7 e~ ` u
D` u{zYX }7t` uL
g w
gVZb
gzZ)g f Z HqDkz )g f T[

gX YYH7"
$U*
~
C
(C
/t X YqD:gzZ Y/: kz Zuz jZ
7h
+ F,
kZX 7ykZ [~DgzZ"kZX 7 ea
DDkZb Z Zq Dt X YY 7c*
i W~ { /kZX $
Y
* D Z}g Z
n [Subjective] q
-ZZ {z C7t
X `g {
: *
!i}M :|b
~kZ 0 kZ~ sf ? H: z |kZgzZ ? Hb
[ Richard Feynman [1918-1988] } VZ b} (,

y* Z q
-Z
~ The Character of Physical Law [MIT Press]
kZ g YK 7 ] Z "Seeking New Laws of Nature"
gzZ VZbxg Zz 6Z M~kZ] gzZ y M e
$.y!*
i
I Z **
6,g Z q~ g M k%Z ~ Y 1945 }
95~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb

y*LZ }
Hc*
wC
!*
[Mentally deficient for service]
: @*
C~}g !*
2Z 6]~
What I want to talk about in this lecture is not,
strictly speaking, the character of physical law. One might
imagine at least that one is talking about nature when one is
talking about the character of physical law; but I do not want
to talk about nature, but rather about how we stand relative
to nature now. I want to tell you . . . what there is to guess,
and how one goes about guessing. Someone suggested that
it would be ideal if, as I went along, I would slowly explain
how to guess a law, and then end by creating a new law for
you. I do not know whether I shall be able to do that. . . .In
general we look for a new law by the following process. First
we guess it. Then we compute the consequences of the guess
to see what would be implied if this law that we guessed is
right. Then we compare the result of the computation to
nature with experiment or experience, compare it directly
with observation, to see if it works. If it disagrees with
experiment it is wrong. In that simple statement is the key to
science. It does not make any difference how beautiful your
guess is. It does not make any difference how smart you are,
who made the guess, or what his name is- if it disagrees with
experiment it is wrong. That is all there is to it. It is true that
one has to check a little to make sure that it is wrong,
because whoever did the experiment may have reported
incorrectly, or there may have been some feature in the
experiment that was not noticed, some dirt or something; or
the man who computed the consequences, even though it
may have been the one who made the guesses, could have

96~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
made some mistake in the analysis. These are obvious
remarks, so when I say if it disagrees with experiment it is
wrong, I mean after the experiment has been checked, the
calculations have been checked, and the thing has been
rubbed back and forth a few times to make sure that the
consequences are logical consequences from the guess, and
that in fact it disagrees with a very carefully checked
experiment.
You can see, of course, that with this method we can
attempt to disprove any definite theory. If we have a definite
theory, a real guess, from which we can conveniently
compute - consequences which can be compared with
experiment, then in principle we can get rid of any theory.
There is always the possibility of proving any definite theory
wrong; but notice that we can never prove it right. Suppose
that you invent a good guess, calculate the consequences,
and discover every time that the consequences you have
calculated agree with experiment. The theory is then right?
No, it is simply not proved wrong. In the future you could
compute a wider range of consequences, there could be a
wider range of experiments; and you might then discover
that the thing is wrong. That is why laws like Newton's laws
for the motion of planets last such a long time. He guessed
the law of gravitation, calculated all kinds of consequences
for the system and so on, compared them with experiment
and it took: several hundred years before the slight error of
the motion of Mercury was observed.
During all that time the theory had not been proved
wrong. and could be taken temporarily to be right. But it

97~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
could never be proved right, because tomorrow's experiment
might succeed in proving wrong what you thought was
right. We never are definitely right. we can only be sure we
are wrong.
Another thing I must point out is that you cannot
prove a vague theory wrong. If the guess that you make is
poorly expressed and rather vague, and the method that you
use for figuring out the consequences is a little vague-you
are not sure, and you say, "I think everything's right because
its all due to so and so, and such and such do this and that
more or less, and I can sort of explain how this works. . . ,"
then you see that this theory is good, because it cannot be
proved wrong! Also if the process of computing the
consequences is indefinite, then with a little skill any
experimental results can be made to look like the expected
consequences. You are probably familiar with that in other
fields. "A" hates his mother. The reason is, of course, because
she did not caress him or love him enough when he was a
child. But if you investigate you find out that as a matter of
fact she did love him very much, and everything was all
right. Well then, it was because she was over-indulgent
when he was a child! By having a vague theory it is possible
to get either result. The cure for this one is the following. If it
were possible to state exactly, ahead of time, how much love
is not enough, and how much love is over-indulgent, then
there would be a perfectly legitimate theory against which
you could make tests. It is usually said when this is pointed
out, "When you are dealing with psychological matters
things can't be defined so precisely." Yes, but then you

98~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
cannot claim to know anything about it.
You will be horrified to hear that we have examples
in physics of exactly the same kind. We have these
approximate symmetries, which work something like this.
You have an approximate symmetry, so you calculate a set
of consequences supposing it to be perfect.
When compared with experiment, it does not agree.
Of course-the symmetry you are supposed to expect is
approximate, so if the agreement is pretty good you say,
"Nice!," while if the agreement is very poor you say, "Well,
this particular thing must be especially sensitive to the
failure of the symmetry." Now you may laugh, but we have
to make progress in that way. When a subject is first new,
and these particles are new to us, this jockeying around, this
"feeling" way of guessing at the results, is the beginning of
any science. The same thing is true of the symmetry
proposition in physics as is true of psychology, so do not
laugh too hard. It is necessary in the beginning to be very
careful. It is easy to fall into the deep end by this kind of
vague theory. It is hard, to prove it wrong, and it takes a
certain skill and experience not to walk off the plank in the
game. . . .
What of the future of this adventure? What will
happen ultimately? We are going along guessing the laws;
how many laws are we going to have to guess? I do not
know. Some of my colleagues say that this fundamental
aspect of our science will go on; but I think there will
certainly not be perpetual novelty, say for a thousand years.
This thing cannot keep on going so that we are always going

99~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
to discover more and more new laws. If we do, it will
become boring that there are so many levels one underneath
the other. It seems to me that -what can happen in the future
is either that all the laws become known-that is, if you had
enough laws you could compute consequences and they
would always agree with experiment, which would be the
end of the line or it may happen that the experiments get
harder and harder to make, more and more expensive, so
you get 99.9 per cent of the phenomena, but there is always
some phenomenon which has just been discovered, which is
very hard to measure, and which disagrees; and as soon as
you have the explanation of that one there is always another
one, and it gets slower and slower and more and more
uninteresting. That is another way it may end. But I think it
has to end in one way or another.

:g y: b q :tlI
Z q bt Refutable Protective Belt lI
kZa q b) Zz Za bg ikZ t
e=z ~z [gzZ iz d+Zq
-Z b @*
Y HwEZ b
! Z c*
!Zi Z ] Z Zz WggzZ V{ Zz Za ~bkZ CY
g~D` ubZV{bkZgzZ pbZ
` ubZz] x gzV{~ kZ c*
] Z Z6,b
gb e
$h
+ F,
t6,
0*~ wlI X @*
Y H g0
+Z
zq
-Zs 6,gzZ "Y6,VF Z agb YY H7g6,
[Religion of Science] b<
lI 7i g V1
b{z ] ZgzZ] 2] Z Z ZzZ6,]c*
@*
q
',
i
xD @*
Ps: {z aq kZ @*
q
',i~` u

1. Richird Feynman, The Character of Physical Law. MIT Press

100~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb

NZgzZ yZZ 6,b z!*


36,gzZ
8x
TX ~gz_bkZa{@xyZZkZ @*
7g ZS
n
LZ VZb z!*
h
+ F,
b~ zg ] !*
@*
xs
zg ]*ZZ ]c*
gzZ ] zGLZ yZ b D 7g ZS
n b
x ;Z [ L La "
$U*
gbLZ D yZZ kZ X

bkZ)g fTDyd+Z {C
bLZgzZf
e
5+Ie
$h
+]
.x V ~}g !*
bXg C"
$U*
M
+
bg Zz e
$.i p
) bt Zg d)gzZ
C" pm
C k^ {i M 6,
RC!*
{"
$U*
Zz Mbg ezgzZzzg
Z {z [absolute knowledge] D
ggzZ ~g + ~y
Ww)
# Bq
Z
-Z bY00*
i ~\ 5Xzg; gzZ x M
} (,Zb
C 0*
Hxt sy
KZ H \vZ 0*

]U*
q ZgzZyZ]
.zV@Vzi Z0
+Z]zG] ZwZgzZ]c*

p @*

g!*
@*
Y c*
76,RZ]
.zt @*
(Zg !*
Ff
e ~
E
"
5

G
t 6, } D Y w&gzZz~ "
$U*
6,gic*
RC!*
kZ
-Z ! gzZ ! gkZ bwt QX 0
q
+e `g u}i
-k',q
J
-Z zGt D Y w$
+}}g7 Y w$
+ y
J
-wVZ bgzZ Cx
Hc*
g Z
[Planet] {g ( VZ Fx Pluto
gzZ yg ( x u#Z ci ]+C
] Dg _7,
y 9 & [ 'Zz) [ [x e V K
c*
Zg t Z V Z bx * ~ ]g ZD
z pg D

F
H5~Y gz ~Y 2009X {gJ M s}g( Z 7{g(VZ Pluto

~q
-Z
/
X } (,
Vzg(} (,
} (,
ac*
g}g(6 0*
kZ
t Z [tZ
# X ;g y 9 [[x ] Z
#~
I~ ~kZ z!*
]!*
+F,
p ce **
y {[ [
G
4]F,
5G
c*
MgmZ ]~Y ~~Z {)zV
$ H
w Z
x ]C
~ ~ZgzZ Z~ ~Z
**
F,
Z y
KZ 6,0
+e gz T
Btb Zx kZ;gVZzVZzg F,
pg D]!*

@hZ t Z Lg x a iq
-Z ` x t Sg Cx
101~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb

' {zx7V Zbpt HK\


oggzZ |C~kZp
b~,g VZ [discovery of reality] |la It works
7X\
og gi 7 s@Z
# l|Z ;g7X
jbZ Z q kZVZb Z Cx jbZba
`g T ywV{q
-Z Imre Lakatos ~KkZf
e
: sf
HE~}g !*
g Z}g ( VZbq
-Z L L
b{z @*
xt 6,{@x}g ( kZ,n
X Le *
*_
/

? tHE t kZ {z HX ;g7^6,g Z C
C
zz T {g (x**
[Zq
- 4,
}g (kZ t {z 7
g ZgzZ wyiz}g(x**
kZ {zOX ;g^?
g Z LZ {g (_k
,
i
{@x}g (x**
kZV ZbLZQgzZ @*
(z[~}g!*

gz +F,
g !J
-[ Z N*
g Z {g (x*
* YX @*
4x
gzZ ~(,q
-Z @*
_ -~ a^g #
yZb{zZXYY:

/ZX CYg gz 5q
-Z~k',&nXn Yg gzg !
bHEN oVpyZb YW{g (x**
{zgz kZ
yZb HX 73~ gz {g (x**
{z ,n
X & Qg !*
-Z
q
w !*
c q
-Z Zg }{z 7? Bt b HE Z
{zzz T 3g ,
$J e}g (x**
kZ [Cloud of Cosmic Dust]
w !*
q
-Z @*
_ - a^gh
+'
yZ bO X c*
W7{g(
bHE Z }0
+
Kw !*
, Z
/ZXn Y a}@x
HEyZb[ Z HY c*
0*
: w !*
{z ,n
pX Y c*
g Z
! x
',i
ImI
h
+ F,
w !*
cq
-Ztc*
{g (x**
-Z] LZwL
q
[Magnetic ] F ~ { kZ ] }{z [ Z 7? ,
4] T Field]
5H
c*
g w !*
{zzz T c*
7x 9] WV
$ G
V;z ]F{ z
/ZX CY ~ cg n5q
-ZOX e:
{z [ Z HXn: (Z ,n
pX : Z pV Zb b ZHE Y
'' /Z F,
zG Z * q
-Z { z 7? Btb HE
7y LQgzZ CY [~ o lZ V g 6,V tJ
-V
102~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
1

E
$
: q{z@*
7t Z0G
lI }

X CY

It would have been in fact, the death of this


wonderful theory if there were no other explanation. If a
Law does not work even in one place where it ought to it is
just wrong.

H
#
-E
4
:gzZ Z:[ zZ~* ] G
5G3E
E
H
-#
**
Z *
@Y
z kZ 7 ~ ~ ,Z ~g Z
# C~ ^VgzZY3,Z t
Z
~ [Matter]{ gzZ [Energy]
Discontinue { Z @
*
Z]
. }uzC
q
-Z~ ^{ @*
k^{
C^~]g zg t
~
CVz zggzZ { t @*

x
z kZ
H0 y
KDZt V zg Wave Theory of Light Z
4
Xb^zg~]gVyZ] G
5G3E
ic^
,Z7g i [Difrection]s YZzg
Wt
~g}]Z@x] !*

t e~Vg] zgg
/
g
4

3
E

G
g 6,g V Z b C G
5 x t Z ~g X D 7"
$U*
kZtzgpX c*

VY Lines spectrum e} 7[Z ]!*


zg kZ c*
MZ
#C
1X J eC
mwZkZC
?
W
Fzg c*
i kZXt bkZ =g ikZb
4X
kZX
HM [ zZ~* ] G
5G3E
H{0
+
it{X
H"
$U*
gw

H
#
-E
4~
q
-Zbtt X ~ Vz],Zz
ZgzZ
] G
5G3E
t~ * d]!*
tX
H"
$U*
bkZ C{g
Z s|
& **
Z f
/Z X $
7y ] b
x = q
-Z gzZ |
E
"
5

G
[Packet Theory] ~g {z G D
z kZ r
#

1. Imre Lakotos and A. Musgrave [ed.], Falsification & Methodology of

Scientific Research Programme, in Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge,


Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974, pp.100-101.
2. P. Feynman, Six Easy Pieces. U.S.A.: Helix Books, 1995, p.99

103~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb

z =<
L z yW
~ h [Waves Theory] ~gi- zgzZ D7t|
|~y
WgzZ |aZX g mZbgzZzD y
H
E
#
-E
Z HXtzg d)q
-Z: i ~ * b 0Ei 'k^kZy
: q~}g !*
kZ}! 7!*
C
? gzZk^~g
Newton thought that light was made up of particles,
but then it was discovered, as we have seen here, that it
behaves like a wave. Later, however (in the beginning of the
twentieth century) it was found that light did indeed
sometimes behave like a particle. Historically, the electron,
for example, was thought to behave like a particle, and then
it was found that in many respects it behaved like a wave. So
it really behaves like neither. Now we have given up. We
say: "It is like neither." There is one lu cky break,
however-electrons behave just like light. The quantum
behavior of atomic objects (electrons, protons, neutrons,
photons, and so on) is the same for all; they are all "particle
waves," or whatever you want to call them. So what we
learn about the properties of electrons (which we shall use
for our examples) will apply also to all "particles," including
photons of light.
The gradual accumulation of information about
atomic and small-scale behavior during the first quarter of
this century, which gave some indications about how small
things do behave, produced an increasing confusion which
was finally resolved in 1926 and 1927 by Schrodinger,
Heisenberg, and Born. They finally obtained a consistent
description of the behavior of matter on a small scale.

8
w2
ZHE]c*
* 0
wVkViLL
E
"

5
G
C3 6,

X Z7~V*zq
-Z^dJ
-
w2ZHEpb
104~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb

JV~{g KZ }Y7]C
x Tycho Brahe p Y
6 ;g @*
vgzZ @*
~ ] ,Vzg ZD
}yZ{@xl
/Vzg*gzZ Vzg(
]Z@x?~k
,
Tycho X wv{ g kZ Hven {k
,b
h
gzZ ]gzpe
$.1{
w Vzg ( Kepler VZ c*
g D{.Z

bTpK72ZLZHEkZKc*
g2Z Zg Mc
:q}7gzZk^
6Z MgzZ
2IEbkZ7
Finally let us compare gravitation with other
theories. In recent years we have discovered that all mass is
made of tiny particles and that there are several kinds of
interactions, such as nuclear forces, etc. None of these
nuclear or electrical forces has yet been found to explain
gravitation. The quantum-mechanical aspects of nature have
not yet been carried over to gravitation When the scale is so
small that we need the quantum effects, the gravitational
effects are so weak that the need for a quantum theory of
gravitation has not yet developed. On the other hand, for
consistency in our physical theories it would be important to
see whether Newton's law modified to Einstein's law can be
further modified to be consistent with the uncertainty
principle. This las t modification has not yet been
completed.2

E
"
56,
Zz- G
7
g Ck
,5
+ z ] !*
bwt
4]c*
V/s2Z CMc*
ggzZ C G
5G3E
LZ 6Z MgzZHE[Yukawa]
}uz x t g Dq & "gzZ DCg Cg }t K 7~
.Z Y ~
: q}X HV Zb
Because atomic behavior is so unlike ordinary
experience, it is very difficult to get used to and it appears
peculiar and mysterious to everyone, both to the novice and
to the experienced physicist. Even the experts do not

1. Ibid.,p.116.

2. Ibid., p.113.

105~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
understand it the way they would like to, and it is perfectly
reasonable that they should not, because all of direct, human
experience and of human intuition applies to large objects.
We know how large objects will act, but things on a small
scale just do not act that way. So we have to learn about
them in a sort of abstract or imaginative fashion and not by
connection with our direct experience.1
But is this such a simple law? What about the
machinery of it? All we have done is to describe how the
earth moves around the sun, but we have not said what
makes it go. Newton made no hypotheses about this; he was
satisfied to find what it did without getting into the
machinery of it. No one has since given any machinery. It is
characteristic of the physical laws that they have this abstract
character. The law of conservation of energy is a theorem
concerning quantities that have to be calculated and added
together, with no mention of the machinery, and likewise
the great laws of mechanics are quantitative mathematical
laws for which no machinery is available.
We use mathematics to describe nature without a
mechanism behind it? No one knows. We have to keep
going because we find out more that way.
Many mechanisms for gravitation have been
suggested. It is interesting to consider one of these, which
many people have thought of from time to time. At first, one
is quite excited and happy when he "discovers" it, but he

1. Ibid., p. 117.

106~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
soon finds that it is not correct.

] H ? Ds M ] !*
kZ H
/Z ? Ds M b H
bh
+]
.} bkZ ?H YY j [Ideal] Vb
}g !*
kZ ? @*
H [Ideal Experiment] /Vq
-Z ? }
g ~ *
D =`Z 7 V/gzZi+ Y] @*
C}~
: qh
+'

(1) The probability of an event in an ideal experiment is
given by the square of the absolute value of a complex
number 0 which is called the probability amplitude.
P = probability,
f = probability amplitude,
P = |f |2 .
(2) When an event can occur in several alternative ways, the
probability amplitude for the event is the sum of the
probability amplitudes for each way considered separately.
There is interference.
f = f 1 + f 2,

P = | f1 + f2 | .
(3) If an experiment is performed which is capable of
determining whether one or another alternative is actually
taken, the probability of the event is the sum of the
probabilities for each alternative. The interference is lost.
P = P1 + P2.
One might still like to ask: "How does it work? What is the
machinery behind the law?" No one has found any
machinery behind the law. No one can "explain" any more
than we have just explained." No one will give you any
deeper representation of the situation. We have no ideas

1. Ibid., pp. 107-108

107~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
about a more basic mechanism from which these results can
be deduced. We would like to emphasize a very important
difference between classical and quantum mechanics. We
have been talking about the probability that an electron will
arrive in a given circumstance. We have implied that in our
experimental arrangement (or even in the best possible one)
it would be impossible to predict exactly what would
happen. We can only predict the odds! This would mean, if
it were true, that physics has given up on the problem of
trying to predict exactly what will happen in a definite
circumstance. Yes! Physics has given up. We do not know
how to predict what would happen in a given circumstance,
and we believe now that it is impossible, that the only thing
thnt can be predicted is the probability of different events. It
must be recognized that this is a retrenchment in our earlier
ideal of understanding nature. It may be a backward step,
but no one has seen a way to avoid it.
We make now a few remarks on a suggestion that has
sometimes been made to try to avoid the description we
have given: "Perhaps the electron has some kind of internal
works-some inner variables-that we do not yet know about.
Perhaps that is why we cannot predict what will happen. If
we could look more closely at the electron we could be able
to tell where it would end up." So far as we know, that is
impossible. We would still be in difficulty.

: egJs ZskZj
A wZgzZtgzZg~[ C
Y| 7,[b,

1. Ibid. pp. 134-135.

108~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb

s kZ s ] !*
gzZ ]Z@x } {~
.Z D{q6,
CKkZj
XJ
-C ~$
+ZgzZZz-Z k^: egJ
- [Probable Truth]
bTX Lg
zC
ykZ g ZgzZh
+ F,
[~T DkZD
! x^ wi oY g Z } F,
{ c*
it{ zV] **
kZ { c*
ig~
` ZDX CW 4 j CbX }
7g Z kZ VZbg "gzZ C Zgz D|Z
# g i
Nck
,
i|kZ s~} ],
ZDt V ZbpD
| } ],
Z DgzZ"}g Xn W~} ],
Z"z}g
g | Z p 7|{z 7t `g {
$ g f | X C7wJ6,
}%i |{ z $
W7~ {],
Z=g f D0G
X @*
{ i Z0
+Z h
+D=g f @*
7g Z | kZX C 7`g {
[specific { s [scientific fact of reality] |
e
$zKZ 6,x kZ $
q scientific method]

x {z Z ZX Cg Z {Z| j} Os Z Z
exists as its own { z B
bg g0
+Z LZ i Z LZ C | Z Z
` uLZgzZ} ],Z LZ
tX C7` Z& =g f Yg {{zCright
7 ||kZ {z @*
7tD ` ukZ CY t|~ D
CZaZ Z!*
m
}{~
.ZgzZ)g fk Q ` ukZVY }
G

3
4

G
E
zg G Z |~ T ` u{z 9DZw$
+[V
X zmvZ-[
g]Z fgzZ bzg\vZ 6X gg (Z
&*
" zpLE
5G
: w OE
*|
gzZ |t gzZ Y y |6,gg )g fg i|

zC
] **
kZ g %$
+|kZ g ikZ:
{z 7 r$
+|Z
# |zz 7-Z||X g
gzZ D 7|{zgr$
+gzZ Y w$
+ Sgq
-ZJ
-$
+Z wi Z
jt X Y7ys WiXb
X g Z
4+Ie
$h
+]
.& 6,jkZnZ Z Zg X
X D"
$U*
bZgz kZgzZ
Za ~wEZf
KZ CY Zz lp]!*
t ckZ
109~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb

! gx Zt7V@
KZ<
X 4i + YV@ Zz

~
KZa }zG @*
& kZ *
c tc*
:i Zkz Z ZX :WXZ kzgzZ
47EZ i [)! -
)
8 jp.
gzZ Z]
.z ~g E
5G
` u<
gzZ 7wJ.
it ~ D` ubXtzg )gzZ
Xg T x)t~
:,$
ef ZD: - *
* c*
g *q
-Z]*D7t
w Tg Z~ [IZz
g CY6,
zZv M C^sZ LZ,q CakZ
wq
a kZv W0
+e }g @*
`gx Z W }iV;zY @*
Y~ w@*
0*
n
Z Zg Zy
KZX CY s6,zZ v WaZgzZ Tg6,zZ
kZ DwZy
KZa kZ v M bzg kZ v MgzZ 0*

~ **
- a kZ CY s ~ v MY CYi Zz6,sy M bzg
V a#gzZ A6,y M0{g*
) !*
wqZi Z LZ%y
KZ
ZX Zw~(,

C]gY c*
~ * kZ ]g
) !*
wqZ}',
y Wv W._ - **
- X CY6,zZG0*
{zakZ CY6,zZ
4$
-G

v WDG
Z}
. - **
-q
-Z [Prometheaus] z6,X Yz Z CW
4$
-G

H z6,X A 7v Ws A
y
KZ [Zuses]- iX &
X ~4V
KZv WkZ6,
}igzZX c*
Wv y Wv WG{z Dv W
4$
-G
kZ c*
|q
-Z6,J
gkZ ~ Zw+F,
J6,
wkZ z6, - i
**
3{g !*
z| X *
@YZa {g !*
z @*
|] ZgX @*
Y@*
3 a a
Dt wVzg ZD
V VE**
- @*
xt - kZ qz
@*
Y [Re-generate] Za p c*
C b ` WX
C lp
t X 7=gf ~iz0
+Z ]D
Hc*
C t ~ e
$ kZ xVE**
- ]!*
t X
zg W{z @*
WZ
# D CC[agony of knowldge] e
$f Z De
$
] e
$f Z kZ * Zz qe
$f Zt X CVge
$f Z @*
W
E
E

0*
Zv WXz Z b
Z Zg e|0i **
- *X Lg @*
x a
:W~ z] g e4Z
**
V.6, Z b
Z 4Z H ]
M F,g~ H 0
K
+
i
E
E
z =+Z q
-Z z Z b
Zg e)g f
w0iLZ TgZ
110~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb

+ * J
-wg ZD
z c*
]*D}W
T7
:@*
~
.Zg eg M wogTg Z 7g[ f ]
zkZX ;g @*
W,O
**
- t
w Motion is a thing dependent on its natural order
%iTgZ,zg
gzZ3HE~~,gVZz,,;gJ
-V-FW,
ZLG
4
5G
Laws of MotionHEgVZ]Z6
,
gpR*kZ
wF
D
D~ikZr
# &**
X c*

wgTgZc*
g
Y1y|k^Ze7wgZD
zk^g**
-
w
X"
$U*
y M
]mZbkZhz%h ]c*
M y M
gzZ
6Z M Yspyizp ~
HE[Mass]S
Sg HE S =56Z W [relative] Z S~

7[g bHEpX
H[g F,
5gzZ c*
M ~ z ` u*
Hw$
+
X{zZ
? I H~}g !*
|kZ D~gz kZ & **
Zf [
X g} ~ }g !*
Vz)q{z ` W P z?
yZ { z +gzZ@Z Z Z |Zg Z | Zg Z|r
# & **
ZgzZ +Z&tD:g Di{z:gz7Zz t
b!*
V
X DZ}VhVyZ
: Zg fgzZwQ :c|
Exists as its own : B
bgg0
+Z LZ i Z LZ |6,gZ
kZ V ;gyYgzZ ?7c*
V YyY Z~p |t wZp right
|akZ ?7c*
|{z Z Z [ yY~gzZ ?7c*
zc~
kZ gzZ [ E p i s t o m o l o g y ] w kZ [ r e a l i t y ]
X ~gz'Y [objectivity of epistmology]zc
p | H a#gzZ V Z b~ ~,,
| zGt @*
B4zG + Y |B zc
ItakZ 7}ugzZbh
C
+]
.DkZ H|Y 7
q
-Z e)g fzckZgzZ YY **
Y zcs|
VzX M
hyY gC1)gzZ|ZkZ ] !*
}uz)g f-" zyZpDkCsB]e
$.
111~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
[Pain] g k Z [Happiness] ]k Z [Guilt] { k
Hk Z } M
hC 7

| {],
Z 'Y|{)z{)z[Love]kZ [Sadness]kZ
4ZgzZzctzc~kZ 'Y, Z
X {],
Z ] G
5G3E
E
47ZgzZ ~ i! -z kZ }c VzyZ b
~g E
5G
[explanation of | ] 7| b M ~ } ]
,
Z
e [reality] | [explanations] ]yZ v preality]
f
] x4,
}q
-Z b Sg r$
+B i ] t
X *
@YH| @*
Y7**
Y|sV m$
+
B|
:]gz$
- ;f )a<q
7h
+F,
+
M qzg c*
Z}
. kZ V: Z ]~1V b Z}
.~
h|M
ht%ZX 7|{z7t g? C
agzZo? ~ho oXgzi ? ~~
q

-Z!ZiZ kZp $
0
) !*
gz$o?gz$q
-Zce
)pDv+F,
fx q<
gzZbakZX YYH?gz
VfyZy<
gzZ v~yZyb$;fx~q
{c*
i .
$;f $;f ]gz1zg=Z kZ Z ;g =Z
0
+
ikZ {z ;g|T{z/y
KZXce **
YHB$;f
zX Z Z~ g@*
6Xg: {z|wzkZ e |J
_7, }igDVZbgzZvIa#xJ
-wgZD

I X sp wgZD
z |X % D D }Iz c gzZ DD
{E
+ Z CJ
-w
H [Planet] {g ( VZ Fx J
-~q
-Z [Pluto]
D%yZpg B|Z%_7,_7,g _7,VZb
E
dwJ.
~* b 0Ei'|k^ZVzZX sp|
X 7tzg
E
8
H
4
xE C @*
Y w$
+e5G5 E y
KZ ;g tZgbgt J
-wF
w A W,Zk
,
i [Evolution Theory] g Zt~ [biological science]
h
+]
. @*
Y transformation jadoption ;g @*
Y t J
{g !*
z Y { nD N A )g f m u t a t i o n Z x
/Z g ZtbZX Y7speZX Y7[reproduce]

112~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb

B; & y
KZ ~ T
H mutation
Hw$
+e CQ ~g F
Z Sg 7g Z
',~ Z t p @*
Y q 5 Z D M uz
X @*
Y7g Z[Z mutation
kZ e kZ CYsp~ q ~uz q q
-Z ] Zgg Z *
h
+]
.t $
7 sp~ q ~uz q q
-Z [ Zp @*
Y w$
+
) !*
~p
yZ D Y w$
+~ sgzZ V V- ]c*
k^ b n
CY -6,bTb! fV}g tzg **
] mZ y M
c*

<
X @*
7-6,bkZb[f p
:tqZ :Zgz ]zGb
J
- Z g .
$ ',x wgD
^g ke
CY 6,
CkZ -6,bX,Zgz ]zGX @*
Y c*
CRegress science
Y o+,kZ c*
l{6,XkZ wgD
p C7gZ6,]zGt
kZ xi Z P ~ e xi Z w7Z Existentialism xi Z yge
7 kZ
H"
$U*
wgD
XZgz ]zGb c*
g:|g}g7
X 7 [Pre-suppostion less] Zgz ]zGxi Z wogzZ Positivism
Realistic zG q
-Z X D g Z 6,]zGg " gzZ ] c*
t
m~ Vz object q
-ZgzZ subjectq
-ZVy ~ Dualism
X 76,}uzq
-ZVzp
gwkZpHgxi ZWi 0*
gzZxi Zwo kZX &eDzcwgD

wgD
a kZ Y g @*
Zgz Dq 6,
C 4 H7
tgz
{ c*
i Y o +pc*
phenominological Reduction

/
wgD
X v; g
/
wgD
{ T c*
M Existensialism
X
HH~
.Z Y o+ c*
ggkZzc Zv;
Zgz ]zG: X 7g ZY), wgD
~ wv;
being in the world~ * kZ zY Y7L pure subject
X pure object: pure subject: Z
LZ LZ [Positivism] xi ZWi 0*
gzZ [Naturalism] xi Z wo
~Y 1936c*
^ c*
yvbs: ]zGyZ]zG
gzZ xi Z wo kZ Crisis of European Sciences [ wgD

113~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb

gzZ Naturalism ,
Czc wgD
X 0 y
KDZEW xi Z Wi 0*
tX6,
VzGp]Z&
+;`VztYY7~
.Z Positivism

3
]zGgzZ] G
5GEZg@*
d
$m{q
-Zb8g-h
+]
.t]!*
a Y s zc X 7Wt X q Z
i
+g o+ wgD
a ZiW S u b j e c t i v i t y
t wgD
@*
C g @*
,pc*
i [Phenominological Reduction]
X 7~g ZZ)gzZ F
F6,]zGpt
*
@Y ZaX y!*
i B y wgD

/Z v;
E
! EE

y!*
i Zgz H ? i
g {z W L7Z H D ~
.Z y!*
iT

4
[Metaphysical ] Z C G
5G3E Z % y!*
i [Meta-language]
y!*
it Ha g@*
Zgz ? M
hqu Zg ZgzZD question]
y!*
i Zgz a |uZg Z c*
? g ZzZa Z gzZ g~ yk z y i

4 Z YY c*
gzZ b) C G
5G3E
VZ wZt V X ]gz meta-language

:
X
)g f Zkztc*
? Yy
KZy!*
i aK]!*
ZyZgzZ]Z
~D` uv; 1 M
hY VZ6,v; ] Z{ zt Cwi **
C M V [Values] g ZZ Z wZt V X YY c*
7[Z ]ZyZ
Y
&z
4E
twZC M [external world]C
!*
g ZZ~w 5HkH
4Z H
Xn b)yZ ? $
Yy!*
iC G
5G3E
a#x [Zp &VZbpgzZ HLZ g wg
gzZ Falsification X C i W ^ LZ B ] zGb q )Z
i WkZ Cq zbb 1t Sophisticated Induction
4Z 0G
$Em{ ]Z@x @*
] G
5G3E
7 [Observation] }@x
bdn~btX DW,
Zk
,
i [Theory Laiden]]zG
[Ontological Analysis] V- Cc*
z [Epistemological Analysis]
X }uzq
-ZVz7e%
:kZ7lC :~,zg VZ
,gVZ bp } gzZ 2 zG |l)g f b
g c*
) !*

gzZ q
-Za
KZ g @*
~,g VZX g ZS
n ~ ~
y**
- X
Hg ZS
n } |l,~ ~kZY X g
114~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb

yZt%.
$pg [gzZ l{Z|J
-gz.
$

3
] G
5GEZ .
$X D]Z
KZ 7l C, H
$E
kZgzZ Zt.
$a 0G
kZX c*
g 0Wy
KZ b
Z]Za# .
$X ]gzKgzZ"7,gN(,
{z.
$XDwk
,
/**

gzZB Zz<
a+
M qzggzZ 0
+
i
h ~
/~y
Wyxgt ZgzZ<
h
+ F,
[zd`kZ T
~ekZX YYHgzZ )gf=gZZ Z~w.
$X c*
g
y c*
Z { ZgZ X
KZ { ZgZ
C]Z q
- 4,
kZ X 7]gzkz
l +
$Y gzZb~ ~,gVZX 7
/
~
C
. z ]Z ]
bJ
-Z +I e
$h
+]
.}g z!*
gZS
n } |
h
+]
.: Zz b:tY sz^~ [J
-{Z |)gf
:Hb~\g-zi
Z x7tZX
The basic function of natural science was telological,
it served to find the divine order of the universe whose main
feature had been provided by revelation. In other words,
science was principally a means of illustrating theological
truths for emphasizing the need to go beyond material
existence. The answers were known in advance it was the job
of science to prove that faith was supported by reason and
physical facts.

zb~ d
$y**
- *gzZ\g- zi Z r
# & *
* Z f}g
sz^J
-Z ~ wqgzZ d) ;6,bh
+]
. Y (
/Z ~ }g !*

D kZ g
r
# & **
~g xsZ TbX
X
4
2
.
G
k E
Kg Zg el
g} ig 6,0*
iCev; wgD
a#wzZ+[f
V Z bgzZa#yZ M
h ] N Y | 7, Zg Wc
kZ Y Zgz ] zG bgzZ Cg} E M b

1. Pervez Hoodbhoy, Muslims and Science: Religious Orthodoxy and the

Struggle for Rationality, Vanguard, 1991, p.80.

115~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb

X Cy,w)ZkZW]ZgK~g ZZ)
*`
gzZ Hx B ug Tugi
+
]C
g
q]!*
{z~}g !*
y
KZh
+]
.X H Z Zg Z~~yJ e Ch
+]
.
Le **
q { c*
i { c*
i Le Le H{z } Y {z Wq=L
L
{ c*
i D o ]Z Le j, Z w { c*
i { c*
i kZ
@*
0
+
i6,V&yZ {
X Y ei Zw { c*
i
[Rational] [w
zgzZ d
$z z b
W kZ!*
John Rawls(ggzZ ` W~] gtugi
+

1{ c*
i { c*
i R~kZbh
+]
.X HwEZ~x LZgkZ
Z f [ X 7m #
}
.xsZgzZ xs Z kZX x **
e
,h
+]
.gzZ,h
+]
. s @*
x } ^
,Y Vzk
,
x r
# & **
D7[ g Z o Zd7
- nkZ {z:gz H7{ .Z ]'Z b
c*
g c*
"~D` uX Y07w dyZm Z yZ
Xtzgd)gzZ )q
-Z I|k^
:|M
%Y VzI$
e+
h.
]
w**
yZBDxh
+]
.Y lZDIe
$h
+]
.6,gx
]; "Z }{ g6 Zzg6]*qzgD];
7 ab) qzg];VZ] ;} (,
gzZ 7m bzg
7] ZgzZ d
$z ~}g !*
DgzZ P];} H7
6,
CDLZy
KZ H} $
yYy
KZ {z Y @*

~ y
KZ + YgzZf ` Z'
g Y{ J
-Z
7kZ VZ ] ;p Z8 y
KZ }uz y
KZC
Y yZ{ { c*
i
:eyT
Next, we consider the science of psychology.
Incidentally, psychoanalysis is not a science: it is at best a
medical process, and perphaps even more like
witch-doctoring. It has a theory as to what causes disease lots of different "spirits," etc. The witch doctor has a theory
that a disease like malaria is caused by a spirit which comes
into the air it is not cured by shaking a snake over it, but

116~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
quinine does help malaria. So, if you are sick, I would advise
that you go to the witch doctor because he is the man in the
tribe who knows the most about the disease; on the other
hand, his knowledge is not science. Psychoanalysis has not
been checked carefully by experiment, and there is no way
to find a list of the number of cases in which it works, the
number of cases in which it does not work, etc.1
The other branches of psychology, which involve things like
the physiology of sensation-what happens in the eye, and
what happens in the brain-are, if you wish, less interesting.
But some smaIl but real progress has been made in studying
them. One of the most interesting technical problems may or
may not be called psychology.
The central problem of the mind, if you will, or the
nervous system, is this: when an animal learns something, it
can do something different than it could before, and its brain
cell must have changed too, if it is made out of atoms. In
what way is it different? We do not know where to look, or
what to look for, when something is memorized. We do not
know what it means, or what change there is in the nervous
system, when a fact is learned. This is a very important
problem which has not been solved at all. Assuming,
however, that there is some kind of memory thing, the brain
is such an enormous mass of interconnecting wires and
nerves that it probably cannot be analyzed in a
straightforward manner. There is an analog of this to
computing machines and computing elements, in that they
also have a lot of lines, and they have some kind of element,

1. P. Feynman, Six Easy Pieces, U.S.A., Helix Books ,1995, p.63.

117~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
analogous, perhaps, to the synapse, or connection of one
nerve to another. This is a very interesting subject which we
have not the time to discuss further-the relationship between
thinking and computing machines. It must be appreciated,
of course, that this subject will tell us very little about the
real complexities of ordinary human behavior. All human
beings are so different. It will be a long time before we get
there. We must start much further back. If we could even
figure out how a dog works, we would have gone pretty far.
Dogs are easier to understand, but nobody yet knows how
dogs work.

&7~VhyZ}p @*
YDi~q
-Zb
',D
+z g} e
$.6,wZkZ ;g Y Hq D ] c*
b)g f X
D~ yZ V~)DT gzZ j]DZ
# ]gz
? Yq
It is very difficult to find an equation for which such a
fantastic number is a natural root. Other possibilities have
been thought of; one is to relate it to the age of the universe.
Clearly, we have to find another large number somewhere.
But do we mean the age of the universe in years? No,
because years are not "natural"; they were devised by men.

: ,
6yzkb
$ gf t 6,
: 7,] ~7D0G
yzkgzZVzi Z0
+Zb
The uncertainty principle "protects" quantum mechanics.
Heisenberg recognized that if it were possible to measure
the momentum and the position simultaneously with a
greater accuracy, the quantum mechanics would collapse. So

1. Ibid., p. 64.

2. Ibid., p. 110.

118~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
he proposed that it must be impossible. Then people sat
down and tried to figure out ways of doing it, and nobody
could figure out a way to measure the position and the
momentum of any thing-a screen, an electron, a billiard ball,
anything-with any greater accuracy. Quantum mechanics
maintains its perilous but accurate existence.

Thus we are confronted with a large number of


particles, which together seem to be the fundamental
constituents of matter. Fortunately, these particles are not all
different in their interactions with one another. In fact, there
seem to be just four kinds of interaction between particles
which, in the order of decreasing strength, are the nuclear
force, electrical interactions, the beta-decay interaction, and
gravity. The photon is coupled to all charged particles and
the strength of the interaction is measured by some number,
which is 1/137. The detailed law of this coupling is known,
that is Quantum Electrodynamics. Gravity is coupled to all
energy, but its coupling is extremely weak, much weaker
than that of electricity. This law is also known. Then there
are the so- called weak decays-beta decay, which causes the
neutron to disintegrate into proton, electron, and neutrino,
relatively slowly. This law is only partly known. The
so-called strong interaction, the meson-baryon interaction,
has a strength of 1 in this scale, and the law is completely
unknown, although there are a number of known rules, such
as that the number of baryons does not change in any
reaction. This then, is the horrible condition of our physics

1. Ibid., p.38.

119~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
today. To summarize it, I would say this: outside the
nucleus, we seem to know all; inside it, quantum mechanics
is valid-the principles of quantum mechanics have not been
found to fail. The stage on which we put all of our
knowledge, we would say, is relativistic space-time; perhaps
gravity is involved in space-time. We do not know how the
universe got started, and we have never made experiments
which check our ideas of space and time accurately, below
some tiny distance, so we only know that our ideas work
above that distance. We should also add that the rules of the
game are the quantum mechanical principles, and those
principles apply, so far as we can tell, to the new particles as
well as to the old. The origin of the forces in nuclei leads us
to new particles, but unfortunately they appear in great
profusion and we lack a complete understanding of their
interrelationship, although we already know that there are
some very surprising relationships among them. We seem
gradually to be groping toward an understanding of the
world of sub-atomic particles, but we really do not know
how far we have yet to go in this task.

:^ |7|:b+
h.
]
.
$X
H^ l|)g fbh
+]
..
$
kZ ._ f LZ y
KZ $
Y $
Y 7l | c*
C
O|lb.
$ Z Y} M |
# 6f KZ]
.
$ Y 1
~ dkZ
/Z[ Z 0 i|
f gzZz~categories {g !*
#
|
KZf75 wkZ
, z [Creation of reality]| CYr$
+|
#
KZ

1. Ibid., pp.43-45.

120~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb

z [g z Z
KZ C7 | @*
Y m$
+, z
)uZz Zg fz[ Z-6,kZbgzZ

H0[ZZX q
G
# |X C |p!Z &
|
+| |]g @*
-Zt c*
q
0*
gZ
ik
,5
+
~p~|2 zGX B
bgg0
+Z LZi Z LZ {z C7g Z6,
KZf
| kZ 2 zGkZ Q Y c*
C zG ~ D ? H
}gzZ ]Z@x] !*
asp~ [Probable / possible truth]
| kZ q
-Z 2 zGgzZ VYzG{z g | |X Y !*
W *
kZY Z
W | kZ 2 zG ? spVY~
D g (Z T Z [ m e t h o d ] i 7 Z | ~ j
{ Z ({ Zpr
# & **
Z f & @*
Y sp~ | kZ [Hypothesis]zG
f ] : |: s@yZyZ bg}g Z
|gzZ k^

KZ { Zg ZgzZ Y J e b~( ~ z! ZzZ
KZ
Z {z
KZft X N Y g z',ykZ] :Z b6,g~ ~
[reality] |gzZ fact X w J e ~ |2 zGgzZzG|
~g ZZ 7~g ZZ)t M
h7g ZZ Zgzt X 7` Z a LZ
X D[value loaded]
: e)g f
g gJ|
-Z D] !*
q
DZ
# nZuzD|gzZ qq
-Z|
-ZgzZ subject
yY~ 6 c*
{z 6i + Y objectX objectq
Y Y |t q
$
-Z 1: zt X + Z Z z uZg Z z t c*
0*
E
_
4
5
3
F
gzZ Zi G Z ^g ke y#Z o Zc$
Y Y 7| w }uz 2
**
g (Z9a kZp $
Y Y | {)z i
|\ M kZX .
$ !*
}uzX M
h yY 7|
[structure of Vv 6f LZ 6
,|y
KZ { z 6 M
h yY 7(z
|Z u Zg Z ~ ZZ
{z u Zg Z ~kZ @*
t :Z mind]
|s %Z~A
$kVzX @*
| M Z $
Y 7 Y
X bVzz|X 76,| z6,
+ Yu Zg Zz
:$
. :7e'Y|
kZ } Y | VZ Vk z V i
~ w .
$
121~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb

|h
+
YY**
Y|%VZyZ
/Z7 e'Y|a}g %
z Z
# |u Zg Z M
h 7%VZyZ/| ZpM
h yY
h| ZX Lg 7 e**
M
0*
||
H{g6, z
~D` u.
$ ? YVJ
-|[
t c*
$
|HpX
{],ZgzZ=
KZap@*
7g Z ]5=Zgz {z M
hY VZ7]Zt
gZ yZ~ Vs}uz @*
7x { z6,gZ yZ ZD7]mZ z yZ D
: gZ =Zgz {zC
/ YY 76,c*
,gzZ ]5kZjz z =Zgz (
gzZ c*
g Z |C
Zy
KZ kZ.
$~[fnpXG @*
: @*
h
+F,

mythological y Zw C
!*
D{],
Z] Z C G
5G3EZ Cg Cg bkZ
X
Hc*
}g Z

:7,
6|s Z Z| z
-Z z zmvZ -\ WX |q
q
-Z zmvZ -[
g
gzZ
)q
-Zp 9[

gayq
-Z|t |
g


/Zp7||gzZ ~$
+Z o)K kZau
a | z s Z Z | CY 7w$
+| kZ } 7|[ $

3
E

G
X CYw$
+ Yw$
+ C G
5 Z |q
-Z tsX7~gz
mvZ -[
g zmvZ -[
gg ZpSg7|a)
6,c*
+ **
wg \ WY CY7sp|gzZwz
-Z \vZ bT}:t\
q
WLq
-Z { Zp wg Z Z \WX 7
# & *
r
* Z f [ X ,g Z ~$
+Zz i Z |kZ y
KZx * { Zp |
gzZ Vx{ kZ C|b{ztZ +4I e
$h
+]
.vgzZ
bkZ O
Vx **
gzZ ], ] Z kZ Zz Vc*
gz$
E& Vc*
C

4
}
E
[f6,b G v z r
# & **
/ZX sz^~ oyZZ V6,

kZ[fX M
hgb6,
CkZ {z f
e_],
~
gN {n CZ ~ N
WW [f{z kZ Op M
h 3 {n kZ~ N
WWLZ
[fOy6,
KyZZ LZ[fX g 3 {nxsZgzZ
X g4Z~yZZ {],ZkZ6,K|{
Ie
$h
+]
.}g p&7 unquestionableD` u [f
pg yZZ (Z 6,[Questionsable, Challengable] bDZkZ +
n
122~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb

}W xsZZ OgbX gzZa **


~[f
X/Zzx,[fgzZ Z k{ **
3
:+
h ,
FZ & kZ :b
b{z @*
C
]hgzZ Vzk
,
r
# & *
* Z f [
gzZ qX g
6,
C [Principle of Verifaility]
: $
}q : b c*
"
$U*
Structuralists lI
[probably h
+ F,kZ gzZ [probably verifiy] } kZ b h
+ F,
't r
# & **
6,
CVzG~,g VZ Z C falsify]
|X `d)q
-ZX=g f W,
G@*
}& b
Tn * jZ6,
CKkZj/ {@xT|{z
generalizaed truth 6
,
C wZ kZ @ c*
lgzZ |t b
bgzZ& Inductivism it + YX D YK y
~ X ~ Zz Vx{x kZ bda#} (,~ ` u
VY YY H7"
$U*
BD6,
CKkZj} Zj*
[universal]Wp @
*
[personal] ~ ZZ
C
/~ jgzZkZ
} W6,
C [particu lar experience] "m{ Z @*

~
.Z] ] b
it X M
hYK 7[universal claim]
qX D } x Y c*
t N} ~ VPVzP
D} s } , Z Z7 e{@x nVzx Vx *
@*
[probable truth] s kZ| s Zz q6,
CkZ
,a kZ X $
x h
+ F, kZ X @*
7 [absolute truth] s
kZY @*
Y H7ts }{~
.Z6,
C Inductivism~ b
}z ]!*
x yZ6,", Zq
-Z sg Z gs kZ

Z O { (b qu t
C} K *~ hbkZ X}
,a Z X D } x Yg~x q
-Z Wt } 3
` ubn Y : [falicify] h
+ F,
T 7(Z [truth] s ~b
[Scientific g i g Z s s c*
| |~
|Wq
-Zt X CV ~ j CZ @*
6,Method]
t{ Zp C| {zX C7` Za|LZ|
123~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb

z kZ Y B|g
/ jgzZ"| }: c*
}
7 |ZX 7|{z}: "
$U*
|) Z/ZuzJ
-Z
#J
X CYgZ" ZsC
~ Conjectures & refutations [ KZ~}g !*
b6,
0*
wg
: q
These considerations led me in the winter of 1919-20 to
conclusions which I may now reformulate as follows:
1.

It is easy to obtain confirmations, or verifications, for


nearly every theory - if we look for confirmations.

2.

Confirmations should count only if they are the


result of risky predictions; that is to say, if,
unenlightened by the theory in question, we should
have expected an event which was incompatible with
the theory - an event which would have refuted the
theory.

3.

Every "good" scientific theory is a prohibition: it


forbids certain things to happen. The more a theory
forbids, the better it is.

4.

A theory which is not refutable by any conceivable


event is non-scientific. Irrefutability is not a virtue of
a theory (as people often think) but a vice.

5.

Every genuine test of a theory is an attempt to falsify


it, or to refute it. Testability is falsifiability; but there
are degrees of testability: some theories are more
testable, more exposed to refutation, than others;
they take, as it were, greater risks.

6.

Confirming evidence should not count except when


it is the result of a genuine test of the theory; and this
means that it can be presented as a serious but

124~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
unsuccessful attempt to falsify the theory. (I now
speak in such cases of "corroborating evidence.")
7.

Some genuinely testable theories, when found to be


false, are still upheld by their admirers - for example
by introducing ad hoc some auxiliary assumption, or
by reinterpreting the theory ad hoc in such a way
that it escapes refutation. Such a procedure is always
possible, but it rescues the theory from refutation
only at the price of destroying, or at least lowering,
its scientific status. (I later described such a rescuing
op e ra t i on a s a " c on v en t i on a l is t tw i s t" o r a
"conventionalist stratagem.")

One can sum up all this by saying that the criterion of the
scientific status of a theory is its falsifiability, or refutability,
or testability.
At the same time I realized that such myths may be
developed, and become testable; that historically speaking
all - or very nearly all - scientific theories originate from
myths, and that a myth may contain important anticipations
of scientific theories. Examples are Empedocles' theory of
evolution by trial and error, or Parmenides' myth of the
unchanging block universe in which nothing ever happens
and which, if we add another dimension, becomes Einstein's
block universe (in which, too, nothing ever happens, since
everything is, four-dimensionally speaking, determined and
laid down from the beginning). I thus felt that if a theory is
found to be non-scientific, or "metaphysical" (as we might
say), it is not thereby found to be unimportant, or
insignificant, or "meaningless," or "nonsensical." But it

125~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
cannot claim to be backed by empirical evidence in the
scientific sense - although it may easily be, in some genetic
sense,

the

"result

of

observation."

(There were a great many other theories of this pre-scientific


or pseudo-scientific character, some of them, unfortunately,
as influential as the Marxist interpretation of history; for
example, the racialist interpretation of history - another of
those impressive and all-explanatory theories which act
upon weak minds like revelations.)
Thus the problem which I tried to solve by proposing the
criterion of fals ifiability was neither a problem of
meaningfulness or significance, nor a problem of truth or
acceptability. It was the problem of drawing a line (as well
as this can be done) between the statements, or systems of
statements, of the empirical sciences, and all other
statements - whether they are of a religious or of a
metaphysical character, or simply pseudo-scientific. Years
later - it must have been in 1928 or 1929 - I called this first
problem of mine the "problem of demarcation." The criterion
of falsifiability is a solution to this problem of demarcation,
for it says that statements or systems of statements, in order
to be ranked as scientific, must be capable of conflicting with
1
possible, or conceivable, observations.

:Z9:7Dzcb
M % kZgzZB=g f Dr

# & **
gzZ+Ie
$h
+]
.& 4L L
Z ~kZ D"
$U*
M y M
+
gzZxsZ)g f 4
) !*
E
E

~ V+F,
Z * b 0i gzZ b& 7Zz Feyerabend

1. K. P. Popper, Conjectaues and Refutation. London: Routledge & Kegan

Paul, 1963, pp. 36-39 .

126~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb

D)g f6,4"Against Method" [kZgzZ @*


Y Hg
0*
',!i~ *
6,b Z9 ~ Science in a Free society [ KZ c*
{z@*
7t [objective knowledge] Dzcb Z9 H
',i
g " yZ b ~ w kZ g Z
z Myth y q
-Zb
pKc*
gaDw
KZfiq
-Z~Vh
~ w kZ Not necessarily the best 7i+4 i b
wJ 1wJw@*
7,Y% V Zz wJ6,gDgzZ 0
+
iiq
-Zb
Y H]ZxzZ
+Z kZgzZ HzukZ 7Zz ]!*
kZ Zz
D+F,
aZgzZ F,
!*
4 xEx i b 3gV Zz (Z
m
c*
ggzZb bkZ!*
HH{e

c*
g al
bT H{z
x xEZzgx ] c*
Zzgx V n [Free]~
Zi M q
-Z @*
ce **
% Y Zg f gzZ jV7 Vhx w D . ; Z
~ w kZ z a 46,
ubsJ e 4c*
g x : VxZ
4 x ZZg ggzZ F,
b Z {+F,
+a e
$
$g/b
Xn YH1 j~g/ Z @*
ce
z ] ?
M kZzz KF,
',gzZ Db
6,gZz L=gzZ ?~ wZ91 D Ybg Z
{)z e
$ Z
:$
Y7
Reason and Rationality are ambiguous and never clearly
explained.
Farewell to [ kZ ] Z Z dgzZ b : kZ~ ekZ

X M
hY 7, ,~Reason
g Z
collage Z {z @*
g Z t[System] x b{z
g ZbbDisunity of science{z 7b ]uz D{z
! fb Z9Science is not one thing, it is many. ~ w kZ
Y Z7 M b6,g zc H{z &g Zq
-Z r z
gzZe
$g EZ
X 7t
~voodoo gzZ Astrology
{z @*
g Z t` ui : e [uZz Dwb {z
~
M gzZ g Z ZY gzZ V zig M ] Zp CZ f ] 1)
~ yZyb~ wkZ &f .
gzZ W,
Z { c*
iaF,
b
127~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb

t g John Krige 6,kZ Lg W,


wZ "anything goes" s
kZ Any thing goes means that in practice every thing stays.
b{ z MJ6,~k
,5
+W,
Z { c*
iugzZ -6,b~* ! f~Vzk
,
x
: @*
g Z t=g f +4wD
We can't justify the science as the best way of acquiring
knowledge.

x Y D7? b] Zxz }~ wkZ


:Dg Z6,)}

And the results of science don't prove its excellence, since


these results have often depended on the presence of non
scientific elements.

4Z b{@x Y @*
] G
5G3E
gz ]c*
]Z@x){z
:7e%] c*
zgzZ] Zg
Observations are just as theoretical (that hypothetical) as
theories, "Logically speaking, all terms are "theoretical"

m{q
-Z @*
g~g ZZ 7 value nutral~g ZZ)b{z
4Z g @*
: C M',
] c*
zgzZ] G
5G3E
One of these is that "every positivistic observation language
is based upon a metaphysical ontology"

"the interpretation of a scientific theory depends upon


nothing but the state of affairs it describes"

gzZ
H0y) F,bOg,Z
# ~gz kZ
:~p Z%e! fq
-ZgzZ ;g,
C[zdygzZs Z@Z

"philosophy is worthless unless it makes a positive and


quantifiable contribution to the growth of knowledge

1. Philosophical Papers, Volume 1, p. 32 note.


2. Philosophical Papers, Volume 1, p. 21.
3. Philosophical Papers, Volume 1, p. 42.

128~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
(which, of course, means science)".

kZ @*
7
Z',
6,gx {b{z@*
7t
gqgkZ Z9
X YYJ 7,
~V1kZh
+kZ~e
H7 { ^
,Yz kZ~ ;#s M c*
be
KZ eg Z
: 5 { c*
ix : { ^
,YtgzZ
H
By the early 1970s Feyerabend had flown the
falsificationist coop and was ready to expound his own
perspective on scientific method. In 1970, he published a
long article entitled "Against Method" in which he attacked
several prominent accounts of scientific methodology. In
their correspondence, he and Lakatos subsequently planned
the construction of a debate volume, to be entitled For and
Against Method, in which Lakatos would put forward the
"rationalist" case that there was an identifiable set of rules of
scientific method which make all good science science, and
Feyerabend would attack it. Lakatos' unexpected death in
February 1974, which seems to have shocked Feyerabend
deeply, meant that the rationalist part of the joint work was
never completed.
What's so great about knowledge? What's so great
about science? What's so great about truth? We were not
going to be disappointed after all! During the following
weeks of that term, and for the rest of his year as a visiting
lecturer, Feyerabend demolished virtually every traditional
academic boundary. He held no idea and no person sacred.
With unprecedented energy and enthusiasm he discussed
anything from Aristotle to the Azande. How does science
differ from witchcraft? Does it provide the only rational way
of cognitively organizing our experience? What should we
do if the pursuit of truth cripples our intellects and stunts

129~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
our individuality? Suddenly epistemology became an
exhilarating area of investigation.1
Because his health was poor, Feyerabend started
seeing a healer who had been recommended to him. The
treatment was successful, and thenceforth Feyerabend used
to refer to his own case as an example of both the failures of
orthodox medicine and the largely unexplored possibilities
of "alternative" or traditional remedies.
"Against Method" is not a book, it is a collage. It contains
descriptions, analyses, arguments that I had published, in
almost the same words, ten, fifteen, even twenty years
earlier I arranged them in a suitable order, added
transitions, replaced moderate passages with more
outrageous ones, and called the result "anarchism". I loved
to shock people.2
He emphasised that older scientific theories, like
Aristotle's Theory of Motion, had powerful empirical and
argumentative support, and stressed, correlatively, that the
heroes of the scientific revolution, such as Galileo, were not
as scrupulous as they were sometimes represented to be. He
port raye d Ga lile o as mak ing f u ll u s e of rh eto ric,
propaganda, and various epistemological tricks in order to
support the heliocentric position. The Galileo case is crucial
for Feyerabend, since the "scientific revolution" is his
paradigm of scientific progress and of radical conceptual

1. John Krige, Science, Revolution and Discontinuity, Sussex: Harvester

Press, 1980, pp. 106-107.


2. P.K Feyerabend, Against Method: Outline of an Anarchistic Theory of

Knowledge, London: New Left Books, 1975,pp.139, 142.

130~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
change, and Galileo is his hero of the scientific revolution.
He also sought further to downgrade the importance of
empirical arguments by suggesting that aesthetic criteria,
personal whims and social factors have a far more decisive
role in the history of science than rationalist or empiricist
historiography would indicate.
Against Method explicitly drew the "epistemological
anarchist" conclu sion that there are no useful and
exceptionless methodological rules governing the progress
of science or the growth of knowledge. The history of science
is so complex that if we insist on a general methodology
which will not inhibit progress, the only "rule" it will
contain, will be the useless suggestion: "anything goes". In
particular, logical empiricist methodologies and Popper's
Critical Rationalism would inhibit scientific progress by
enforcing restrictive conditions on new theories.
Feyerabend saw himself as having undermined the
arguments for science's privileged position within culture,
and much of his later work was a critique of the position of
science within Western societies. Because there is no
scientific method, we can't justify science as the best way of
acquiring knowledge. And the results of science don't prove
its excellence, since these results have often depended on the
presence of non-scientific elements, science prevails only
because "the show has been rigged in its favour"

and other traditions, despite their achievements, have never


been given a chance. The truth, he suggests, is that science is
much closer to myth than a scientific philosophy is prepared

1. P.K Feyerabend, Science in a Free Society, New Left Books, 1978, p. 102.

131~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
to admit. It is one of the many forms of thought that have
been developed by man, and not necessarily the best. It is
conspicuous, noisy, and impudent, but it is inherently
superior only for those who have already decided in favour
of a certain ideology, or who have accepted it without ever
having examined its advantages and its limits.

The separation of church and state should therefore


be supplemented by the separation of science and state, in
order for us to achieve the humanity we are capable of.
Setting up the ideal of a free society as "a society in which all
traditions have equal rights and equal access to the centres
of power"

Feyerabend argues that science is a threat to

democracy. To defend society against science we should


place science under democratic control and be intensely
sceptical about scientific "experts", consulting them only if
they are controlled democratically by juries of laypeople.
Many of the more important papers Feyerabend
published during the mid-1980s were collected together in
Farewell to Reason[ London: Verso, 1987]. The major message
of this book is that Relativism is the solution to the problems
of conflicting beliefs and of conflicting ways of life.
Feyerabend starts by suggesting that the contemporary
intellectual scene in Western culture is by no means as
fragmented and cacophonous as many intellectuals would
have us believe. The surface diversity belies a deeper
uniformity, a monotony generated and sustained by the

1. P.K. Feyerabend: Against method, London: Veso, 1975, p. 295.


2. Ibid., p.9.

132~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
cultural and ideological imperialism which the West uses to
beat its opponents into submission. Such uniformity,
however, can be shown to be harmful even when judged by
the standards of those who impose it. Cultural diversity,
which already exists in some societies, is a good thing not
least because it affords the best defence against totalitarian
domination.
Feyerabend complains that the ideas of reason and
rationality are "ambiguous and never clearly explained"

they are defied hangovers from autocratic times which no


longer have any content but whose "halo of excellence"
[ibid.] clings to them and lends them spurious respectability:
[R]ationalism has no identifiable content and reason, no
recognisable agenda over and above the principles of the
party that happens to have appropriated its name. All it does
now is to lend class to the general drive towards monotony.
It is time to disengage Reason from this drive and, as it has
been thoroughly compromised by the association, to bid it
farewell.2
[R]elativism is the tool with which Feyerabend hopes to
"undermine the very basis of Reason" 3. But is it Reason with
a capital "R", the philosophers' abstraction alone, that is to be
renounced, or reason itself too? Feyerabend is on weak
ground when he claims that "Reason" is a philosophers'
notion which has no content, for it is precisely the
philosopher who is willing to attach a specific content to the
formal notion of rationality (unlike the layperson, whose

1. P. Feyerabend, Farewell to Reasen, London: Veso Newleft books 1987, p. 10.


2. Ibid.,p. 13.

3. Ibid.

133~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
notion of reason is closer to what Feyerabend calls the
"material" conception, where to be rational is "to avoid
certain views and to accept others".1
One of the projects which Feyerabend worked on for
a long time, but never really brought to completion, went
under the name "The Rise of Western Rationalism". Under
this umbrella he hoped to show that Reason (with a capital
"R") and Science had displaced the binding principles of
previous world-views not as the result of having won an
argument, but as the result of power-play. While the first
philosophers (the pre-Socratic thinkers) had interesting
views, their attempt to replace, streamline or rationalise the
folk-wisdom which surrounded them was eminently
resistible. Their introduction of the appearance/reality
dichotomy made nonsense of many of the things people had
previously known. Even nowadays, indigenous cultures and
counter-cultural practices provide alternatives to Reason and
that nasty Western science.
However, Feyerabend recognised that this is to
present science as too much of a monolith. In most of his
work after Against Method, he emphasises what has come to
be known as the "disunity of science". Science, he insists, is a
collage, not a system or a unified project. Not only does it
include plenty of components derived from distinctly
"non-scientific" disciplines, but these components are often
vital parts of the "progress" science has made (using
whatever criterion of progress you prefer). Science is a
collection of theories, practices, research traditions and

1. Ibid., p. 10.

134~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
world-views whose range of application is not
well-determined and whose merits vary to a great extent. All
this can be summed up in his slogan: "Science is not one
thing, it is many."
Likewise, the supposed ontological correlate of science, "the
world", consists not only of one kind of thing but of countless
kinds of things, things which cannot be "reduced" to one
another. In fact, there is no good reason to suppose that the
world has a single, determinate nature. Rather we inquirers
construct the world in the course of our inquiries, and the
plurality of our inquiries ensures that the world itself has a
dee pl y pl u r al q u a li ty : th e Ho me ri c go ds a nd t he
microphysicist's subatomic particles are simply different
ways in which "Being" responds to (different kinds of)
inquiry. How the world is "in-itself" is for ever unknowable.
In this respect, Feyerabend's last work can be thought of as
aligned with "social constructivism".
Feyerabend came to be seen as a leading cultural
relativist, not just because he stressed that some theories are
incommensurable, but also because he defended relativism
in politics as well as in epistemology. His denunciations of
aggressive Western imperialism, his critique of science itself,
his conclusion that "objectively" there may be nothing to
choose between the claims of science and those of astrology,
voodoo, and alternative medicine, as well as his concern for
environmental issues ensured that he was a hero of the
anti-technological counter-culture.

1 . http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feyerabend/[08-08-2010]

135~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
What I want to talk about in this lecture is not, strictly
speaking, the character of physical law. One might imagine
at least that one is talking about nature when one is talking
about the character of physical law; but I do not want to talk
about nature, but rather about how we stand relative to
nature now. I want to tell you . . . what there is to guess, and
how one goes about guessing. Someone suggested that it
would be ideal if, as I went along, I would slowly explain
how to guess a law, and then end by creating a new law for
you. I do not know whether I shall be able to do that. . . .In
general we look for a new law by the following process. First
we guess it. Then we compute the consequences of the guess
to see what would be implied if this law that we guessed is
right. Then we compare the result of the computation to
nature with experiment or experience, compare it directly
with observation, to see if it works. If it disagrees with
experiment it is wrong. In that simple statement is the key to
science. It does not make any difference how beautiful your
guess is. It does not make any difference how smart you are,
who made the guess, or what his name is- if it disagrees with
experiment it is wrong. That is all there is to it. It is true that
one has to check a little to make sure that it is wrong,
because whoever did the experiment may have reported
incorrectly, or there may have been some feature in the
experiment that was not noticed, some dirt or something; or
the man who computed the consequences, even though it
may have been the one who made the guesses, could have
made some mistake in the analysis. These are obvious
remarks, so when I say if it disagrees with experiment it is

136~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
wrong, I mean after the experiment has been checked, the
calculations have been checked, and the thing has been
rubbed back and forth a few times to make sure that the
consequences are logical consequences from the guess, and
that in fact it disagrees with a very carefully checked
experiment.
This will give you a some what wrong impression of
science. It suggests that we keep on guessing possibilities
and comparing them with experiment, and this is to put
experiment into a rather weak position. In fact
experimenters have a certain individual character. They like
to do experiments even if nobody has guessed yet and they
very often do their experiments in a region in which people
know the theorist has not made any guesses. For instance,
we may know a great many laws, but do not know whether
they really work at high energy, because it is just a good
guess that they work at high energy. Experimenters have
tried experiments at higher energy, and in fact every once in
a while experiment produces trouble; that is, it produces a
discovery that one of the things we thought right is wrong.
In this way experiment can produce unexpected results, and
that starts us guessing again. One instance of an unexpected
result is the M meson and its neutrino, which was not
guessed by anybody at all before it was discovered, and
even today nobody yet has any method of guessing by
which this would be a natural result.
You can see, of course, that with this method we can
attempt to disprove any definite theory. If we have a definite
theory, a real guess, from which we can conveniently

137~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
compute - consequences which can be compared with
experiment, then in principle we can get rid of any theory.
There is always the possibility of proving any definite theory
wrong; but notice that we can never prove it right. Suppose
that you invent a good guess, calculate the consequences,
and discover every time that the consequences you have
calculated agree with experiment. The theory is then right?
No, it is simply not proved wrong. In the future you could
compute a wider range of consequences, there could be a
wider range of experiments; and you might then discover
that the thing is wrong. That is why laws like Newton's laws
for the motion of planets last such a long time. He guessed
the law of gravitation, calculated all kinds of consequences
for the system and so on, compared them with experiment
and it took: several hundred years before the slight error the
motion of Mercury was observed.
During all that time the theory had not been proved
wrong. and could be taken temporarily to be right. But it
could never be proved right, because tomorrow's experiment
might succeed in proving wrong what you thought was
right. We never are definitely right. we can only be sure we
are wrong.However. it is rather remarkable how we can
have some ideas which will last so long. One of the ways of
stopping science would be only to do experiments in the
region where you know the law. But experimenters search
most diligently, and with the greatest effort, in exactly those
places where it seems most likely that we can prove our
theories wrong. In other words we are trying to prove
ourselves wrong as quickly as possible, because only in that

138~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
way can we find progress. For example, today among
ordinary low energy phenomena we do not know where to
look for trouble, we think everything is all right, and so
there is no particular big programme looking for trouble in
nuclear reactions, or in super-conductivity. In these lectures
I am concentrating on discovering fundamental laws. The
whole range of physics, which is interesting, includes also an
understanding at another level of these phenomena like
super-conductivity and nuclear reactions, in terms of the
fundamental laws. But I am talking now about discovering
trouble, something wrong with fundamental laws, and since
among low energy phenomena nobody knows where to
look, all the experiments today in this field of finding out a
new law, are of high energy.
Another thing I must point out is that you cannot
prove a vague theory wrong. If the guess that you make is
poorly expressed and rather vague, and the method that you
use for figuring out the consequences is a little vague-you
are not sure, and you say, "I think everything's right because
its all due to so and so, and such and such do this and that
more or less, and I can sort of explain how this works. . . ,"
then you see that this theory is good, because it cannot be
proved wrong! Also if the process of computing the
consequences is indefinite, then with a little skill any
experimental results can be made to look like the expected
consequences. You are probably familiar with that in other
fields. "A" hates his mother. The reason is, of course, because
she did not caress him or love him enough when he was a
child. But if you investigate you find out that as a matter of

139~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
fact she did love him very much, and everything was all
right. Well then, it was because she was over-indulgent
when he was a child! By having a vague theory it is possible
to get either result. The cure for this one is the following. If it
were possible to state exactly, ahead of time, how much love
is not enough, and how much love is over-indulgent, then
there would be a perfectly legitimate theory against which
you could make tests. It is usually saidwhen this is pointed
out, "When you are dealing with psychological matters
things can't be defined so precisely." Yes, but then you
cannot claim to know anything about it.
You will be horrified to hear that we have examples
in physics of exactly the same kind. We have these
approximate symmetries, which work something like this.
You have an approximate symmetry, so you calculate a set
of consequences supposing it to be perfect.
When compared with experiment, it does not agree.
Of course-the symmetry you are supposed to expect is
approximate, so if the agreement is pretty good you say,
"Nice!," while if the agreement is very poor you say, "Well,
this particular thing must be especially sensitive to the
failure of the symmetry." Now you may laugh, but we have
to make progress in that way. When a subject is first new,
and these particles are new to us, this jockeying around, this
"feeling" way of guessing at the results, is the beginning of
any science. The same thing is true of the symmetry
proposition in physics as is true of psychology, so do not
laugh too hard. It is necessary in the beginning to be very
careful. It is easy to fall into the deep end by this kind of

140~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
vague theory. It is hard, to prove it wrong, and it takes a
certain skill and experience not to walk off the plank in the
game. . . .
Because I am a theoretical physicist, and more
delighted with this end of the problem, I want now to
concentrate on how to make the guesses.
As I said before, it is not of any importance where
the guess comes from; it is only important that it should
agree with experiment, and that it should be as definite as
possible. "Then," you say, "that is very simple. You set up a
machine, a great computing machine, which has a random
wheel in it that makes a succession of guesses, and each time
it guesses a hypothesis about how nature should work it
computes immediately the consequences, and makes a
comparison with a list of experimental results it has at the
other end." In other words, guessing is a dumb man's job.
Actually it is quite the opposite, and I will try to explain
why.
The first problem is how to start. You say, "Well I'd
start off with all the known principles." But all the principles
that are known are inconsistent with each other, so
something has to be removed. We get a lot of letters from
people insisting that we ought to make holes in our guesses.
You see, you make a hole, to make room for a new guess.
Somebody says, "You know, you people always say that
space is continuous. How do you know when you get to a
small enough dimension that there really are enough points
in between, that it isn't just a lot of dots separated by little
distances?" Or they say, "You know those quantum

141~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
mechanical amplitudes you told me about, they're so
complicated and absurd, what makes you think those are
right? May be they aren't right." Such remarks are obvious
and are perfectly clear to anybody who is working on this
problem. It does not do any good to point this out. The
problem is not only what might be wrong but what,
precisely, might be substituted in place of it. In the case of
the continuous space, suppose the precise proposition is that
space really consists of a series of dots, and that the space
between them does not mean anything, and that the dots are
in a cubic array. Then we can prove immediately that this is
wrong. It does not work. The problem is not just to say
something might be wrong, but to replace it by something
and that is not so easy. As soon as any really definite idea is
substituted it becomes almost immediately apparent that it
does not work.
The second difficulty is that there is an infinite
number of possibilities of these simple types. It is something
like this. You are sitting working very hard, you have
worked for a long time trying to open a safe. Then some Joe
comes along who knows nothing about what you are doing,
except
that you are trying to open the safe. He says "Why don't you
try the combination 10:20:30?" Maybe you know already that
the middle number is 32, not 20. Maybe you know as a
matter of fact that it is a five-digit combination. . . . So please
do not send me any letters trying to tell me how the thing is
going to work. I read them-I always read them to make sure
that I have not already thought of what is suggested-but it

142~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
takes too long to answer them, because they are usually in
the class "try 10:20:30." As usual, nature's imagination far
surpasses our own, as we have seen from the other theories
which are subtle and deep. To get such a subtle and deep
guess is not so easy. One must be really clever to guess, and
it is not possible to do it blindly by machine.
I want to discuss now the art of guessing nature's
laws. It is an art. How is it done? One way you might
suggest is to look at history to see how the other guys did it.
So we look at history.
We must start with Newton. He had a situation
where he had incomplete knowledge, and he was able to
guess the laws by putting together ideas which were all
relatively close to experiment; there was not a great distance
between the observations and the tests. That was the first
way, but today it does not work so well.
The next guy who did something great was Maxwell, who
obtained the laws of electricity and magnetism. What he did
was this. He put together all the laws of electricity, due to
Faraday and other people who came before him, and he
looked at them and realized that they were mathematically
inconsistent. In order to straighten it out he had to add one
term to an equation. He did this by inventing for himself a
model of idler wheels and gears and so on in space. He
found what the new law was-but nobody paid much
attention because they did not believe in the idler wheels.
We do not believe in the idler wheels today, but the
equations that he obtained were correct. So the logic may be
wrong but the answer is right.

143~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
In the case of relativity the discovery was completely
different. There was an accumulation of paradoxes; the
known laws gave inconsistent results. This was a new kind
of thinking, a thinking in terms of discussing the possible
symmetries of laws. It was especially difficult, because for
the first time it was realized how long something like
Newton's laws could seem right, and still ultimately be
wrong. Also it was difficult to accept that ordinary ideas of
time and space, which seemed so instinctive, could be
wrong.
Qu antu m mechanics was dis covered in two
independent ways-which is a lesson. There again, and even
more s o, an enormou s nu mber of paradoxes were
discovered experimentally, things that absolutely could not
be explained in any way by what was known. It was not that
the knowledge was incomplete, but that the knowledge was
too complete. Your prediction was that this should happen-it
did not. The two different routes were one by Schrodinger,
who guessed the equation, the other by Heisenberg, who
argued that you must analyze what is measurable. These
two different philosophical methods led to the same
discovery in the end.
More recently, the discovery of the laws of the weak
decay I spoke of, when a neutron disintegrates into a proton,
an electron and an anti-neutrino-which are still only partly
known-add up to a somewhat different situation. This time
it was a case of incomplete knowledge, and only the
equation was guessed. The special difficulty this time was
that the experiments were all wrong. How can you guess the

144~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
right answer if, when you calculate the result, it disagrees
with experiment? You need courage to say the experiments
must be wrong. I will explain where that courage comes
from later. Today we have no paradoxes-maybe. We have
this infinity that comes in when we put all the laws together,
but the people sweeping the dirt under the rug are so clever
that one sometimes thinks this is not a serious paradox.
Again, the fact that we have found all these particles does
not tell us anything except that ou r knowledge is
incomplete. I am sure that history does not repeat itself in
physics, as you can tell from looking at the examples I have
given. The reason is this. Any schemes-such as "think of
symmetry laws," or "put the information in mathematical
form," or "guess equations"-are known to everybody now,
and they are all tried all the time. When you are struck, the
answer cannot be one of these, because you will have tried
these right away. There must be another way next time. Each
time we get into this log-jam of too much trouble, too many
problems, it is because the methods that we are using are
just like the ones we have used before. The next scheme, the
new discovery, is going to be made in a completely different
way. So history does not help us much. . . .
It is not unscientific to make a guess, although many
people who are not in science think it is. Some years ago I
had a conversation with a layman about flying saucers
because I am scientific I know all about flying saucers! I said
"I don't think there are flying saucers." So my antagonist
said, "Is it impossible that there are flying saucers? Can you
prove that there are flying saucers? Can you prove that it's

145~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
impossible?" "No," I said, "I can't prove it's impossible. It's
just very unlikely." At that he said, "You are very
unscientific. If you can't prove it impossible then how can
you say that it's unlikely?" But that is the way that is
scientific. It is scientific only to say what is more likely and
what is less likely, and not to be proving all the time the
possible and impossible. To define what I mean, I might
have said to him, "Listen, I mean that from my knowledge of
the world that I see around me, I think, that it is much more
likely that the reports of flying saucers are the results of the
known irrational characteristics of terrestrial intelligence
than of the unknown rational efforts of extraterrestrial
intelligence." It is just more likely, that is all. It is a good
guess. And we always try to guess the most likely
explanation, keeping in the back of the mind the fact that if it
does not work we must discuss the other possibilities. . . .
That reminds me of another point, that the
philos ophy o r ideas arou nd a theory may change
enormously when there are very tiny changes in the theory.
For instance, Newton's ideas about space and time agreed
with experiment very well, but in order to get the correct
motion of the orbit of Mercury, which was a tiny, tiny
difference, the difference in the character of the theory
needed was enormous. The reason is that Newton's laws
were so simple and so perfect, and they produced definite
results. In order to get something that would produce a
slightly different result it had to be completely different. In
stating a new law you cannot make imperfections on a
perfect thing; you have to have another perfect thing. So the

146~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
difference in philosophical ideas between Newton's and
Einstein's theories of gravitation are enormous.
What are these philosophies? They are really tricky
ways to compute consequences quickly. A philosophy,
which is sometimes called an understanding of the law, is
simply a way that a person hold the laws in his mind in
order to guess quickly at consequences. Some people have
said, and it is true in cases "like Maxwell's equations, "Never
mind the philosophy, never mind anything of this kind, just
guess the equations. The problem is only to compute the
answers so that they agree with experiment, and it is not
necessary to have a philosophy, or argument, or words,
about the equation." That is good in the sense that if you
only guess the equation you are not prejudicing yourself,
and you will guess better. On the other hand, maybe the
philosophy helps you to guess. It is very hard to say.
For those people who insist that the only thing that is
important is that the theory agrees with experiment, I would
like to imagine a discussion between a Mayan astronomer
and his student. The Mayans were able to calculate with
great precision predictions, for example, for eclipses and for
the position of the moon in the sky, the position of Venus,
etc. It was all done by arithmetic. They counted a certain
number and subtracted some numbers, and so on. There was
no discussion of what the moon was. There was no
discussion even of the idea that it went around. They just
calculated the time when there would be an eclipse, or when
the moon would rise at the full, and so on. Suppose that a
young man went to the astronomer and said, "I have an idea.

147~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
May be those things are going around, and there are balls of
something like rocks out there, and we could calculate how
they move in a completely different way from just
calculating what time they appear in the sky." "Yes," says the
astronomer, "and how accurately can you predict eclipses?"
He says, "I haven't developed the thing very far yet." Then
says the astronomer, "Well, we can calculate eclipses more
accurately than you can with your model, so you must not
pay any attention to your idea because obviously the
mathematical scheme is better." There is a very strong
tendency, when someone comes up with an idea and says,
"Let's suppose that the world is this way," for people to say
to him, "What would you get for the answer to such and
such a problem?" And he says, "I haven't developed it far
enough." And they say, "Well, we have already developed it
much further, and we can get the answers very accurately."
So it is a problem whether or not to worry about
philosophies behind ideas.
Another way of working, of course, is to guess new
principles. In Einstein's theory of gravitation he guessed, on
top o f al l th e ot her pri nci ple s , t he p rin cip le t hat
corresponded to the idea that the forces are always
proportional to the
masses. He guessed the principle that if you are in an
accelerating car you cannot distinguish that from being in a
gravitational field, and by adding that principle to all the
other principles, he was able to deduce the correct laws of
gravitation.
That outlines a number of possible ways of guessing.

148~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
I would now like to come to some other points about the
final result. First of all, when we are all finished, and we
have a mathematical theory by which we can compute
consequences, what can we do? It really is an amazing thing.
In order to figure out what an atom is going to do in a given
situation we make up rules with marks on paper, carry them
into a machine which has switches that open and close in
some complicated way, and the result will tell us what the
atom is going to do! If the way that these switches open and
close were some kind of model of the atom, if we thought
that the atom had switches in it, then I would say that I
understood more or less what is going on. I find it quite
amazing that it is possible to predict what will happen by
mathematics, which is simply following rules which really
have nothing to do with what is going on in the original
thing. The closing and opening of switches in a computer is
quite different from what is happening in nature.
One of the most important thing in this
"guess-compute consequences-compare with experiment"
business is to know when you are right. It is possible to
know when you are right way ahead of checking all the
consequences. You can recognize truth by its beauty and
simplicity. It is always easy when you have made a guess,
and done two or three little calculations to make sure that it
is not obviously wrong, to know that it is right-at least if you
have any experience-because usually what happens is that
more comes out than goes in. Your guess is, in fact, that
something is very simple. If you cannot "see immediately
that it is wrong, and it is simpler than it was before, then it is

149~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
right. The inexperienced, and crackpots, and people like
that, make guesses that are simple, but you can immediately
see that they are wrong, so that does not count. Others, the
inexperienced students, make guesses that are very
complicated, and it sort of looks as if it is all right, but I
know it is not true because the truth always turns out to be
simpler than you thought. What we need is imagination, but
imagination in a terrible straitjacket. We have to find a new
view of the world that has to agree with everything that is
known, but disagree in its predictions somewhere, otherwise
it is not interesting. And in that disagreement it must agree
with nature. If you can find any other view of the world
which agrees over the entire range where things have
already been observed, but disagrees somewhere else, you
have made a great discovery. It is very nearly impossible,
but not quite to find any theory which agrees with
experiments over the entire range in which all theories have
been checked, and yet gives different consequences in some
other range, even a theory whose different consequences do
not turn out to agree with nature. A new idea is extremely
difficult to think of. It takes a fantastic imagination.
What of the future of this adventure? What will happen
ultimately? We are going along guessing the laws; how
many laws are we going to have to guess? I do not know.
Some of my colleagues say that this fundamental aspect of
our science will go on; but I think there will certainly
certainly not be perpetual novelty, say for a thousand years.
This thing cannot keep on going so that we are always going
to discover more and more new laws. If we do, it will

150~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
become boring that there are so many levels one underneath
the other. It seems to me that -what can happen in the future
is either that all the laws become known-that is, if you had
enough laws you could compute consequences and they
would always agree with experiment, which would be the
end of the line or it may happen that the experiments get
harder and harder to make, more and more expensive, so
you get 99.9 per cent of the phenomena, but there is always
some phenomenon which has just been discovered, which is
very hard to measure, and which disagrees; and as soon as
you have the explanation of that one there is always another
one, and it gets slower and slower and more and more
uninteresting. That is another way it may end. But I think it
has to end in one way or another.
We are very lucky to live in an age in which we are
still making discoveries. It is like the discovery of
America-you only discover it once. The age in which we live
is the age in which we are discovering the fundamental laws
of nature, and that day will never come again. It is very
exciting, it is marvellous, but this excitement will have to go.
Of course in the future there will be other interests. There
will be the interest of the connection of one level of
phenomena to another-phenomena in biology and so on, or,
if you are talking about exploration, exploring other planets,
but there will not still be the same things that we are doing
now.
Another thing that will happen is that ultimately, if it
turns out that all is known, or it gets very dull, the vigorous
philosophy and the careful attention to all these things that I

151~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
have been talking about will gradually disappear. The
philosophers who are always on the outside making stupid
remarks will be able to close in, because we cannot push
them away by saying, "If you were right we would be able to
guess all the rest of the laws," because when the laws are all
there they will have an explanation for them. For instance,
there are always explanations about why the world is
three-dimensional. Well, there is only one world, and it is
hard to tell if that explanation is right or not, so that if
everything were known there would be some explanation
about why those were the right laws. But that explanation
would be in a frame that we cannot criticize by arguing that
type of reasoning will not permit us to go further. There will
be a degeneration of ideas, just like the degeneration that
great explorers feel is occurring when tourists begin moving
in on a territory.
In this age people are experiencing a delight, the
tremendous delight that you get when you guess how
nature will work in a new situation never seen before. From
experiments and information in a certain range you can
guess what is going to happen in a region where no one has
ever explored before. It is a little different from regular
exploration in that there are enough clues on the land
discovered to guess what the land that has not been
discovered is going to look like. These guesses, incidentally,
are often very different from what you have already
seen-they take a lot of thought.
What is it about nature that lets this happen, that it is
possible to guess from one part what the rest is going to do?

152~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb
That is an unscientific question: I do not know how to
answer it, and therefore I am going to give an unscientific
answer. I think it is because nature has a simplicity and
therefore a great beauty.1

\1. Richard Feynman, The Character of Physical Law. MIT Press.


153~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

? Hb

154~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

[*
!Z

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & *
* Z f[
gq
-Z :k^

: D
r
# & **
Z f Z e
ke^$ q ^+ 7 v i ^u o^ 1m] 1] 6nZZ
kn%nu o q ^+ 7 6n` l^e 6n c^e 1 l^m o^ ] 6n 7a
7n 6n` q lf$ o ^ q 6n` ^m 1 7 ]] ] 7 v
C1
!XX1a oi^q ^ oe ^9 l^] e ^ 6na 1j^q g a
kZ r
# & **
? D HV {"
$*
U k^~b
t ~ * b C7|~y
MgzZ |~bX
7s
# z
K.R. : yZbgzZa# + } (
,] ~kZ r
# & **
d)g
R.S. P.K Feyerabend Popper, Feynman, Carl-G Hempel
: t ? f
e| 7, Imer Lakatos gzZ Pierre Duhem Kuhn
GG3J4X3 |Z bZX D
b,X @*
Y{ i Z0
+Z ! lwgzZ

} 6Z Wq{z X ah
+ F,
kZ_ [
Zd
C" K~
/], b Six Easy Peices[
kZX Z (, ~~z 6,
0*
X Dk^b a~g ZS
n
+ F,
h
Db ,6,
$h
e
+ F,
tbFalsification
bX @*
Y`@*
44gZ {zh
+ F,
{ c*
ibT @*
0*
Y g Z

X 41 2008 Zu[ :g Zi q
Z:W& **
Z fh& **
Z f C1

154~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

GG

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 6,0*


~ }g !*
- z "
y Zjg rZBg "Ze
$.~ LZ6,Popperg !
;g Yc*
a v ] )t
# I: !Zj kZ ]~P X H
|b J
-6,0*
wgD
X B Wc kZ Mg @*

Problem Solving C`x btw


@*
7tD+ Y
@*
C t 6,0*
l [reality] | D Zz ` x
ZD] Z@xsb ZX D 7% ]c*
] Z@x
}uz D~ zg ]c*
]Z@xt 7
g 'D [objective] zc
~g ZZt @*
7 [Value neutral] ~g ZZ)Dq ] Z@x~ Vs
X @*
D [Subjective or theory laden] gzZ [value loaded]
E
nz +F,
Z b %Z {t~ b 0Ei ._ Popper
Deductive z+ F
,
Z 4 [Problem Solvers] X **
ib)
7[
7 m{ a ]Z@x~ w kZ testing of theories
Theory ] **
CZ@x x Z No pure facts available X D
Dg ,] ugzZ] Zp]Z ] Z W,Z{gzZ D laden
Purely subjective factors interests, expectations, wishes X
D @*
C 6,g Zz {z D a priori ! I] c*
Z etc.

3
E

All X @
*
C G
5 G Z gzZ ) C CzG g 7k^
w 6,
0*
knowledge is provisional, conjectural, hypothetical
[refute] h
+ F, yZ s M
h 7 [confirm] & ] c*
~
b) c*
= )s 7[Dm{ bgzZ X M
h
: DV@i
Science is not a quest for certain knowledge but an
evolutionary process in which hypothesis or conjectectures
are imaginatively proposed and tested in order to explain
facts or to solve problems.

} (,} (, z!*
s %Z 6,0*
V Zz W6,g Z6,0*
} (,} (,
Dt{z **
ZzgykZ o Z ~(,~(,~ ] c*

t 0
+
i yZTg {0
+
i n
pg z z!*
V **
gzZVZeV{b
155 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

:N
_gN]g kS r
# & **
Xtzgd)Dk^{z **
~
.Z
That all high level theories grow and live despite the
existence of anomalies. The existence of such anomalies is
not usualy taken by the working scientists as an indication
that the theory in question is false on the contrary, he will
usually and necessarily, assume that Auxiliary hypotheses
which are associated with the theory can be modified to
incorporate and explain existing anomalies.

[Anomalies] V{ 7(Zt Zz ] !*
t WkZ6,6,
0*

gbz!*
]Z gzZ[V-gz$VV!V{yZ{
YY ZgZ
/
U*
gzZ ~pF,
Z~ zgV{yZ YY H7g6,
+**
kZgzZ6,
0*
X CY gz yZ CY CWVx{gzZ
@*
"
$U*
~zg]zgZ ~WGrunbaum Tichy Miller Lakatos
sgzZ s TgzZF
F6,o Z D{z Z 7Z o Zt
YD{z Vo Z~ kZgzZD? YBD{z @*
Y c*
`gzo Z
Dk^ L
L D
r
# & **
D]c*
o ZgzZD],Z ?
# x **
mnzcgzZ qDX

D{z ;g w$
+ [Subject] qZ
gzZDt C76,}uz ai Z LZgzZ LZ |X YB
D: b ? CY w$
+ s$
+ /gzZ 6,]!*
|t
G
G
8

G
3

[Reality of DL G : [ R e a l i t y ] |: [k n o w l e d g e ]
ebg Z
D Z ZB
bg7g0
+Z LZi Z LZtakZ Knowledge]
[Self Evident
rg g0
+Z LZ i Z LZ DyW
Z
# X 7
l|b7wJ.
~` u[**
"
$U*
b Z Evidence]
~ * ~ |X D [creation of reality] |7Dz =z
7`Zaz iZ LZgzZ B
bgz ~$
+Z i Z C 7{z $
0*
7
DkZ Popper a kZ @*
VzyZgzZ ]Z ]ZpDbX C
[Subjective DkZ X g Z
D6,pure subjective factors
7 ~ qz nzc ItgzZ **
] mZ yW
Dzc Knowledge]
[pre -suppositionless] Zgz ]zG {zD? H Z w Y
156 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

6bg- wgD
,

/Zr
# & **
~ekZX F
F6,]zGF,
x D
yZ B| 7,~The Crises of European Sciences [ kZ ]Z

|L DyW
CW7~}],
ZDbZXN YgzcZz

~H )gfkzL {L Z D|DZgzZ
ze
$.gT{> sf `g6,
0*
X Z(,:iZkZ D)gzZ
:]gz"7,

As Popper represents it, the central problem in the


philosophy of science is that of demarcation, i.e., of
distinguishing between science and what he terms
non-science, under which heading he ranks, amongst
others, logic, metaphysics, psycho-analysis, and Adler's
individual psychology. Popper is unusual amongst
contemporary philosophers in that he accepts the validity of
the Humean critique of Induction, and indeed, goes beyond
it in arguing that induction is never actually used by the
scientist. However, he does not concede that this entails the
scepticism which is associated with Hume, and argues that
the Baconian/Newtonian insistence on the primacy of pure
observation, as the initial step in the formation of theories, is
completely misguided: all observation is selective and
theory-ladenthere are no pure or theory-free observations.
In this way he de-stabilises the traditional view that science
can be distinguished from non-science on the basis of its
inductive methodology; in contradistinction to this, Popper
holds that there is no unique methodology specific to
science. Science, like virtually every other human, and
indeed organic, activity, Popper believes, consists largely of
problem-solving.
Popper, then, repudiates induction, and rejects the view that
it is the characteristic method of scientific investigation and
inference, and substitutes falsifiability in its place. It is easy,
he argues, to obtain evidence in favour of virtually any
theory, and he consequently holds that such corroboration,
as he terms it, should count scientifically only if it is the

157 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[
positive result of a genuinely risky prediction, which might
conceivably have been false. For Popper, a theory is scientific
only if it is refutable by a conceivable event. Every genuine
test of a scientific theory, then, is logically an attempt to
refute or to falsify it, and one genuine counter-instance
falsifies the whole theory. In a critical sense, Popper's theory
of demarcation is based upon his perception of the logical
as ymme try which hol ds betwee n v erific ation and
falsification: it is logically impossible to conclusively verify a
universal proposition by reference to experience (as Hume
saw clearly), but a single counter-instance conclusively
falsifies the corresponding universal law. In a word, an
exception, far from proving a rule, conclusively refutes it.
Every genuine scientific theory then, in Popper's
view, is prohibitive, in the sense that it forbids, by
implication, particular events or occurrences. As such it can
be tested and falsified, but never logically verified. Thus
Popper stresses that it should not be inferred from the fact
that a theory has withstood the most rigorous testing, for
however long a period of time, that it has been verified;
rather we should recognise that such a theory has received a
high measure of corroboration and may be provisionally
retained as the best available theory until it is finally falsified
(if indeed it is ever falsified), and/or is superseded by a
better theory.
Popper has always drawn a clear distinction between
the logic of falsifiability and its applied methodology. The logic
of his theory is utterly simple: if a single ferrous metal is
unaffected by a magnetic field it cannot be the case that all
ferrous metals are affected by magnetic fields. Logically
speaking, a scientific law is conclusively falsifiable although
it is not conclusively verifiable. Methodologically, however,
the situation is much more complex: no observation is free

158 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[
from the possibility of errorconsequently we may question
whether our experimental result was what it appeared to be.
Thus, while advocating falsifiability as the criterion
of demarcation for science, Popper explicitly allows for the
fact that in practice a single conflicting or counter-instance is
never sufficient methodologically to falsify a theory, and
that scientific theories are often retained even though much
of the available evidence conflicts with them, or is
anomalous with respect to them. Scientific theories may, and
do, arise genetically in many different ways, and the manner
in which a particular scientist comes to formulate a
particular theory may be of biographical interest, but it is of
no consequence as far as the philosophy of science is
concerned. Popper stresses in particular that there is no
unique way, no single method such as induction, which
functions as the route to scientific theory, a view which
Einstein personally endorsed with his affirmation that There
is no logical path leading to [the highly universal laws of
science]. They can only be reached by intuition, based upon
something like an intellectual love of the objects of
experience. Science, in Popper's view, starts with problems
rather than with observationsit is, indeed, precisely in the
context of grappling with a problem that the scientist makes
observations in the first instance: his observations are
selectively designed to test the extent to which a given
theory functions as a satisfactory solution to a given
problem.
On this criterion of demarcation physics, chemistry,
and (non-introspective) psychology, amongst others, are
s ci en ce s , ps yc ho -ana ly s i s i s a pr e- s c ien ce (i .e ., it
undoubtedly contains useful and informative truths, but
until such time as psycho-analytical theories can be
formulated in such a manner as to be falsifiable, they will

159 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[
not attain the status of scientific theories), and astrology and
phrenology are pseudo-sciences. Formally, then, Popper's
theory of demarcation may be articulated as follows: where
a basic statement is to be understood as a particular
observation-report, then we may say that a theory is
scientific if and only if it divides the class of basic statements
into the following two non-empty sub-classes: (a) the class of
all those basic statements with which it is inconsistent, or
which it prohibitsthis is the class of its potential falsifiers
(i.e., those statements which, if true, falsify the whole
theory), and (b) the class of those basic statements with
which it is consistent, or which it permits (i.e., those
statements which, if true, corroborate it, or bear it out).
For Popper accordingly, the growth of human
knowledge proceeds from our problems and from our
attempts to solve them. These attempts involve the
formulation of theories which, if they are to explain
anomalies which exist with respect to earlier theories, must
go beyond existing knowledge and therefore require a leap
of the imagination. For this reason, Popper places special
emphasis on the role played by the independent creative
imagination in the formulation of theory. The centrality and
priority of problems in Popper's account of science is
paramount, and it is this which leads him to characterise
scientists as 'problem-solvers'. Further, since the scientist
begins with problems rather than with observations or 'bare
facts', Popper argues that the only logical technique which is
an integral part of scientific method is that of the deductive
testing of theories which are not themselves the product of
any logical operation. In this deductive procedure
conclusions are inferred from a tentative hypothesis. These
conclusions are then compared with one another and with
other relevant statements to determine whether they falsify

160~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[
or corroborate the hypothesis. Such conclusions are not
directly compared with the facts, Popper stresses, simply
because there are no 'pure' facts available; all
observation-statements are theory-laden, and are as much a
function of purely subjective factors (interests, expectations,
wishes, etc.) as they are a function of what is objectively real.
How then does the deductive procedure work? Popper
specifies four steps:
(a) The first is formal, a testing of the internal consistency of
the theoretical system to see if it involves any contradictions.
(b) The second step is semi-formal, the axiomatising of the
theory to distinguish between its empirical and its logical
elements. In performing this step the scientist makes the
logical form of the theory explicit. Failure to do this can lead
the scientist ends up asking the
to category-mistakes
wrong questions, and searches for empirical data where
none are available. Most scientific theories contain analytic
(i.e., a priori) and synthetic elements, and it is necessary to
axiomatise them in order to distinguish the two clearly.
(c) The third step is the comparing of the new theory with
existing ones to determine whether it constitutes an advance
upon them. If it does not constitute such an advance, it will
not be adopted. If, on the other hand, its explanatory success
matches that of the existing theories, and additionally, it
explains some hitherto anomalous phenomenon, or solves
some hitherto unsolvable problems, it will be deemed to
constitute an advance upon the existing theories, and will be
adopted. Thus science involves theoretical progress.
However, Popper stresses that we ascertain whether one
theory is better than another by deductively testing both
theories, rather than by induction. For this reason, he argues
that a theory is deemed to be better than another if (while
unfalsified) it has greater empirical content, and therefore

161 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[
greater predictive power than its rival. The classic
illustration of this in physics was the replacement of
Newton's theory of universal gravitation by Einstein's theory
of relativity. This elucidates the nature of science as Popper
sees it: at any given time there will be a number of
conflicting theories or conjectures, some of which will
explain more than others. The latter will consequently be
provisionally adopted. In short, for Popper any theory X is
better than a 'rival' theory Y if X has greater empirical content,
and hence greater predictive power, than Y.
(d) The fourth and final step is the testing of a theory by the
empirical application of the conclusions derived from it. If
such conclusions are shown to be true, the theory is
corroborated (but never verified). If the conclusion is shown
to be false, then this is taken as a signal that the theory
cannot be completely correct (logically the theory is
falsified), and the scientist begins his quest for a better
theory. He does not, however, abandon the present theory
until such time as he has a better one to substitute for it.
More precisely, the method of theory-testing is as follows:
certain singular propositions are deduced from the new
theory-these are predictions, and of special interest are those
predictions which are 'risky' [in the sense of being intuitively
implausible or of being startlingly novel] and experimentally
testable. From amongst the latter the scientist next selects
those which are not derivable from the current or existing
theory-of particular importance are those which contradict
the current or existing theory. He then seeks a decision as
regards these and other derived statements by comparing
them with the results of practical applications and
experimentation. If the new predictions are borne out, then
the new theory is corroborated [and the old one falsified], and
is adopted as a working hypothesis. If the predictions are not

162~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[
borne out, then they falsify the theory from which they are
derived. Thus Popper retains an element of empiricism: for
him scientific method does involve making an appeal to
experience. But unlike traditional empiricists, Popper holds
that experience cannot determine theory, it rather delimits it:
it shows which theories are false, not which theories are true.
Moreover, Popper also rejects the empiricist doctrine that
empirical observations are, or can be, infallible, in view of
the fact that they are themselves theory-laden.
The general picture of Popper's philosophy of
science, then is this: Hume's philosophy demonstrates that
there is a contradiction implicit in traditional empiricism,
which holds both that all knowledge is derived from
experience and that universal propositions (including
scientific laws) are verifiable by reference to experience. The
contradiction, which Hume himself saw clearly, derives
from the attempt to show that, notwithstanding the
open-ended nature of experience, scientific laws may be
construed as empirical generalisations which are in some
way finally confirmable by a 'positive' experience. Popper
eliminates the contradiction by rejecting the first of these
principles and removing the demand for empirical
verification in favour of empirical falsification in the second.
Scientific theories, for him, are not inductively inferred from
experience, nor is scientific experimentation carried out with
a view to verifying or finally establishing the truth of
theories; rather, all knowledge is provisional, conjectural,
hypothetical-we can never finally prove our scientific
theories, we can merely (provisionally) confirm or
(conclusively) refute them; hence at any given time we have
to choose between the potentially infinite number of theories
which will explain the set of phenomena under
investigation. Faced with this choice, we can only eliminate

163~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[
those theories which are demonstrably false, and rationally
choose between the remaining, unfalsified theories. Hence
Popper's emphasis on the importance of the critical spirit to
for him critical thinking is the very essence of
science
rationality. For it is only by critical thought that we can
eliminate false theories, and determine which of the
remaining theories is the best available one, in the sense of
possessing the highest level of explanatory force and
predictive power. It is precisely this kind of critical thinking
which is conspicuous by its absence in contemporary
Marxism and in psychoanalysis.
How then can one be certain that one is questioning
the right thing? The Popperian answer is that we cannot
have absolute certainty here, but repeated tests usually show
where the trouble lies. Even observation statements, Popper
maintains, are fallible, and science in his view is not a quest
for certain knowledge, but an evolutionary process in which
hypotheses or conjectures are imaginatively proposed and
tested in order to explain facts or to solve problems. Popper
emphasises both the importance of questioning the
background knowledge when the need arises, and the
significance of the fact that observation-statements are
theory-laden, and hence fallible. For while falsifiability is
simple as a logical principle, in practice it is exceedingly
complicated-no single observation can ever be taken to
falsify a theory, for there is always the possibility (a) that the
observation itself is mistaken, or (b) that the assumed
background knowledge is faulty or defective.
Popper was initially uneasy with the concept of
truth, and in his earliest writings he avoided asserting that a
theory which is corroborated is true-for clearly if every
theory is an open-ended hypothesis, as he maintains, then
ipso facto it has to be at least potentially false. For this reason

164~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[
Popper restricted himself to the contention that a theory
which is falsified is false and is known to be such, and that a
theory which replaces a falsified theory (because it has a
higher empirical content than the latter, and explains what
has falsified it) is a 'better theory' than its predecessor.
However, he came to accept Tarski's reformulation of the
correspondence theory of truth, and in Conjectures and
Refutations (1963) he integrated the concepts of truth and
content to frame the metalogical concept of 'truthlikeness' or
'verisimilitude'. A 'good' scientific theory, Popper thus
argued, has a higher level of verisimilitude than its rivals,
and he explicated this concept by reference to the logical
consequences of theories. A theory's content is the totality of
its logical consequences, which can be divided into two
classes: there is the 'truth-content' of a theory, which is the
class of true propositions which may be derived from it, on
the one hand, and the 'falsity-content' of a theory, on the
other hand, which is the class of the theory's false
consequences (this latter class may of course be empty, and
in the case of a theory which is true is necessarily empty).
The utilisation of either method of computing
verisimilitude shows, Popper held, that even if a theory t2
with a higher content than a rival theory t1 is subsequently
falsified, it can still legitimately be regarded as a better
theory than t1, and 'better' is here now understood to mean
t2 is closer to the truth than t1. Thus scientific progress
involves, on this view, the abandonment of partially true,
but falsified, theories, for theories with a higher level of
verisimilitude not absolute 9C
/ k +
Z 7D

A
$% i.e., which approach more closely to the truth]. In this

way, verisimilitude allowed Popper to mitigate what many


saw as the pessimism of an anti-inductivist philosophy of

165 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[
science which held that most, if not all scientific theories are
false, and that a true theory, even if discovered, could not be
known to be such. With the introduction of the new concept,
Popper was able to represent this as an essentially optimistic
position in terms of which we can legitimately be said to
have reason to believe that science makes progress towards
the truth through the falsification and corroboration of
theories. Scientific progress, in other words, could now be
represented as progress towards the truth, and experimental
corroboration could be seen an indicator of verisimilitude. 1

EG
:g{ Ze: G3$ *
c & )g fb+
h.
]yW
1 C q ^+a 6n` ^m] oe m] oLL:r
# &**
C2
XX1 ke^$ 6n o o ^ mq oe ^ne m] o
\vZ y M
wg ~y
M kZ zmvZ -vZ wg Z}
.
V \vZ {z @*
t Z y
KZ n
pg z 3z
A x {wi **
{z } Y
Z}
. ;g 0*
lgz6,H~x qg Z
rgD
wq
-Zq
-Zy
KZvZ @*

"
$U*
~ zg bh+]
.r
#
]**
M
yZ
8yYJ
-i ZgV
& **
4
B

3
g
O
E
] z wZj Z qzggzZ G Z Z t ]**
z ] Zg " y M
X , 3
V;z A
g ],ZT7mg ],Z Tn
pgm
4
[Pure =k0*
b t zz kZX ]!*
p" l
G3EZ
Cg Z6,sbX B
bg 7
A &Z6,zZ * AgzZ - reason]
N
zb
F,
q
-Z Db
)g f=Z ~ [Whole] D
q ]Z@xgzZ]!*
kZj=%yZ]
.z~ekZ V}',X @*
q
{gyZ B| 7,Z r
# & **
/Z~ BVag Z

e**
gzZ )D
4

3
E
~[Great Metaphysicions]a# G Z } (,
~kZV}',N Y

1. From Stanford Encyclopedia Archives of Philosophy: Karl Popper. at

plato. stanford.edu/entries/Popper on 30-8-09

X14&**
Zf]h C2
166 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

_(,
b~ d
$! f kZ gzZ
rgg6,b{ z

yZ=zX c*
g ZxE[ b LZgzZ H V\ M KZ {@x cg
4
gzZ D` u}uz q
-ZgzZ Zz ={z p $
V7J
-gZ G3EZ
4Z
zT/_
C
.q
-ZX $
~
/KZgZyZ {z
] G
5G3E
{^
,Y CMc*
g " _
. YY H7"
$U*
~D` up { M
gzZ z T b J
-
t X YY 1 7
# Zgz
/E
9t b7eg Z" _
.kZ1B
bg7 fkCG
: i X C0*
gZ
`g { D],
Z Z M
h7y ~ y!*
i K Z Z
$ gf b
j! gzZ - D YKtDgZ z sZ @*
Y **
D0G

g
f ]ZgzZ Y ) Z ~ ] c*
M 980 f \vZ~y M
X YK "
$U*
+Zi 500f Y m
Z
CZgzZ9wg 6,] 67 f > [ ~ ]c*
M 190gzZ 120
[ 2Z % 66#
% 100]y
M %70] % 643%70
A 6,]
X C
!*
} ],ZD` u {E
+]q Z +Zg "vgzZ%218
kZgzZy M
Cg Z yZbC
? Ct] q Z yZb H
DY g Z
]**
)ZC
!*
D{],ZgzZ D] uZz {y
X n Y H: [experience]/ X D 7t Vz , Z ] c*
I
~ { /Xn Y H: [doubt]~Xn Y: [Falsify/Refute]h
+ F,
[Mathematical y !*
i c*
g gzZ n Y : [Laboratory experement] 36,
X )] c*
M x tZn YH: y~Language]
gzZq
-Z Z,Z c*
]mZ~zgbh
+]
.yy M

G
&

/
Z @*M ~}g!*
y M
} G a ,h
+'
kZ X ]!*
G
Z$
y 7jkZy M
wz4,
bh
+]
.wi **
6,
E
~
L }ZL
z be
$. y M
6,] sf `g {E
+VHgzZVzV;zz 3z
A b
$
47:6 39:7336:26 29:85 3:1423:185 2:266 2:82 : Hy B iE
55:6234:1555:46 ^jq e ^ ^ :f Vkz bZ88:1069:22
n] pj] # ] ] : M
h
eh
+y

$
+

A V$bZ
bZX C7t} ,Zbh
+]
. 9:111 r] ^e ]] ]
: y ~ ] sf `gy M
, ZgkZ Z
59:21 17:109 4:77 80:9X 8 79:26 28:35 20:44 20:3 20:2 2:74 24:52
167 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

bh
+]
.98:888:279:9 41:3970:44 68:43 39:23 35:18 23:2
~vZ w t y M
~}g!*
bZ C7t+Z
- 4,
q
bh
+]
.# ] ]em ^] ]] o ]en ^e jni] ^:k(,
7
6,[ 13:28 yEZgzZ yj V ~ Zf bZ X t
V m
s 558
-i~ V bZ48:26 9:40 9:26 Pz4,
bZ 35:8 64:11 40:35 2:283:5 **
+ E
O'N V 56,kZ N e
$Z@
14:5213:19 12:111 2:198 2:179 4:1623:72:251 2:78 H D
L Lkz y M

$ gf ~Zg kzbh
X 7g Z
D0G
+]
.65:1040:54
G
~ . Z7s zZ - 1 ]:S 0**
bZ
T - ]| **
Y O 0*
h
+ **
Vz
/z Y **
Y 0,
$
4

3
E
=8 -~ G Z g " n k
HQ |
# gg Ztg|Z **
M {0
+
i
G
E
&
G3$ c*
+ F,
h
X K y ] ~ y M
t
# ItLE**
agz
t r
# & **
X @*
YH7tD Z ~} ],Z p7 {],
Z b
X p"gzZq
-Z7ykZ V!~y M

F
?

kZgL L 30:77 g &$ p o] ] _] : @*M ~y M


gzZy W((~yW
X 7, Zbh
+]
.
ZzVp
& s
i s6,
zZ 9{zX 7y WbX
HHf y W]
bX
HHf * y W~]c*
W{g VZ& ~ yW
X 7 ZkZ
~ yW
? [ Z H kZ k0*
r
# & **
X Cg Z VW{g VZ &yZ
~*BvgzZ @*
WV f `gZ p c*
Wg !*
g !*
f `g
+ Y,kZgl
/`gF~}g (C
~|p `gq
-Z'
0
+eq
-Z s~ y M
X Y H_ t
# I0 Black holes a
`ggzZ0
+eq
-Zs~y M
3 Z Z}
.0
+e FLZ LZVzg (x f
~ V/}uz ? Zz**
p ] KZ \vZ v!*
f t f
-Z s * y WyW
q
Y X 7._ bh
+]
.]c*
Wx t yW

wZr
# & **
ZX c*
W%~yW
f `g ;gf `g
% y M
] !*
t X Cg sD}g Z ] c*
W33t
`gq
-Z sgzZ s6,y M Yy } @x LZ MC
*
-ZC
q
{z7]gzf~yW
Zz6,
*y W`gq
-Zp
168 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

qZ kZX {@xzcgzZ WZ V
KZx J
-$
+Z wi ZtX ;g W
X ]gzb: :]gz] c*
W]yW
a`g
-ZV 7y ] DgzZ Fx f`gV C
q

Vg: **
zsE]{ )g f"zcz W

w r
# & **
6[ g b L yW

/Z sD Z
}g !*
ZyZ i Z c*
~gzf ,c*
8Vz0
+egzZ Vgv~ kZ
X @*
t) c*
{g
Z ~
>Q !*
Z yZgzZ h1 {z c*


x?Zm*
c i]|
n # ] o ] pr]
e oj ] m mF : V V;}
X zZ~/y
M bZ Z',
Z ]|X c*
g
CZ vZp 43:3
wz AsgzZ s{zY C7tV M Vz yZ yW
bh
+]
.
` !*
Sh1c*
**
Za^%` ]g!*
X B
bg6,2 zG
] c*
W~ yW
? ] c*
Wt yW
H 7e~bh
+]
.**
Za ^
%] $ kFv% kmF! gjF]
n ] ?p$] :
H~}g !*
] ?

j ] j e ] e^i ^ fjn m e o m] ^$ ^ kFfj ] gjF]


# $
' e ^$ ! m ] o # ]
] ] ? m^i m ^ m^i j e]
I ZgzZ YyY7ZvZx|yZ 7:3 h^f ] ]] ?$] $ $ m ^ ^e
~}g !*
]c*
WX {hZ Z]c*
W+ZX yZZ6,yZ Zg D
{gC
!*
tWt } ],Zb } Y 7x|yZ c*

p \vZ
yM
t kZ v!*
f $
Cx|] ?] c*
M bh
+]
.
/ZI
dz [r
# & **
~}g !*
VWyZX 7
g~}g !*
LZpy
yZZ ._\vZ 6,VWyZ ? M
h}aV? xgzZ

F
$

$ m o $ p^ ] :bZ N Yx **
P [gzZ V**

% e $ $ ^ ^ # ] i^ ^ ^ i e # ] F ovm o#] ^ ^ oF m^ o
^ oF] ^ ^ ^ k%f$ e ^ m e ] ^ m k%f ^ k%f ^

e]
r ^u oF] ] $jm
n ^ ] o] ] ^$ m!
259:2 m o oF # ] $ ] ] ^ n$f i ^$ ^v ^ $ $ ^
/#F3% J
;g J
-k',**
3 kZ ;g Z 7,{% G
-k', Wq
-Z ._ yW

t kZQ gzZ {%J kZ H{0


+
ik', Z vZZ
# Z: [ Zy

169 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

bh
+]
.H }{0
+
i}%\vZ bkZ c*
C WkZgzZ c*
{0
+
i
: bS }7t]c*
WyZ~ ` uyZb ?}te
$WkZ
$ _n F oFe ^ + i ] ^ oiF ] ovi n o] h Fe] ^ ]
n ] $ n _$ ] e ] ^ of
$ $ ] q $ fq oF q] $ $
n i ^m $ ]
Z',
Z]| @*
CyW
260:2 n u m # ] $ ] ] ^n
X {0
+
i {z \vZbg6,h N } } }0
+
6,g e x?Zm
$U*
"
e
$WkZ bh
+]
.r
# & **
HX C7ty , Z bh
+]
.
1 C7tZb ? $
Zz]y
KZ )g f IH ?M
h
q$ u : @*
q ^ e n
76,
g]oh+kZyW

$ $ ] ^] ^ e ] ^ e] ] ^ i ]
OEffectgzZ Cause]H 61:3 n eF] o # ] k $ r jf
Vx?Z ?*%]|X 7e
$WkZbh
+]
.? $
W)g f s
x?ZmZ',Z]|X C7tZbh
+]
.%%Za
7e
$WkZbh
+]
.X sp~ 2g Z1v W{z vZ1
H~ v W
?Ysp~g Z1gzZ Y~Qv W et **
x v W
: s *
*^" `g

$
m ] mi ^` j pri ] : e
$ M c*
g
ZHgH **
ZgzZ
vZ t Lg 6,
5ggHLZ `ggzZ ZZ 38:36 n ]
+]
h
. ~ l
/^"`g ;g Y ` s 8 LZ `gX
{ i Z0
+Z
Hy M
`ggzZ Cl
/}i I kZ 7e
$ M kZb
~[fgzZ
_t`g C7t[ M [zb @*
Y[z`g
;gN y M M C
X C7t Zbp {@xC
t @*
[z
V{ zX 7[ by M
tXC7t zy M b
] g U*MX]Z@xgzZ kZj M
KZX Cx yZ6,
C]Z@xx
R `gC
Cx yZ6,
CyZ {z M
h ~
/bT
`g 8 D[z `gX @*
7kCl
/}ip 8
b { Zp 3 y M M Z @*
Y vgzZ }^ 6 @*
7[z
V \ M ; gx V6,
C]Z@x M
KZ y M
: c*
Z
gzZ}g Z y M 7+Z y!*
i *X D M b
17 0~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

`g
/ZYX Z7[z
z kZ `g}t 7(Z y
KZ
zcgzZ W@t Y [z `gZ
# g Z%
z Z0
+e Y7g0
+e
X @*
x Z "
$U*
[ yW
X/

4
5
E
E
:& *
* Z f :7G #AzZ h W=
E!
M M

:t? & **
Z f~}g !*
W - ]c*
1 1^ oF oa 1 ^] 1a 1i ^_ ^ h^j o ZZ
oF oa ^m oi oa mvi h^j gq 1i 1i^q 1n ] k ] q 6na^2
^ne m n !1i k m 1 nf^ n] o q 6na^2 1 f
o] nf^ 1 ] n 1a k 6n c^e 1 f^e
1 7e 1 ] C 1a j ^ ^ C (1i . 1
i m 1a6n` oe 1n 1 7^ ^n ^ C ^i ]a 6n` ^ 1n
] ^_ o 1 ^] oC C C1 1a km]a 1n 1 kn^] p
2C
!XX^i ]a ^ m 6n q 1j 6n` v i
vZwg# AzZyW
L
L t w+ZikZr
# & **
aq{zK y pyW
V,Z x Z/gzZ zmvZ gzZ [
$
gY wJ.
**
gzZx)gN ~qX 7ugzZ i
y M
{z Zz**
}F,
h
+]
.Zz ~,,x Z/
& **
X z b
K
) !*
{ ykz y i x|
_ ]c*
M F
bh
+]
.~
ga0b]c*
WgZD
&yW
~wr
#
y
p
g ]c*
Wg ZD
&yZ Z Zk
,
+g~ ~,, z kZgzZ 7
5
9h
+
p gz kZ {z ~ wzZ y
gzZ 7 e'~ wzZ
agz ` M {z Yw$
+[Time & Place] ykz y i1 M
h
&
E
vZ f )gf Y gZ f y
KZ qY wJ L **
gzZ !*
E
!
x Z/ W ~gz kZ Z {gzZ4Wz f zmvZ -[ $
g
X wJ.
**
agz`W{zK~
.ZgzZ! gyf ZgzZ;vZwg
k
,
+Y gZbgzZ%$
5
+ i ]c*
WyW
~Vs}uz
yW
t ZuzkZ7kZYN Ys$
+
BB

X 54sZ 2C
X 53 sZ C1
17 1 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

}D mYgzZ @
l k(,C
t7}upp Z
yW
X 6,]ZxgGzZ ]&q]ZW,
Z F,
h
+]
.C
gZ F,
x yW

J4E
"
5
4
5
G
E
gzZ G +zD
+p Z yZ)**
dC
X )pp Z
g } F

F6,
gZgzZh
+ F,
]c*
WFyW
`tr
# & **
X }x Z9

e vi :c*


g Z ]+Z[gvZ D[ zmvZ-[
^
^n e ^n $ ] $ $ o ! fi$^ F] ]^ o ! q ^n $ ] o e r j
] # ] oFj 19 18 17 16:75 O
o5 m% ] f ! ^e r i % v]
n ]
KZa c*
~~kzkZ L L 114:20 ^ o h $ n u
g| 7, Z Z
# ZX
f }g b Z7,gzZ b Z c*
kZ:
wy!*
i
X f }g b kZQcg F
g gyW
kZ \W
z kZ V

4
5

gq
- 4,
EGE#AzZ p{zyW Y1y r
# & **
/Z

yZ ) {gt 7
g a V
KZ x Zz Wa J
-#

[
g {z C \vZ ] c*
W&9 vZ
/Z @*
h
+ F,
] c*
W
J
-#
p C/gzZ9gzZvZpCx Z/ zmvZ ?M
h0gaV x [

gQ 7uaV
KZ

D{y\ W =Zg\ W
/Z 107:21 n F u ] ]
[ \vZ6,[

g @*
CyW
X uaV
KZx J
-#

n ^ ] : z[ \WZ
wi **
gzZ

] i ^$ m v] gj] m n m ^j mF! n ] jm
`n m j mF! `n ] jm ` n ] o & e p$] a 151:2 i
( 2:62 n f% F o f ] ^ ] v] gjF] ` m
n # ]
^ ] ?$] % m ^ % m% ] $ k$ ju
$ v] gjF]
n # ] ] o
% m
i i ^
n # ] ^
n & e ] n + ] o # ] $ ( 113:4 ^n
] ^ ] v] gjF] m n m j mF! n ] jm ]
7uaV
KZJ
-#
gzZ[ tH 164:3n f% F o f
\vZt u
Z z kZ ?g m$
+~C
HgzZ
ua Cp, ZyW
[

gzgzZz{0
+
i<Z
gD(Z {zg Z ]vZtXzJ

-ykzV iyZs7
172~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

W @*
: a)LZsgzZ YZgz {ykzV i e: [

yW
\vZ[

gX @*

z a V i x Zz
xEx t \ W
7\W C)g f
xE C
vZ \ WZg Z $ Z\ WVYb z J
-#
ZkZ CgzZ `
nF ] m $ ^e l^m m$ $ m$ ] o f ^ ^ :~vJ
-#
Z$ Zt
ug IakZt\ W 161:3 m kf ^$ % o# i $ $
{Z
+ g 24:81 n e gn ] o a ^ :7kg b
~C'!*
(\W
-V { z
J
HH wi **
6,\ M s [g \ M
Hc*
\
M~
n ] ] e $ ] ^ m%^m5 :H: Z Z h ~9kZ H: (Z \ M

/Z
m # ] j^ k$ e ^ i $ ]
e $
p m # ] $ ] ^$]
~ J
-#
Ze
$ Mq
-Zq
-Z y M
s: [

g Z 67:5 m F] ]
-#
J
Z~Z\vZBgb uJ
-#
x|] c*
M yZ
z Yg { J
-#
Z Zg f ~tgzZ !*
g #
Za y M
@*c*
v
{z c*
C/ yW
[

g~Vs}uzg: ` Z)g f
KZ
swZz
3 y!*
i \WVY c*

vJ
-#
Z~ zg ZDgzZ Z yf Z
z\W)g fZkz @*
t Z (Z LgzZ
_7%G @*
z & \vZ
gakZX BV+F,

Zz kZ f {ggzZ mvi {gX CY~


ow
vZ[
$
gw9x X @*
._AvZ C
ZzZ Z y!*
i[

: x Z gzZ Y Zz6,V{wi *
* @*
Dy wwf \
$

n ] ^ ^ n fj ] n ] ] e % ] kFn f^e :g
yW
3G:53 pF` ] _m ^ :s17
Y LZ\ MG 44:16 $ jm
G
'+
'+
'
}g gzZ ~x 6,?KZgzZ c*
a}g +}g + ~ ` WG
@*
C
'
+

ki] m k] n ] : 1wJ w+}g xsZa


$ ( ^rj n o $ _] ^m ] kn oj n
9]**
x tyW
._`r
# & **
p 3:5 n u$ # ] $ ^
-#
J
Z Dx ZzY ( [ $
gX ~x KZ \vZ
/ZX 7
T + t1I+ kZaJ
-#
\vZ c*
v
CgCg)g fbJ
C
-#
]c*
WyW
gzZ]%= C9
V Zz W Wp ]c*
M gzZ
KZ =gzZ M x ? V
173~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

SC+Gg D
x @*
{z } Zz6, I Z LZ)g f F,
Zz E
+yW

F ] : HyW
n F u $]
7x @*
/Z ?Zyu

v!*
f gt p 5 gaV x \ W 107:21
gzZuawzZy
s{z C/gyW
=Zg
y [

g 7
g {z ] c*
W yW
J
-#
gzZ x
gyW
VZ Zz WLZ [

g Zt kZX

c*
4bgzZ ` uDLZa yW
yZgzZ 3gxzK
, VZbC
?}y& yZ~
.ZyW
Y V;z
DgzZ
KZ ` ZQx !*
ggzZ WZx Z7wq
zbgzZD{q bgzZ VZb gzZ & ` Zp
M : @*
7tk^
[Fereyabend] Z9 [Popper]6,0*
HyW
X | 7, [Feynmen]} [Kuhn] [Lakatos] lI
46:33 ] n % ^q] ^ e # ] o] ^n ] $ :
H5 r Zl
zg[

g
a V i a wzZ y
szg T r Zl
zg t p
M
]c*
M% kZ i 7 ~gzzg b 7 zg kZ
G-4Wz6,VZbZsX b! fzggzZX 7es
qgG
# z
zg KZ V, y Z gWz6,gzZ [ft gzZ X zg {
D yZ yc*
g Z {z
/Z
$Z ~ q
_ y M

sgzZ $
: qh
+]
.gzZ
g y M
J
-#
#
Zt Tg xz
: aV ZzV }g xt HyW
X Sg 7 x|*y M

$
p ZyW
#
sD
r
# & **
52:68 n F ] a ^
g N gzZ/gzZ[

g {z]c*
WyZ1 aV}g J
bJ
-#
yW

_z + ]gz:gzZ: u: { z C
gzZ a I Z x J
-#
yW
Z M
hx)g f
: xgzZX N YK: ~
.Z~ zg bh
+]
.] |kZJ
-Z
# 7u
] kZgzZ ] !*
vZ \W 7 Z kZ x vZ wg HyW
X V
$` q ^ $ ^ # ] $m j F F # ] ^Fe $]:, J
-V
] kZgzZ]!*
vZr
# & **
p 23:72 ]e ] ` n m F
[ ZXua iZ
_kZ J
-/~yzZ[

g
17 4~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

: Y Zz:%bh
+]
. ] yZaV i Zz W{W
D[

g[ ZgzZ}Z
yW
r
# yW
qX Y W~
:qVQ nZ(Z yW
7x YHy%
t HyW
78:2 %m $] ] o$ ^ ] ?$] gjF] m n% ]
i : [ ~
tp 2:36 n v] ! ] 2:31 n v] gjF] kmF!
LZ yW
N CyZbV- R,
g
8h
+]
.z
_kZ [
zg ZzpyW
Zz rt
~ !*
z h 4:3 X yt Hp~}g !*
I Zt H{ z 2:28 1:28 2:26 1:26 1:27 1:15 1:12: HyW
z[
~}g !*
LZ yW
37:50 29:38 32:14 15:6 138:3: [ a =gzZ
a ^ $ O $]:Zz Z]
. !*
hxuIz wt Hp
# ] e p m$: [ Zzszgw O g @*
t 14 13:86 ` ^e
] oF] m m ^e %] o] kF% ] qm F$ ] f ] fi$]
27:81 19:73 52:6887:38 1:25 104:12: a t 16:5 n j%
t 20:45 51:29 77:27 64:16 52:7 : gz e
$Z@ a V {z HyW

y;',
t 33:25 ] n i u] v^e q ] %e i^m :Z
E
=rf yW
t 138:3 57:16 : Gt 82:17 57:+10 : t 174:4:
4E
5kB g .g

gzZX!*
t vZ x [ 2Z x Z EG
] ?$] n u^re n _m$ 5 ] o e$C ^ : y
\vZt| (,

~[ 38:6 vm e o] $ $ o gj] o ^$ ^ ^% ]
w[ 2Z y
Cti7 < r
# & **
[Z X Z hg7f q
GE
y;',y
gzZbh
+]
.aKZZgzZY

a\
og ]y
W6,[ kZCg Z6,Vzuz[ ` ZV Zb
X c*

7g6,]ZyZ r
# & *
*k\Z ?YH OZ
E
G
~ T C0*
gZ
!*
$u{z~ zg 0$ {yr
g
# & **
h
+]
.7: i [

g+4
Y y ] nL L
nL L~VsyZ a
_
g ZyW
~T
HE^g ke !*
TX @*
0*
gZ
h
+]
. ` W7gz [

g ]
"
E
5

5C 3
G
E
Zg F
+]
h
.{,
KZ g @*
[fa# ~,,gzZ `

&X { b
q ! x~}o T? [gzi q
-Z /GG
175 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

4& xE~
a G
0E
.$ gzZZ
+d
$ g @*
KZ b .
)g f "
$
G
X Za ]Z$
? :V*K
t WzZ
7^n^ o] gm aZZ:e
$ M y M tw+Z Zuz r
# & **
l^mC o] # ] i k^n 1a m 1 (1+ 6n^ 6n ^C ] 1 ]
!XX^+ 1a ^i ^ne 1m 1 ^ o 1 7^n^
J
-#
{zCwg[ ZgzZwgpy M
akZ
e
$ M y M
itgzZ }z 6yZC
7ua
}uzX **
w
g[ Zz[
$
g sy M
gzZ "
$U*

{gzZ4 !*
dZ x Z/gzZ[
$
gy
KZq~ Vs
W
] c*
W~ zg ]Z XZ 5b Za ~gzZ Z Za ~{zY
ZkGZgzZ {~
.Z Y g Zt ] tv!*
f n C x|4{ c*
iZ
'
+
}g pgzZ a V Zz V*
K ~ }i @*
Cy M
X 7

Z e
$WkZ 20:51 n kmF! ] o :7p?HX ~ zLZ
]
KZgzZ ,lg ZuZ ] kZ Y (z bt H
v!*
f
_Xy
KZ q ]c*
WyZ Bi Zghu
T wZ~
Ct?gK
) !*
zb! fx Z/gzZv
Zwg
{gX $
gz Z r
# & **
YH~zg]c*
W*yW

/Z_
wwVE
KKZ {z H Za h',

{)z0
+e `g vZ @*
W~ GG
E
$
S
4

~qkZC
gzZ~
ZygzZ]Zg 5G n
pgDaVyZ ;g7
|z ~zgaVyZV*
K Za ~y Wz}i vZ

] j ^ $ $ ] ] $ n $ ] q p$] :T e
F # ] ^ h^v] n ]
$ ] m$ kmFF ] m v^e $]
j$m$ kmFF ] lFF$ ] o # ] ^ ^ $] n $] j ] o
+ZgzZ wi Z V*
$
Kx t 191 190:3 X ~ yZ/wW{g]!*
6 5 : 1 0
yZ D u 0*
: hY y
KZt oa gJ
-yZ1gJ
gzZ egx W aK] c*
WyZ: K ]g Z x Zg f
G-4~ ZgzZ ,qD Y `
x] ~ ]c*
WyW
gG
2~ $iLZ A
$ ;g 7yZZ z!*
VE
KyZ
/ZX ,
17 6 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

f ^ ] :S7,
gze
$WtyW
r
# & **
X 7]gz
n
n i^j $ ] o ^$ ] ] o ^ o jf i ] k _j] ^ ] ]
g

g Zt 35:6 n rF] $ i pF ] o r # ] m^Fe


zOF,
zp ;~ +a6,
Zg { Zgg Z [

)g f b yW
V*
K \vZ a [fI Z ZX Y 1x
a h]ov
Z wg Dc_g X 7tzg: **
&
+
e &
+
e
n f ^ ] :
^ o jfi ] k _j] ^ ] ]
Hc*
[ Z
K
pF ] o r # ] m^Fe n i^j $ ] o ^$ ] ] o
n i^i ^ :tzg]g @*
+
Gzzg ZkZ 37:6 n rF] $ i
]kZ v{zt @*
Cy M
4:6 n ^ ] ^ $] e kmF! m!
f ^q^r ^ n ^ q en i ] o] ] o ^ q :D7zg6,
x ]tY7 im{m] kZ zg 31:21 j m $ $
+ TgzZ + YKVE
KvZ c*
] c*
W W
gzZa inC
gzZbC

${gr
# & **
X : ]gz g OZ bh
+]
.gzZ ~,,a

o ^ $ u p] f ] F h$ f ] ] l ] $] : w]c*
W~y
W

pj m ^^ pFj ] ! ] ] i] ] n ] ] ] l ] $
^ ^ j j mF! mn # v] m] ^] $] $
e%
~#
Z KZ[
g~kZ 9392 91:27 i ^$ ^e
3 V*
KKZ "d
$k{ z a vZ p yZ V Zz g Z'
V H Dv ? wqZ yZ 7" [g ZgzZyTZ ?gzZ }
Hc_VE
KvZwgg X ]gVt?]b VE
K
VyZ HgzZwwV Zzg Zs~gzZk0*
vZ V*
Kc*
W[Z

] ^ V CY| 7,
Z wi **
[6,
? 7
Kta
] n f% m ^] $] # ] kmFF ] ^$] e $ kmF! n ] ?
n ^ ] $] m
F o $ ] n oFjm gjF]
pF $ u
76,
g
K.
**
gzZzgyW
y W\vZ 5150:29 + m%
$ gjF f ] ji k ^ VHy~e
$W ZzkZ:
L

n n e _% i
]i ] m$] o kFn e kmF! e _f] h^i $ ]]
[ ZVb_g \vZ 49 48:29 # ] $] j mF^Fe vrm ^ ]
177 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

~ ]i Wz kZ~ y Wz }i O wi **
V*
K y W~
a kZ CW~ } @x y
KZ izg z
c*
z6,VE
KCQ
zsVE
Kizgz
X 7]gzDZ gzZ;gE?
Hc*
VZ 7y W ? 7VzZt H @*
C yW

20 @*17:88 ?w 7}igzZ ? ) 7Vzh N


Xpt z CZ
@*
WsZyW
[ZX
HHf VE
K~ t WV
] :H7zg~\ WLZ LV,Z H L L: 7yW
y&VE
K
q] v^e $] n e ^ ] lFF$ ] # ] ^ ] ?o ] $ jm
zZV*
KKZd
$k L L 8:30 F e p- e ^$] ] n % $ ] o& %
$. VE
e
K ~)yxg Y z ng ZgzZ ] 53:41
N 3 ~ t M
y
KZ kZ CtG
Kq
-Z \vZ~ >gkZX
HH~xzg >gf ,
'
+
N ` Zzi Z ~g t
KkZg Y {z[ Z H Za
VggzZ V i Za }igzZ V W~G
VE
K kZ Dq yj X
'
+
VE
KkZX **
lavZgzZ **
Zg ygzZ]Zg~ VE
KkZX s %Z
z y W ~ VE
KkZ @*
',0*
y W @*
3 { zt ~

?j mF! ji e j] C] $ $ h] i ] ? j mF! : x }i
o $ ] u $ $ $ n e q ^ n ] ]? j ^q] ] ] ]
F
w] c*
M bkZ @*

g ZkZ 21@*
20:30 $ jm$ kmFF
] t wq yZ p 28:30 f
e x = a yZ D7

^ j mF! $ ^ v$ ^ $ ] ^ q :D7zsVE
K
}=
gzZ M Z 7y M z}ikZ L V,Z H 32:21
-Z ~ kZ |g , Z
q
/6,yZ} y M c*
, v ~ }iZ e
F

n e ^ o] ] m ] : Zzqgs Z}
.a}kZC

K

n ] ] e ^ ] ] $ ] ^ mm]
F o $ ] $ ] ^
((V*
K
t\vZX 9:34 gn % f mF
t c*
CgzZ c*
!Zj Vzg Yg!*
g !*
yW
g0
+ZVzg YX ~)
o $ ] :|zgzZ',
yp ~Z b
Z&Z]gvZD 3

n e# ^ ^^ ^f$ $ ' n e _e o ^$ n f ^ ]
%|z yxg',
gzZ yp ~ Vzg Y yZ {z y
vZt 66:16
178 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

~k
,
ef |z [ Z w kZt @*
a V
KZ uZgp{gzZ ,
~gzZ cuC~ Vzh N @*
W~ yW
X e
$h
+]
.w **

z6,~7&
+Z xg
Vzg Y gzZ V
KZ bkZ gzZ D Z8
-g X CY 0*
Vc*
g J { (
ZzpgDs~VzvZt|X DZ8
-gVw
Hl Zu Vg ]c*
WyZ H 28 27:35 :X Dg e kZ v
c*
~ yW
{g
Z [paint industry]Vg Y c*
C *gzZ ? Y
yZZ V*
Kg " ~ VigzZ V W t | L L : @*
W~ yW
?
H
G
'
+
;g ; ~}i vZX~] **
ZyZgzZ~Za KZ ~g gzZaV Zz
e$C &% f m ^ o : ZzaVyZV*
K~(,
H
4

5
~7&
+Z/g GDZ
Z Vw] c*
WyZ H 4:45 m% kmF!
@xgzZ ] @xyW
? Y ~z6,w [g c c*
? Y i Z
Z zs Y z ng Z { y
KZ )g f VE
K t Wz Z y
KZ
~E
y Wz }i yZ L L: @*

g Z~ - {ga Z Le b $e
$
"
45G
-E
X
4
<
G
G
gzZ V*
Ka yZ T e **
7 yZZ v gzZdw@W Z

%
F

Hy
W
] kmF] o i ^ ] lFF$ ] o ]^ ] ] :$

q m m] $ ] : ]c*
W~g t Hy M
101:10 + m

$
%

yZ 7:10 ^j mF! m] ^ e ] ^] ^n % ] nFv^e ] ^


M
K{ Zp ? c*
bbV~y M
kZ L
L t
$

o ^ ^e :6,
!*
?} {z c*
g Z + VX
$] j] ] ]? m$] $ n $ m^Fe jq % ! ] ]F
v 59:39Hc*
PZ Q_ M k0*
}] c*
M ~ 58:30 _f
z }i yZ ?VY 0Zg g (Z" {z Dzg ~ |
# }iz y M
a yZ T e **
7 yZZ v gzZ d w@ M Z ~ y M
: V *
K Za ~ y M z }i vZ ~qkZC
101:107V*
K

$
$

jm$ kmF ] lFF$ ] o ] ^ ^ ] n ] j ] o $ ]


/Z D7zZg fgzZDg

/vtXV*
KX~y MgzZ}i 6:10
:D Y {g 70 }gzZ 0
+Z 6,kZ {z CY ] c*
M [g yZ
D7gtH 73:25 ^^n $ ^& ^` n ]% m `e kmF^Fe ] ]] m$]
: Za q{0
+
iC
0*
gzZ H Z]
.Z Q A !*
}igzZ y M
t
179 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

$ ] ^ q ^ Fj ^i ^j^ ] lFF$ ] $ ] ]? m$] m ]


C M e
$ M~] c*
M [gyZt yZ 30:21 + m ] o u o
n ^` ] ^ $] `e kmF! m! `n i^i ^ :D7]Z ZskZ
ogzZC
bVE
K] c*
M #~ ] vZ v {z +
$Y ~uz 46:36
gzZ D 3x V MgzZ}i bkZZ',Z L Lf
eq[gc
F : Y~V Zz{zD 3akZ
kmFF ]
]|a{@xx kZy M z}i ? 55:6 n r] n f n fjj
t Z u#Z DgzZ, Y ~ { kg : ~ 7,: ]gzI] DZ',
Z
: Hy)g fkZih
et Z] g U*M y M
} 7,
q
] ^$ n F ] g% u] ? ^ ] $ oe ]F ^ ^f ! n $] n $ q ^$
] $ oe o m $ ^ ] $ oe ]F ^ ^^e ]
o ] mF ^ k] $ f ] CF oe ]F ^ ^e $ ] ] ^$ n $ ]
$ ^n u ] lFF$ ] _ p$ oq k q$ o] i ^$ ?pe
zzK
-kZ f
e| 7,ge
$ Mtr
# & **
79@*
76:6 n ] ^]

KZX gyb 7xs Z%


Cd D Yg ZS
n
Hc*

~ {g[ Z kZ ? H yg !*
g !*
iZ%~]c*
W
?] fj $ $ qm $ $ $ $ _% $ $ h] i p$] a :
$ $ o& % q] ]? f j f o# jm% $ ^n ] j $ $ $ ]
n m ^$^ ] ] o5 ]^ kn m ovm p$] a O i
~p ZyZ =kZ H|gzZ|? @*i 68 67:40
q
-Z' @*
]!*
T{z Zz] zgzZ Zz 0
+
i z
X CY{zgzZ
vZ
/ZY 7]!*
[ZCZgzZ ~ kZ g 7yZZg
/Z
6,xsZV ZD W gz{ z N W yZZ }i IZ
C <
L

k^] ^ n q ] o e% : HyW
M
h7g6

#
Z
/6,
: yZZg [

g 99:10 n + ] m oju ^$] i
e% :c*
^ n q % ] o F

\vZ g
kC
:H
g Z6,
\W(gzZq
-Z 99:10 n + ] m oj#u ^$] i k^]
f ke
f ^ iF] oj#u ] ] ] e ^ oF ] f
180~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

n f ^ ] On ] p^f$ q # ] kF
] ]
# ] m^Fe n i^j $ ] o ^$ ] ] o ^ o jfi ] k _j] ^
]+Z[gvZ @*
Cy M
35 34:6 n rF] $ i pF ] o r
kZ z!*
e
$ M1 20:79 pFf]EmF ] ] ^ :3 ]c*
My

$
h
eN ] c*
M x Z x P - ]| H7t{vZgzZ c*
P
y.6,g 7yZZN]c*
M Zz [f
/Z H7g (Z[g z!*
kZ ~ Vz9x bT Y~ bZ+]7]gz
] x my M
gzZ @*
gs Zeih
+]
.C
] Z
+ZV n
pg
A &[_
.0*
b}ix3,
Vx3,
CW,Z6,V 4Z
t ~g Z)f ~
C~g X g 0*
gzZ CY wY D 7,*
0 }i
q ] ] :gB;6,+
$ i ^n u m
E
E
, : y
KDZDL7LZ~zig WyVzuz 105:10 n ]
`gzZ yZZ Zg ~ T,: x { z ~ : y
Zz lzg g OZgzZ~ { Zg gzZ g D
+ V4z]
.+X Y
CY0:
L ~ !*
',z naVZzYB} Zg Z( (
~y
M t sgzZ sx Zg X xyZa Zz 4z]
.pgzZ
gzZ c*

y x ZY m
CZ bTg Dy jZ !*
hJ
-
F,Z #
Z q )ZgzZx Z/J
-#
Z kZi{zyh)gf[

g
Hc*

=L L~ V/y M
7ibZa#
Z kZgzZ ;g @*
vB

G
] ] l ] :Vg0p~ : c*
{ Zp
'
+
@*
7 Zg Ze}uz zKZyZZ} Z 72:10n ]
jmj ] ]] $ $ % m ] n ] ! m$] ^ m%^m5 :6,
Zg { Zgp ?

/Z

#
105:5 i j ^e fn ^ n q q ] o]
@*
ZZ vZ b 7 L VyZ H @*
Cy M

gzZzQg~ }i yZ F,
y WavZ { Z t G @*
{ Z kZQ
X g 6,qC
vZ G 0
+
i
/
g !*
vZQ ZZ b kZd
: Y?skZQ }{ Z kZ zQ @*
Y ZZ vZ 20 19:29
11:30 q i n ] $ $ n m $ $ ] ]. fm # ]
'G
.
$U*Y c*
"
EZ D ] c*
W 0
KZ ~ g 3g r
# & **
181 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

g !*
g !*
~ [ Z nZ Z kZ g c*
WY 7i
gt D
p. fm n ] m ] : @*
W~ ]z{g ? e ] ] ZC

F $ ] n m $ $ ] # ]
n ] ^ ] o ] n n m # ] o
]c*
WyZ 20 19:29 m o oF # ] $ ] F ] ^$] o. m # ] $ $ ] ]e
] o n [ Z ]Z0 ]]gzZ
KZ~
Z 7
-e Z DQ R D ] vZ7t
/
kZ
C
Hc*

G
4

kZX Y K e
$W< kZ Y~ ~g
8gGZ e
\ 5 /
$z Z e6, z L Z AL Z y
KZaK
g 6,] y ZQ WV6,V g y W
X } g 6,g z 6 q
-Z
] ?p$] :ay ZZ I Z V *
Kt Hgz Z ]
^f] j% ^f&u t% ] ^q ^ o l^f e ^q ^ $ ]
n $ ^ fj ^$ % ] jm$ ] $ h^ ] k#q $ n ] ] ^ $]
kZ 99:6 + m% kmFF F o $ ] m $] C] ?$ oF] ]? ] e^j
V Z b J
- ~ ,  a gz Z u Zg Z Db _ } @ x
X 7]gzg OZ ]
:^zg ~,
(
~]{@x:+
0ii+
h.
]
M
x Zz + T\vZ ] Z@x] g U*M ~ ~kZ , z
`: V: D|
# g:~ VzX 7 e~ 0
+
i ~h
+]
.{@x] c*
M
g VzN g%J
-V
s}g *0
+e: @*M y M : g
8
-g b
z k ,g g,g Z e Vz0
+
6,V VzF,
u bX

$
]] n ] o[ f gzZt ]g
b
z k X ~ Vz[ Z h
e c gzZ g] Zg 17:81
ZI }iZ
# ]',~ Vz C M 76,y M [Z
]gzZ ]o ]0
L
+
i ~h
+]
. D M 7H Vk
\vZ~ y M z }i}g e" {z D/~ Vz# Zzg~ VX
y M: kZ}i: y M z}i Zz*Y ? M
hN V]c*
M
`ggzZ ` ZzgaYZ ~y ~{ Z g Z- zg {zX kZ
kC~} # LZ zg ~Q0
+egzZ]u `g {zX xz V
+F,
q= g @*
pQp 7 .
}@x]g U*M
182~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

7 3}g @*
+e
0
) !*
M ~ Vzk *X ;gy
KZ
# gV]E r !*
|
`~ Vz ?6,] c*
M ] {@x~]gkZ
VgzZ r z
0
+
i ~ Z D Y olgz6,z Z
Z Vzg Y
e**
] {@xgzZ] ] BF,
` M &sVz
]g U*M gzZ ] {@x Z}
.y
KZ q)i Z ~ 0
+
i ~gzZ
yM
0
+
ih
+]
.kZY Y fI e
$h
+]
.p Lg7.
+ T
/
)g f
C
Z xsZ
g z ^
,YgzZ h~ 0{ Zg~ e
$WVz%
G-!
C xj%}g g} g Z
V
s~g ZgzZ D {0
+
i ` M + OE
YA
sp~ Vzg Z Z Q]!*
x gz kZ [ c*
**
NgzZ K }g=gzZ
Qh
+]
.VY `g { ] c*
M ]] Z@x ~ ] z KZ {z
} ] bh
+]
.
Hgz ]y
KZ
) !*
0
+
i ~
gzZ ] ]c*
M 0
+
i ~h
+]
.X g} x Z9
]\z @D
+ _ZB
ykZ "
$
gzZc\vZB0
+
iigzZ 0
+
ikZ L
Z] c*
M
x PZgzZY Z x 0
+
i ~*gzZx Z%Z0
+
i h
+]
.Z Lg7!*
X p" wZ] Z@x] ] c*
M%
yZQ K Za |
# ggzZ EN Z ] @*
m nC
vZ @*M ~ y M

gzZ yigZ K Za V] VgL Z m


M/M
gZg f yZQgzZ D M V~ yZ Z
#|
# gt r !*
g **
Z
^q ^ o l^f e ^q ^ $ ] ] ?p$] :d
h^ ] k#q $ n ] ] ^ $] ^f ] j% ^f&u t% ]
F o $ ] m $] C] ?$ oF] ]? ] e^j n $ ^ fj ^$ % ] jm$ ] $
] Z@xgzZ}g ox tazg~0
+
i ~h
+]
. 99:6 + m% kmFF
}!z] V0
+
i ~Qh
+]
.gzZ M bh
+]
.7[
7~Vz
!*
',
Y (
H0e**
{@xt V;z b Z k f
$ !*
',
C
x J
-#
a I Z]t ] {@x z!*
kZb
\vZQx~] Vz L Zg z
/{ M Qh
+]
.LZ
X?0 YN V\WKZ
x Z >g 4:6 n ^ ] ^ $] e kmF! m! n i^i ^
i kZa kZ H f
e hVY e
$WC
v ? Y 1 H e
$WkZ
183~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

0
+Z7 t ~ Z c*
Sg uZg ZgzZ ] c*
WyZ =c*
b
v p C y zga Vz0
+
i ]c*
Wt X {%7 BgzZ
] c*
WX M
h7~
.Z ]c*
WyZ {z f" bVz%gzZ F,
+ Vzg Y
$
z{z/ Z IZgzZ ~ ZZ CZ f C
X Vx [ ~
*
@Y~g 3g lW {q
-ZX @*
W~ z \ 5\ !*
V gzZo %Z/
$
C
t X @*
Y0 z.
**
HYq
I
-ZiZ% gvZ
H :
HaZ Y7h
+ F,T/[Objective] zcgzZ W CZ f
[ ZX
H Z90 Z {zQgzZ H Za Z 78 y
KZ
_% F ^$] ^ ] m ]: @*
YwZa KZgzZ @*
VBV{ z6,
n oa ^ ] ov%m ^ o$ % ^ h n f% n a ]^
F ^::q Z
# V[ Za N~ kZy
M 7877:36
^
i f
j $ n o$
e%
Zg
/(Z
zq
-Z 9:19 ^n
^n m a $ ] n u ^ ] o oiF] a ::qf.
y
KZZ
#
^$] j :f
e7$VYQ Y?Za KZ 1:76 ] $
jm ]H7zg~\ M LZ LV,Z H 62:56 $ i oF ]
V]gvZ ? H Za }g g Z: yZ 8:30 ] o]
` F ^$] ^ $ ] ^ % ] a ] `j j^ :g Z h Zt ZkZtgzZyZ 6,
~Z
# ZzH Hy
KZX 12 11:37 m kfr e h$ n
{z` Za kZ @*M 7 c*
y
KZ H ?V Y1w{0
+
i V^%
Za 0*
ZzZq
-Z
HH Za q{zNy
KZ Zg fQX :
GG
E
$
S
4

6, Za {g !*
z Z { {z 5G
_ yxgV- AJ
ggzZ" X
HH

xE?V- AgzZJ
g e
$ M kZh
+
5:86 $ ^ ] n :g
] rI w +I e
$h
+]
.gzZ r
# & **
$
Y c*
g g @*
X gp0w+Ze
$ Mt
D
/6,}iug 3g {z Z
# zy
KZ}P bT
Za 0
+
i ~ }i {% 5',} lg !*
# 6,}i bZ !*
Z

kn ] o$ v] tm :D 0
+
i]kZ}ivZX CY
F ^ i e ] ovm o v] kn ] tm
vZ 19:30 q i
n # ] ku $F! o5 ] ^: Z `b}i ~ 7,{%tg
184~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

F $ ] ^ i e ] ovm
50:30 m o oF oiF ] ov
?Q @*
Cy M
X ,
{0
+
iV
KZ {g !*
z %vZ jZ !*

L
`ng Z Z }i {%D W} lg !*
wp',
Z
gzZgZ1g Zim B Vz lg !*
@g Zir
-ggzZ K
m }i J
- @
n $ ] o _fn ^e ^v n % j xmF ] m p$] # ] : CYw$
+~g Zi {!
? ^f m$ e h^] C^ F t m ] p j ^ rm m
Mw !*
vZ Zy~g >gy* bZ 48:30 fjm ]]
?Q ',
Z q
-ZZQ @*
h !*
Vz kZQ @*
` M
$ $ ^e ^v oq m # ] $ ] i ] :D M} lg !*
wpkZ
^fq $ ] m F t m ] p j ^ ^ rm $ $ n e * m

^e ^e ga m e ^ ^m m$ $ m m$ e gnn e ^` n
?p$] a : Zyi Z0
+ZgzZq
-Z~e >ggzZy
>gy
*X 43:24
c

e ov ] ` $ ] ^ ] j u pm n e ] e xmF] ]
oe5 ^ ] $ $ n ` n e F$ ] n % o$ ^]$ ^ ^ ] ^$ n $ ^jn $ e
wYgzZ _ZIq
- k }i {% 5',
lg!*
X 50 4948:25 ] $] ^$] %]
gm o j ] ^$] ^ m%^m5 :~qz'Z] @*
mlpnC
kZgzZ

n $ % % $ $ $ $ _ $ $ h] i ^$^ & f]
$ $ q $ $ o& % q] o5 ] ^ ^u ] o % n f $

e m n ] ] o5 ] % m% $ o# jm% $ $ ] ]? fj
kjf] ke l$ j ] ] ^ n ^ ] C^ ^ ] p i ^n
yZ HgzZ
HHyi Z0
+Z}uzy*Z~{Z >g 5:22 sn e t

kZQgzZ D 0*
s}i {
Hz [ M " q
-Z 7Lt V
: D 3pt gzZ M {g e Vzg Y yZ T D Z `{z }i
^ ] ^i ^ e t r] ] o] ] ^$] ] m ]
vZ {zgzZ ~wVgzZq
-Z kZ~s ZZ >g 27:32 f m ] ]
} 0*
{z Z
# Q &a ~lpWW g KZ V Z
kZ ',
z V;zgzZ
ws}i {{%Z g VZ w !*

wVb b }i ~%
qVz% bkZd @*
pm n e ] e xmF ] m p$] :$}@xkZ ?h
+
s
185 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

e ^q ^ ] e ^ ^ kn $ f F ^$ ^e ^v k$ ] C] oj#u j u
F lF%$]
MgKZ z 57:7 $ i $ oiF ] t
kZ {%q
-Z @*
@*
wi **
0*
u 0*
Q & ]g t
KV Z M
c

] n % o$ ^]$ ^ ^ ] ^$ n $ ^jn $ e e ov :0
+
i)g f
~ 7,{% )g f kZgzZ c*
',0*
y M g7 yZ ?
/Z 49:25
7L}i
e ^n u^ $ ] $ $ $ j^ :vZ}gz{zc*
VZ E

Q 63:29 m %] e # v] # ] $ n ^ i e ]
{%] Z W,Z g vZd X D M ~ w !*
} lg!*
8
$F! o5 ] ^ : Zz0
+
iVz%{zG {0
+
i b{z}i ~ 7,
F $ ] ^ i e ] ovm n # ] ku
oF oiF ] ov
s}i {
Hz[ M" q
-Z : LtVyZ H 50:30 m o
] o] ] ^$] ] m ] :D Z`{z }iZQgzZD 0*
ZQ 27:32 f m ] ] ^ ] ^i ^ e t r]
{% D 0
+
i}ikZ=g fkZgzZ D Y s h YQq
-Z

F
F

$
#
?
] e ^n n u^ kn$ e o] ^e^v n %j xmF] ] p] ] :_
F ^ i e
kZ
Kq
-Z}iyY"aVyZ 9:35 %]
^f&u ^` ^q ] ^` Fn n u] jn ] ] ` $ m! : kZgzZ0
+
i

{%)g fkZgzZ Zg @*
Z 0*
y M ~g Zlm{q
-Z T 33:36 ^m

F ^jn $ e e ^ ^ e $ ] $ p$] : 0

+
i}i
{ zq
- kc*
',
0*
6,kZ 4Q ~ 7,}i ?Q 11:43 q i
$] ? j mF! : CYwYgzZ ZI
^` n ^ ] C^ ^ ] p i
39:41 m o oF $] oiF ] ov ^a ^n u] ?p$] $ ] ke l$ ja ] ]
{0
+
i}i {% )g f kZQ @*

wi **
y M vZ& ~ tig kZgzZ

j ] :
e ] e ^n u^ $ ] ] ] ^` $] n $]
0*
kZ tigVz x OZt 5:45 m$ kmF! xmF ] mi ^` i
F ^jn $ e e ^n n u] ^f ^ :0
t ]
+
i}i {%q
-Z
ovm # ] $ ] ]? ]: 0
+
i]kZ}ivZyY[p 11:50
]~]c*
M x yZ 17:57 i $ kmFF ] ^$n$e ^` i e ]
} 0*
X
HH76,g?]Z@x
KZx gzZ
HHz6,]
186 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

Zz] ]? \vZ wVkZ D{0


+
i b}i {%w !*

^e ^v k$ ] C] oj#u j u pm n e ] e xmF ] m p$] :D


F lF%$] e ^q ^ ] e ^ ^ kn $ f F ^ $
t
iX 57:7 $ i $ oiF ]
]_ yZk
,
zgzZy
KZ G
LI
~ ]y
M ] X k
,5
+q z bZ !*
0
+
i ~uz
HH{g
Z s]
vZ ?y M c*
x J{ c*
iV ?H
HHzy;f Z6,
KZY Z
% ] j] :J e]ZgkZgzZ Hyi Z kZQ VZzZ[pkZ c*
kZ
^` vF t ] ^` n _] ^a # ^` ^` Fe $ ] ] ^
F e ]
] M
hx ZZ
# 30@*
27:79 ^` uF
? Y %Z H~U*
ZgzZ
b r !*
zgZX 7wVVz \vZ~ >g
g0
+ZV!*
yZ g}i
yxgyZgzZ | h !*
VggL
/
yZgzZ
{z yq
-Z 0*
t X Zq [pgzZg ZzZa [p kZgzZ ~g Y \vZ1q
-Z
z
{ c*
igzZVg Zw { c*
i~1D'!*
LZ
&7~ 0 ~ hLZgzZ Z 4Z~ r !*

A KZQ V
rg
LZ= L
/Z @*
WL~{#
7=gzZ Y +L
zt
kZ~[ZkZ V 0*
(g Z0
+
{ c*
i kZgz
Hc*
g[g

l ] ? ^vm f u^ ^:~xi W
kZ DW

p$^e
kZ @*
H L L 37:18 q # $ $ _ $ $ h] i
KZX H Z9 WZg7q
-ZNgzZ H Za QgzZ NT ] Z f
Z!*
"kZ WX Y7g Z kZy
KZ /zc(Z/Za gzZ
zmvZ -vZ wg lg } TV LZ bT } YgzZ } Tb
% |Za KZ y
KZ bkZX V LZ bT bZ !*
-Z
J
# Y Zgz ykz V i ? +Zt { W! lgzZbD
{%gzZzg)L?t V Za jZg D Za 6,}i zg y
KZ
zgaJ
-#
b?
KZ ? ]bZ !*
7
yp<Z t lg zW zmvZ -[
gakZ
o j ] ^$] ^ m%^m5 :c*
f i m$] f ] ? om

D
104:10 n + ] ] ] l ] # jm p$] # ] f ] F # ]
187 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

V@*
Z}
.Zs @*
7 yZ~ DXZG
vZ ?
'
+
] ? { z Z Y7
g Z ]GC
X ]~g ~ T
'
+
]"{z "Z q}g
/Z uZzvZx **
kZ g~
\vZ kZ } Y bhZ|kZy
KZX f
e 7X VY
H Za Z [gkZa5Z Z T @*
Y wn
kZ {z z!*
kZp
23:80 ] m ^$ $ :
: kZgzZ {+
E iZ%:y M
qT 7
/
:yW
C
b^V~y
W~]1@*
b
} Y WC
39:70 m ^$ ` F ^$] $ : Ypt Z H Za yZ
@*
CyW
X 7R~kZ \ !*
kZkZ
Za 0*
Z { gzZ3,
` xZW Z Y Y Z
n `$ $ % ] 8:32 n $ $ F q $ $ :
HH

^$] 7 6:86 gC j$] g % ] n e t m ] $ ( 20:77


$] 2:76 ] n e ^ n F r n jf $ t^ ] _% ^ ] ^
xZa KZ? @*
CyW
93:75 45:53 o%F ] $ ] n q $ ]
q{zAy
KZ 62:56 $ i oF ] ^$] j :
H**

gtay
KZ[ ZpX 5:86 $ ^ ] n : ZZa
@*M ~y M
aZ ? yq
-Zp[ Z
HW~zy
KZt}q
-Z
j :0
+
1q
-Z W H Za Z vZq h
GJ6,y
KZ

18 17:80, $ _ o p] ] ^ ]
*izgz

/
g Z LZ|KZy
KZ *
*Zz] !*
t6,
C
] c*
M yZX 19
y
KZ]c*
M X Yl Z
ZzV Zz M~
? D Y wVY @
vx yZ ?Z
# **
tgzZ **
c*
Z

57:56 i G
v ?D7& VY ?Q H Za "
'
+
kZQ Y ZZ Za ~g
q T vZ L L~ p Z y M

Le {z X c*
J h1 gzZ " ]kZQ ]"

e q $ $ p$] # ] : Zz+ Y
{zgzZ @*
Za

m] n ] m ^ m fn $ ^ $ e q $ $ $
IE
bgzZq
-Z~ t Gi$Z >gy*t Q
gzZ
54:30
188 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

{ {zZ
# 0
+egzZ g {zgzZ ] ZggzZ yV @*
3n: Zy
? : **

Y Dg
/s
q ~uz
qq
-Zzg$
+zggz? @*
Y
^f $ f j i$] ]] ] ^ n $] $ ^e ]
.-G'ZDh
g OZJ
-k',
{gGY c*
E
+]
.aK] c*
M yZX 19@*
16:84f

X @
v] !*
z]
KZC
:]gz
p$] :n
pgDaVyZ ;g7wwVE
KKZ {z
^ h^v] n ] ] j ^ $ $ ] ] $ n $ ] q
F # ]
] c*
Wx
KZ 5:10 m$ kmFF ] m v^e $]
X ;g Y c*
[Z wZ ] ]6,x !Z c*
i W e
$WC
g6,t z t (
Vzq yZ c*
x { c*
i Za yZg7 yZ [Z L L @*M ~ ] >g
Z ? c*
**
y Zg7 yZ g Za
CY yZ Z
# gzZX DtgzZ D?V; X c*
}g F
t gzZ X Dt Z
KZ
# gzZ X D7wJ
HgzZ ? N Y VZQ H Vc*
A gzZ gzZ % Z
# >X z Y
$^] ^ $ ] ^ % ] a ] `j j^ : ?}g
/
Z Z\ !*
}g

$
F
m ] ]] m kf r e h n `
^e ] i ^$ ^j ]] n f% v $] CaF ] ]? ^ jm$ m! ] ] ]]
V~ekZy M
17@*
11:37 $ ] ^. e ! ] $ f ^$^ ^ ^ $
V6,e
$Wx !ZgzZ H7 ~ ?QgzZ Hf [ ZCZgzZ
yxgi Z0
+Z kZ r
# & **
X ~ ] gzZ
M 1g +
M Zuz

7
/
] c*
WyZb H
git 1y GF "
$U*
b ]c*
W
yW
? Ct+
M Zuz Z}
.gzZ]>Z] AgzZ Z
wZ Z}
.~0*
r z
% YbkZ1Y wb e
$W
gzZ ]y
W Z}
.~ ` u bY Y Z)]y
WgzZ Y
?
G Z}
. {Z
+H b+Z @*
7Za wZ{)z
:y M :fgZz%JZa g Z`Z
\vZ
c*
W((yiZ%<c*
y
KZ ~ yW

x { c*
i y
KZ **
}iz y WgzZ tqH C c*


gZ
$ ] ^ % ] a ] `j j^: VYyZ Z6,
KZy
KZ 7C
?
189 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

^$] f] ] lFF$ ] 11:37 h$ n ` F ^$] ^


kZ 27:79 ^` Fe $ ] ] ^ % ] j] 57:40 m ^$] %] $ F
$ ^ u ^ ^ ] ^ :D CiZ%
e% ^ ] 26:15
$ ^ u ^ ] e ^ o] 5
? $] 12:23 n ^ ] ^ 28:15
o $ u] p
8:32 n $ $ F q $ $ 7:32 n ^ ] ] e
5 ^ $ $ F $ $ $ F 14:55 ^$ ^ ^ ^ ]
^ ^ 11:7 mr# ] m n e ] ?$] ]? r F ] r]
$]
i ] ] ri
^ 12:7 n j $ ^$ o j n ^] ^
^ o] 5
e% ^ ] 26:15 $ ^u ^ ^ ]
j f r^ ] ^ 28:15 $ ^u ^ ] e
n e] ?$] ]? r F ] r] 5 ^ ] 33:15 $ ^ u ^
p$^e l ] ? ^vm fu^ ^ 61:17 ^n k r] ^

gm o j ] ^$] ^ m%^m5 37:18 q # $ $ _% $ $ h] i
n $ $ % % $ $ $ $ _% $ $ h] i F ^$^ & f]
$ $ q $ $ o& % q] o5 ] ^ ^u ] o % nf $

e m n ] ] o5 ] % m% $ o# jm% $ $ ] ]? fj
kjf] ke l$ j ] ] ^ n ^ ] C^ ^ ] p i ^n
vi ^ ^q] ] q $ $ _% $ $ h] i # ] 5:22 sn e t

$ ] gjF o $] ? m $ $ % $ m ^ e $] i o%F]
F
n ` F ^$] ^ $ ] ^ % ] a ] `j j^ 11:35 n m # ] o

e% ^ ] 11:37 h$
n ^] ^ 71:38 n ] e ^ o] 5
_% $ $ h] i p$] a 76:38 n j$ ^$ o j
o# jm% $ ^n ] j $ $ $ ] ]? f j $ $ qm $ $ $ $
2:96 ^ ] 67:40 i $ $ o& % q] ]? f j f
$] :} h{ gzZ3,
ay
KZ Z
g ZQ 93:75
$ # ] ]^ ] :0*
c*
CQ 93:75 45:53 o%F ] $ ] n q $ ]
n ] h] e ^j]] $ ] ^ru ^n _ ^ $ v] ]F ^ ]
n e t m 6:86 ] $ 20:77 n `$ $ % ] 32:8
190~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

^ ] ^ ^$]:
Hzy
KZ o c*
CQ 7:86 gC j$] g% ]
~g 3g*
H3g~g Z
W 2:76 ] n e ^ n F r n jf $ t^ ] _%
oFi ]] _% 13:23 n $ ] o _ F q $ $:Z e~]g}
m ] 46:53
:3g (p ZJ
-{gH
zq
-Z 37:75 oFm% o $ _
F] ^ 22:77 $ oF] 21:77 n $ ] o F r
^ $ $ :]g% } h K
gY
I Z c*
Z 23:77
^ ] 39:75 o%F ] $ ] n q $ ] r 38:75 p#
% a ^ r v^e vn $ ] ` i^:*
cJm

6,V- AQN Vc*


A 2:96

j F$ ] _e q ] # ] :KWyQ 14:23 n # ] ] f
Q 78:16 i $ ] ^e ] $ ] q $ ^n i
$ ] q u % n # $ $:YbzgKZ~kZQ H
gZ
:3g~Vz0
+Z&~V Z 9:32 i ^$ n ] ^e ]
t] ] n F$ ^ ] ] ^` q ^` q $ $ u]$ $

e% # ] F &F$ kF o e ^ j `F$ ] _e o m
]
^$] ^ m%^m5 :c*
CDf ` Zg 6:39 i o#^ a $] F ] ?
$ $ $ $ _% $ $ h] i F ^$^ & f ] gm o j ]
$ $ o& % q] o5 ] ^ ^u ] o % n f $ n $ $ % %
] ] o5 ] % m% $ o# jm% $ $ ] ]? fj $ $ q

l$ j ] ] ^ n ^ ] C^ ^ ] p i ^n e m n
$ $ _% $ $ h] i p$] a 5:22 sn e t kjf ] ke

o# jm% $ ^n ] j $ $ $ ] ]? fj $ $ qm $ $
18:80 o p] 67:40 i $ $ o& % q] ]? f j f
@*
g
/
V% y
KZJ
-Za g Z
19:80 $ _%
p$] : @*
Le]g @*
k0*
{sDkZ

l$ ^n u ku ^ i ^$ ^ n ] n ^ q ^ q $ u]$ $
# ] 189:7 m# ] $ $ ^v^ ^jn i! ^ e$ # ] ] $ k$] $ e
]e o % ] i ^ ^u ] n i ^ o%F] % vi ^ m

pi ^ ^u ] o ^ m &n ] m ^$ ] # ] $ ] 8:13

34:31 n f n # ] $ ] l i ] p ^e
pi ^ ] gi ]^$
191 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

&vZQ 6:3 n v] m ] $] F] ? m n ^u ] o m p$]


# : @*
^ m ] lFF$ ]
g
C Le& e Le
^$^]$ ^] ` q m ] 49:42 % ] m$ g` m$ ^$^] m$ g` m m
# ] : @*
{/kZ 50:42 m n $] ^n $m rm
$] i o%F] vi ^ ^q] ] q $ $ _% $ $ h] i
F $ ] gjF o $] ? m $ $ % $ m ^ e
# ] o
^Fu] m] e ^? ] ^n $ : @*
Cz
) g]gzZ] 11:35 n m
e $ ] e ]] oj#u ] ` %F$ F u ^a j $ ^a % ] ju
j ] ] o? ] h ^ n e ]
] p$ ] oF o$ k ] ?oj $]
n ] kfi o] oj m$ o o x ] F i ^v^ ]
n ] o ]



o ^$ ] $ j m% ] ] ] n ^ n u $ ] m lF] ] 15:46
] $ i ^ $]
$ i ^e $ i $ ]
F % '] ] o e $ ^ e
] i ^ ] ] ] ^
n |^q ] ]? ji ] i% ] ] ^n |^q ^i ^
n e i ^e # ] $ ] ]? ] # ] ] i$] ^e jn i! $ j$ ]]
$ $ p$] # ]: @*
~g
qZ zQ 233:2

m ^ m fn $ ^ $ e q $ $ $ e q
y
KZkZgzZ 68:36 m ] ] o 54:30 m] n ]
9J(,gzZ
) $gzZgkZ }Y:Za ~
q ZZ
D!*
{g !*
z ~
q ]+Z [gvZy
KZ Z }Y {zJ
-

#
e m o ] ] o] % m% $ jm $ $ ] :
: 7}LZvZyiZ%x yZ 70:16 m n # ] $ ] ^n
iZ%?7VY !?Q62:56 $ i oF ] ^$] j
]t ?mH b ] zga M
M 1g vZ y
Xabw: gY~aw[gc[g"
$
{
'G
.
gzZ y>ga"
$U*
M Y c*
EZDgzZ y M
r
# & **
^ m%^m5 :iZ%Z
KZmXDw+Z]c*
M yZ Z >g
$ $ $ $ _% $ $ h] i F ^$^ & f ] gm o j ] ^$]
o& % q] o5 ] ^ ^u ] o % n f $ n $ $ % %
192~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

] ] o5 ] % m% $ o# jm% $ $ ] ]? f j $ $ q $ $

l$ j ] ] ^ n ^ ] C^ ^ ] p i ^n e m n
~ZY%"
/Z! L L 5:22 sn e t kjf] ke

ypkZQ Wk QQ ~Y ZZH Za g!*


"
G

G
G3 {KZ 6,? @*
**
gzZ C^zT K1 kZQ Z
^ ?Q n
pg ZI~ J
-gH q
-Z T e TgzZ ,C

gzZ D Y h1 gzZ D Y% ~c iZ I gzZ Z ?Q s


D YD" !*
+ YD YN*
s/[Zy

$.9J (,
e
Z
# Q C ~ 7,
}i ~
zq
-Z 8 Zz } Z gzZ
C Z ,q zg!*
b bgzZ @ZgzZ CY [Z
{z D ',
z 6,kZ
X

:b+
h.
]gzZyK
Z
iZ%
KZ ah
+ F,
6,]y
M ]~ qz e
$ M kZ
7
y
KZ wzZ 0 %y
KZUg f]y
M ]p
HH7u
Hf u ( ( (1_y M
h]i
HHf
.-G'Z
bh
+]
.p CtiZ% 3g bh
+]
.gzZ Y c*
E
} y
KZt yZ @*
7tb y
KZ yZ b
z e
$ M kZ Z
# b X @*
0*
Protein cell { t gzZ @*
g
biZ% : ]y
M: C7t
g ]**

8f h]igzZ%{g
Hf n~y M
X } M c*
$U*
"
15:20 15:26 4 ^: sf
D f iZ%v {zkZ
HH%
38:71 37:11 32:7 28:38 23:12 7:12 6:25:110 3:49 11 n_] 55:14 15:33
^e]i 40:67 35:11 30:2022:5 18:37 3:59%8:h]i 71:61 51:33 38:76
23:13 22:5 18:37 16:412 _ 37:53 37:16 27:67 23:7223:35 9
23:13 2 n ] 80:1976:275:37 53:64 40:67 36:77 35:11 23:14
^v 23:14 23:14 22:5 3 40:6723:1423:14 22:5 5 77:21
yW
{zkZ c*
W%9 V^gzZ 24 ^:%64 V 23:14

KZX wEZ ]q Z h n (o (] ^ (n` ^~


ng Zy
KZ
Hc*
C~ yW
((Bg ZgzZ yyWt X
193~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

b y
KZyZbc*
h
+]
.p H Za h]i n
- I M x?Zm}]|7
y
KZ [Atomist] a# **
>g v!*
fn
pg7w~bh
+]
.]**
x y M
Zb
$ $ n ^ ] ^ :`giZ%~y
^ ] ^ _%] ^ $ $ n $ ] o _ F q
u] # ] ^fj C ^ F] $ $ ^v ^ ] ^ ^ ^ ]
F e $] $ $ n ^]
16@*
12:23 % f i nF ] m $] $ $ jn
c*
]~g Z
WQ n :c*

y
KZtyV
Q
Hc*
Jm
v6,kZQ
Hc*
^6 tQ Zsp~ Q _Q
H
*
*%gz?kZQ
HUg ]c*
M y Z
Hc*
VZ t~uzq
-ZZ
G
E
$ izg#
4G
] c*
M yZ iZ%gzZ yZbh
+]
. Y VZ ? S5G
Q
ZD7tY ZgzZ #
izge
$ M ~y
MgzZ k 1 o9e
$M
!*
+Z~DX Z **
**
"
$U*
} M b] c*
M &syxg
b{z { Zp @*
7t]**
r
# & **
VZb 7w] z@*
{E
+iZ% ~ {> >gX ,
s"
$gzi H~ e
$

$
#

lFF$ ] p] ]:y] ] gzZy


\vZ
$ o$ ^ ] o pFj] $ $ ^m$] j$ o ^ n e ^ ]
^ m o n ] t m $ $ ] o] $ ] ] em $ ji ] n
F % i ^$ ] ? ]
@*
4:32 n u$ ] m ] ^ $ ] gn ] F
vZ
HkZ C7t|{y~ ]c*
M Vz yZbh
+]
.X 6

$
u] ?p] : CiZ%Q 7kZb Zz!*
zC

n $ $ q $ $ n ^ ] ] e o $
^$ n ] ^e ] $ ] q u % n # $ $
?
Hc*
C{z Htzg M6,
kZg Z
/
]
Hc*
CQ 9@*
7:32 i
o ^ ]] ]?^ :
HHf ]Y ZgzZ]y
MQDg Z
/
] v

l ] $ jm e p- e e mq o ^$] ]
7ty~yZb 11@*
10:32 q i e oF] $ $ e p$]
X C
] :f ]y
M y iZ%z~]s%>g
194~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

F mF ] ` fj $ $ n $ ]
m$ m n r^e
`
]{gHq
-Z ?H7Za "0*
Hq
-Z H
HQ 19@*
16:77 n e
Zzpg ]ghZ : g 6,kZ d 3g ZI(pq
-Z Z J
$ oF] n $ ] o F r n `$ $ % ] :
V ZzPizgkZ n
HUg kZ 23@*
20:77 F] ^
+Z 7e
$ M Z]c*
M zyZb 24:77 n e m$ m :a
X 7 Z.gzZ Z **
{ k{ "
$U*
y M
b
bh
+]
.gzZ y XZ "aKy M

e
$Z@ @*
@*
wi **
,[ KZ {z <
L \vZ7]gz
qg )g fgzZ a e
$Z@
/ZX} 7,: 9 s)g fgzZ aw
gzZ x @*
$Z@ Zt kZ }=g f Yg { =e
e
$Z@ c*
~gz **

X 7
~[f tkZtKZaG@*
gzZ}&KZ `Zx Z}
.
yW Zt u
Z z kZX b{XZkZ C7t{{gzZ Sg
aiZ LZgzZaLZa]oLZ|Y 7v!*
f
b kZZz"7,
, B
bgg0
+Z LZiZ LZ {zXC7gZ6,
}uz
V r
# & **
/Z XC 76, [Reality] |~, Zz !l

:X ~$
+
ZziZ|: |:yW
~kZY1t|g
Zx{zC
X`ZtKZagzZ=KZ x {
X Y
kZ% Zg f Yg{gzZ ? {g !*
Y ~yW
kZ Hv!*
f
8
:
E
z =KZ ` M x 7egzZ>X XG=e
$Z@
wi **
,Z ]Zg wi **
{zX 7` ZxEta

o ^n iC $ $ :7~gzDb ic*
ikZaKkZ

$
$

`e( ^ e ` u pa o n i u*] p$] o ^^i h^j]


o ( ( n i $ o ( |] * ] o ^fj 154:6 m
]+ $ e ^a
Qv1 145:7 n ^] ] m^. ^` u^*e ]^+ m
gzZ V*
K~ ] kZ gzZ [ gzZ Zz s y M
D7z
~g y
KZ Q1 ;gy ,6,ggzZs ] uZz g @*
195 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

i ^f ^$ ] n e ^n e ]n # ^e oF :-', VE
K
y]b)]5Z
+~gz Z x ~y M
bZ 92:10 n F
az =gzZ DgzZ zg {z : ]gz}g z y
KZ @*
~
q

-Z ]t }:g Z6,] Y yZgzZxEyZ Y f: ` Zg


y M gzZ N Y M wgt kZ 7 e
$Z@
X a ~g e
$Z@
x \
7yZZ {z A
$N Y wi **
9 g9 V*
KvZ
EvZ X @*
$
4
O
&
x P - ]|Z7yZZx 1X7V*
K EGEt x Z Z
[ Z:gz
]
z~ [ ZCZ - ]| $a kZ {zgzZ
{zt
HHwi **
s s gzZ Zz {z Hy M
X @*
Ywi **
6,
z
gjF :Z Zz]c*
M y M
HHakZ tX
Hc*
ZC
g !*
g !*
~y M

4
O
&
F : EGEt Mt 3:41 m$ ^n& e ^! jmF! k
kmF! F ]
9:57]
C]c*
M {wi **
y M
16:22 mm% p m # ] $ ] $ kFn e
aV Zz 38:6 o gjF] o ^$ ^ :Z hg7~[ kZ
" 118:2 m% kmFF ] ^$n$e :`Vc*
s s V*
K

^n$ e :~ 3s s ?V*
K 18:3~}] c*
M s s

:Dy VhZg !*
g !*
]c*
M KZgzZ 17:57 i $ kmFF ]
F
] c*
M KZvZX 105:6 m$ n f k ] n kmFF ]
ys
# ZaV
$ oF] &$ ] ^n ] n $ u]: @*
^ n h^j ] ^ji j $] # ] $ $ ^f j] $ ^f
n$f jm oj#u ] e ] ] # ] gj ^ ] je ] $ ^e F^
$ ^f i n $] o] ^n ] ]% i ] $ $ r] ] n ] n e ] n ]
F ^ e i # ] u
i rF] o F j]
^$ j mF! # ] n fm
G
'
vZX 219:2 @*
ys s t M KZa}g +\vZ 187:2 j$m $
$ + m oj#u kF] ]vi : @*
yt Vt M KZ \

f ] + m oju n ] ]vi jf r ] $ % n + %
5 ] fr ] $ % n + %
$r] o] ]? m # ] ^$] o] m
"]c*
M KZvZ bkZ 221:2 $ jm $ ^$ j mF! n fm ^e ]
u] % m]: ;gys s ]c*
M KZvZ bkZ 242:2 @*
Cs s
lF%$] ^ n F ] ^ j vi pri h^ ] $ n $ $q i ]
196 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

F k ju^ ^ n ^ ] e^^ m$ f ] e^]


# ] n fm
G
'
zgt }g +] c*
M KZvZ bkZ 266:2 $ ji $ kmFF ]
: @*
C ] j ] n # ] k ] ] ] $ i $ ^ n q # ] f ve ] j ]
oF j ^] ] ? j e jvf^ e n e $^
^ ^$] u ^G
'
+
F^
] Za}g vZ 103:3 j i $ j mF! # ] n fm
] n ] ] e $ ^ e q ^$G
] ^ m%^m5 :zQ:
y ? @*
@*

'
+
Zza}g ]c*
M KZvZ bkZ 176:4 ^n f%
?o $ ^e # ] ]* m : @*
] n F ^ ] ?i ^$ ^m ] i%$ ^e ]* m% F ^m]
F ^m$] %F$ ^n rm $ f mvi ] i ] n ] _i ^

F ^m] ]? u] ju ]] ^m] ^$
$ j mF! # ] n fm
n u n # ] kmFF ] # ] n f m :Zz!*
]c*
M vZ 89:5 i
k m$] ^jn ] ! m$] ^` m%^m:5 @*
]c*
M KZvZ bkZ 18:24
i n u r] F f l# &F$ v] ] f m m$] ^m]

`n n n $ lF &F$ ] F e n`$ ] e ^n $
F e oF e n # $ a e |^q
# ] kmFF ] # ] nfm
G
'
^ ] e ]] : mt }g +]c*
M KZvZ bkZ 58:24 n u n
#

$
j] ^ ] ^jn v]
] j mF! ] n f m ` f m] ^G
'
oF ] o n : @*
y]c*
Mt }g +vZ bkZ 59:24 n u n

] ^i ] ] o5 $ t u m] o $ t u t ] o $ t u
] i F] ln e ] ] ] ln e ] j `F$ ] ln e ] e! ln e ] in e
j ^ ] j FF ln e ] ] ] ln e ] j # ln e ] ^ ] ln e
^in e j ]^ ^i^j] ] ^ n q ] ^i ] |^q n n m ] ?vi^$
F fn fF # ] n$ vi ] o5 ]
kmFF ] # ] n f m
LGZyZgzZN 3 ~t M ] c*
M KZyZd
$k 61:24 i $
'+
~g 53:41 hZz y M t Y ] !*
t 6,yZJ
-V ~

n ] ] : Zzg Z hs s wi **
]c*
M +Zs
6,]
C+Z e
$Z@u Zuy M
99:2 F] $] e m ^ kFn e kmF!
n ] ?p$] ^ : Zzgwt
!*
zhgzZ Zz3
Zg { Zg
n $ ] ^ ] pF ] kFn e ^$ p ! ]
197 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

] e mm n ] e # ] mm ] ^m$] $ oF ] ^m ^
]
C 185:2 i $ F ^ oF # ] ] f j $ ] ]j G

'
e j ^ :gyY3l?Qh
e0*
yZ
/Z_ M k0*
} g +
?]
C] c*
M ~yvZ 209:2 n u m # ] $ ] ]? ^ kFn f ] i q ^

s% u ^$] o # ^ ! ^ n Fe] ^$ kFn e kmF! n :V*


K
]c*
M 97:3 n F] o' # ] $ ^ n f n ] ^_j] kn f]
F : Le&vZe
$Z@gzZ Hwi **
y M
B]
C
kmF! F ]
@*
; gwi **
]
C]c*
M6,}LZvZ 16:22 mm% p m # ] $ ] $ kFn e
qn kFn e j mF! f oF m p$] a : M ~g "
wi **
]c*
M s s gzZ 9:57 n u$ e # ] $ ] %] o] kF% ]
j mF! ] ` f m$] kf ^ ] jf # ] % vm m$] $ ]:
D M V*
KgzZP ??k0*
yZwg 5:58 n `% h] m F kFn e
F:, e
kFnf ^e ` `n i^i$ k^ $^e
$Z@y
KZ H V,Z1g

#
#

s 6:64 n u o' ] ] oj]$ ] i ]G ^ ` m$ e ] ?]^


'
% $ kFnf% kmF! n ] ] :~ k0*
M Zz] c*
Z@s
}g +] c*
$

ZzC|s s 34:24 n j f ] m$]


n j% ] oF] m$ p` m # ] kFn f% kmF! G ] :,wi **
] c*
M
'
+
Vz0
+ZV c*
ggzZV @*
}g *a}g T zgzZ X 46:24
: ~ywwt M KZ aV Zz=L LX zx5g yQ~
kmFF ] ^$G vf ] f] kF o ^ e ] j j r%] q p$]
'
-Z a}g + Q H Za q
q
-Z"T zgzZ 97:6 m$
ywwt M KZ aV ZzKX 4q
-ZgzZ(I
F

kmF]G^$ j $ ' j u]$ ^] ?p$] :~


'
~g +k QqVzlgzZ ZvZ~H L L 98:6 m$
{z Y {z ~ ] Zg [ VXgzZ [
Z Zz sG
'
#

] n ] X **
:~V Zz
/
? wi **
C
h',
s[g}g +
$] m gjF] G
Fn i! m$] $ gjF] n ] ] ?p$] $ ^u o je]
'
+
e $ $
3g J[g}g gzZ L L 114:6 mj] $ i v^e
]F :~ywwt M KZayZ Zzgv
198 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

e ]
k0*
yZ gzZ L L 126:6 $ $ m$ kmFF ] ^$ ^n j
a V{z gzZ c*
y wwBZ z DT ~ [
+ m% u $ p oF F$ gjFe Fq X ggzZe
$Z@
kZgzZ z6,yZv ? @*
Dywwt M KZ bZgzZ L L 52:7
F YC
n f n fjj kmFF ]
3g Vzg a
vZ,q{ 0*

W3gzZ Zg M z
M i g7L L 55:6 n r]
yZZ~ 0
+
i * ,qtz ? H x ZwyQ Za aVz LZ
V ZzKt M KZvZ bZX Vz 4Z m{y#
gzZ aV Zz
kfFn _$ ] ^f t ] ?oj $] # ] m $ u V @*

ywwa
F nF ] m$ ^ ^n % ] nFv] o ! m$ o ]
kmFF ]
qgt @*
Dywwt M KZ bZgzZ L L 32:7 m$
F :,
"7,i gzZB/t
/Z L L 174:7 q m $ kmFF ] G

'
+
wwt M KZaV ZzKgzZ }g ~ + ' > 2igzZ
m] o ] ^ F$ ] ] i! F$ ] ] ^] ] e ^i ^ :Dy
c*
',
y Mk Q zwV0
+
i * L L 11:9 m$ kmFF ]
gzZ lp }!}iJ
-V 5 D 3g YgzZ M & {!Bk QQ
Zg y c*
]ZgV **
n
pgk, ~g76,kZ {z Hw V Zz}igzZ 3 Zg M

gv X 7 V;z c*
Z e (Z ^ k Q M [Z L 7
: Dy ww bZ V*
K ]gKZ a yQ Zz
^m ^$ ] l^f e j^ $ ] F ] ^n % ] nFv] % ^$]
?
$] ] $ km$$ ] ^ ] l] C] oj#u ^ ] ^$]
F ^e i $ ^ ]n u ^ F r ] ^ ] n ^ ] iF] n F

G
G
'
'
@*

ywVq
-Z Gwq}g +a}g +{zL L 24:10 $ jm$ kmFF ]
'
c*

}g + ~ w kZ {z ? V ~&
+
X >G
'
kZ yZ ? HgzZ B ',Z', LZyZ ~ kZ ? H gzZ ? q
-}g +
wwt M KZaV Zz= bZ ? Dg e VJZ bT Dg e b
^m] k ^$ $ ] %$ h :Dy
F ] j n ^i C n j^ F ^ o

0
+egzZ c*
g0
+egzZzg `gT zL L 28:30 m$ kmFF ]
199 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

D
+vZ
t zx[ V gzZg V',? @*
XgHB2
$ ] q p$] : @*

ywwt M KZ {zaV ZzK H Za


F # ] ^ h^v] n ] ] j ^ $ $ ] ] $ n

gzZLt M T [{ztX ?]L L 5:10 m$ kmFF ] m v^e $]


k $ $ jmF! ku] gjF F?]:~y,/ szvZ
Z ? 6y M%V2T zvZ L L 1:11 n f n u $
;gl
/J
- q
-Z q
-ZC
c*
~ x 0
+egzZ `ggzZ ZIY6,lQ zZ
? @*
y wwt M KZ {z bkZ @*
x OZ V * z
pFj] $ $ ^ i n e lFF$ ] p$] # ]:zYz',
z[g LZ
m ] e m o& % q prm$ ' ] $ ] $ ] o
Z Zzt M T[ +Z X L L 2:13 i e e $ kmFF ]
^n& e ^! jmF! k gjF n
pgaVyZ! y M

vZtV; sKZkZ ZvZ7(Zy M tgzZ L L 3:41 m$
~ kZ V1 4QgzZ @*
& yQ kZ x
]F ^ ^
Zwi **
s=Z[gt 7~kZ ,

gm gj] n i mm n e p$] mi F # ] pFjm% ] ! ]


+Z y M
tX ]aVzW~yZ L L 37:10 n F] h$ n
yQ wi **
kZ w LZ 7] !*
: ggzZ e
$Z@ a VgzZ Zz ,qC
gzZ Zz &

p] mi pFjm% ^%mu ^ ^ h^f ] o^ f o ^


6,]c*
M y M
111:12 + m% u $ p $ o n i mm n e
:
Hc*
j e
$.[ Z kZ ZD 7 nZ Z V Zz nZ Z

] ! m a o' e $ o' r ] jmF! k ] ^$ ^n&r ] ^! F q


5 ] o `n a $ `]! ?o + m m$] $ pa
^m
44:41n e ^$
VE
K]t1c*
pq
-Zy WgzZ @*M~y M

H Za 0
+egzZ `ggzZ ygzZ ]Zg T vZ {zgzZ D7zs
^ j mF! $ ^ v$ ^ $ ] ^ q :g~q
-Zq
-Z

M 1gvZ c*
**
~
.ZwZ] DH Z% zV 32:21
200 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

E+G
GG3G
G3C
g| (,] gbq ? **
yZZ6,0
? . 5 ^ j$ e :g W D ] V4Z}i ;gyW
gzZ g
] ^ ] ] ^ ] oi ^ ^$] m ] ] n ^ oj#u e !
Vi \vZ~s ZZ >g? s bytyW
H 44:21 f F]
p$] e ^ e i^f t m gn _$ ] f] :}igzZqX Df x lZ
F ] $] t m &f
yW
bZ 58:7 m$ kmFF ]
[Soil e
$WkZ H 12:86 $ ] l] ] :Hf }i ZzYO
gzZ&gi c*
y bxE0 }i Testing or Soil Engineering]
o oFu]: @*
W~yW
X Y| m
7yZz6,oZ c*
Vf
ZZDgzZY yZD e
$WkZ H 3gqq
-Zq
-ZvZ 28:72 ]
94:19 e
$WH ? D! Z% ^FuZ~49:18e
$WHX**
"
$U*
[ z
$WH ? 0 [z]c*
g D ]& $ Fu]
o $ 29:78e
~20:73e
$WH ? ~qC
D~ ^fjF Fn u]
>g ? ZrZ c*
c*
g[ 4ZDZ%
rg[ ]zZygzZ] Zg vZ vi
D Z% kZ H 1:65Xgg i] ] ]u] ~t :
]x g ] n ] o ]! o5 ^e 11:18e
$WH [ 4Z
#

] $ ] ^ vi ] ] % i ] 18:16gzZ 34:14e
$WH [ D Z%
yW
? *
@Yc*
J 7,~V-G
gE- D[ [ Z%2
G~ n u$
'
'
] :f Zg +~T [ +Zq
-Zs~g + @*
W~

lFF$ ] l ` C a ] % v] f i] 10:21 i ] n ^f j n ]
yZ 71:23 % a ` ae ` Fn i] e $ `n ]
D g @*
D Z% kZ H X g hf LZ {zgzZ k0*
yZf CZ
$W H ? w [Anthropology] ] c*
e
Dc*
Y
IZ =Dy
KZ

o $ ] m t ^` n ^jf ] ] o] ] m ] 87:26
mD n + a %] ^ ^ mF
D [Botany]] mgzZ ? ]@*
?p$] 5 4:87e
$WyW
b !*
gu Z eF,
c*
? YH~
.Z V
c*

Z h{ (yZQN Z] @*
mT pFu] % r oF ] t ]
Y:gzZ } w g gG) jZ ? **
"
$U*
z @z
M %Zg Z bh

+]
.gzZ
M fe
$h
+]
.t c*
w ]c*
WyW
H
201 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

o vm m] ]tX s ZZg N gzZ q )ZZ#


ZtX
Xce { CvZ T z ^jm!
v yQgzZ r
# m,z6,
) !*
o ^Z nkZ ] c*
W yW

# M
r
hv{ zsyfgzZx Z ]
.)
] Z Zt +
F ] n ] # ^e ! # ] rF m ^$]: yWVYV[
5 ] o5 # ] $] m F$ ] oi! F$ ] ^]
] m$ ]
gzZ 7]i YZ ~
C
kZV:} #z k0*
J
-Z
# 18:9 ymj ]
: ? kZ y } #z i Z {z ~g Z)f b

yZZ V*
Kg " ~ }igzZ V Wt | @*
W~G
Y >g
'
+
;g ; ~}i vZX~] **
ZyZgzZ~Za KZ ~g gzZaV Zz
$ ] :~s %Zz t
izgz
gzZ Zz aVyZ V*
K~(,
kmF! e$C &% f m ^ o n + kmFF ] lFF$ ] o
] 5 yZbc*
Y;gE- aVE
KyZ H 4 -3:45 m%
Zg { Z',y

KZt kZ ? 7e'YZ] c*
W%kZ H ? ]gz
~z* 8 ~ azgzZ:azJ
-Z
# YyT7vZg6,Z] c*
W
E
G
$

c*
ykZ + jgzZbzgkZ~0 kZ H: C!*
gzZ ?C
?u *
0 V!Vz :bgzZyW
: D
r
# & **
Z e
^ 7n_ o^ 6n ] oja 6n` o_ 6n p] ZZ
C1!XX6n` oa ^]
V!~ y M
It c*
7ykZ V!~ y M
It
9? t 7H Hb ] !*
o**

$.ykZ
e
+F,
Zq ? CYVY LbzgzZ 9Lb ? C Hb
A&e

$h
+ F,~ D kZ Sg C b ._ 6,
0*wg
gzZ f(, M
h
+ F,
wZ b ] Z kZ Falsification
h
+ F,
pD Zn Y6,xh
+ F,
T DzD

X 62& **
Zfh& **
Zf C1
202~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

7ykZ V!~ y M
It% YkZ @*
KZ
x :gz 7 }uy ~ y M
t Zuz } kZ
A & {z

/Z ]obyZ **
yZM
h]**

g ZD
z 7
-e ZQ }iJ
-wg ZD
z }XN Y0]**
I{z ,
gzZ {g ]zG$ q
-Zx Zq
-Zbn Ht uwE
E
] !*
7ykZ V!~ y M
It ~}g !*
DkZ Dz -O
zwZgzZtkZgzZ g| (,
W}g b & Z V!bZ
# X
byW

/Z y
g **
7~ yW
ykZ V! It 7
ykZ kZ @*
& "gzZ"] Zz)wZb
yW
i p6,6,` uyW
ZY~ wtt
X g @*
Za ykZ V!~
# & *
* Z f
PoppergzZ Feyerabend{z 7Zz br
Vz^gzZ o ZpbX Yx|byZ B
_~uu
L{ zt~ b
kZ p Sg C^ Y gZ
go ZyZ {z {
t~ kZ *
*~t % Yb Z g Z
7~y
M gzZ p
}g D Problem Solving t : q6,0*
wg d) 7ykZ
syZ [ 2Z Z kz HX Lg @*
` x ` x ' ib)
X !*
t ? C
D wi **
a Problem solving activity
ykZ V!~ }gzZ ]!*
VZ g i ` uLZpZ
# b
q
-Z p6,y M
6,
CkZgzZ bg Z
Z V!kZ Ct
x b b ^
,6,% Zb 7b p6,y M
X
X /Zz
H"
$U*
wVsf `g| k^b lI
: 7,wVd
$zt Hq Z b V ZbgzZ
The story is about an imaginary case of planetary
misbehaviour. A. physicist of the pre Einstenian era takes
Newton's mechanics and his law of gravitation, N, the
accepted initial conditions, I, and calculates, with their help,
the path of a newly discovered small planet, p, But the

203~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[
planet deviates from the calculated path. Does our
Newtonian physicist consider that the deviation was
forbidden by Newton's theory and therefore that, once
established, it refutes the theory N? No. He suggests that
there must be a hitherto unknown planet p', which perturbs
the path of p. He calculates the mass, orbit, etc. of this
hypothetical planet and then asks an experimental
astronomer to test his hypothesis. The planet p' is so small
that even the biggest available telescopes cannot possibly
observe it; the experimental astronomer applies for a
research grant to build yet a bigger one. In three years time,
the new telescope is ready. Were the unknown planet p' to
be discovered, it would be hailed as a new victory of
Newtonian science. But it is not. Does our scientist abandon
Newton's theory and his idea of the perturbing planet? No.
He suggests that a cloud of cosmic dust hides the planet
from us. He calculates the location and properties of this
cloud and asks for a research grant to send up a satellite to
test his calculations. Were the satellite's instruments
(possibly new ones, based on a little-tested theory) to record
the existence of the conjectural cloud, the result would be
hailed as an outstanding, victory for Newtonian science. But
the cloud is not found. Does our scientist abandon Newton's
theory, together with the idea of the perturbing planet and
the idea of the cloud which hides it'? No. He suggests that
there is some magnetic field in that region of the universe
which disturbed the instruments of the satellite. A new
satellite is sent up. Were the magnetic field to be found,
Newtonians would celebrate a sensational victory. But it is

204~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[
not. Is this regarded as a refutation of Newtonian science?
No. Either yet another ingenious auxiliary hypothesis is
proposed or the whole story is buried in the dusty volumes
of periodicals and the story never mentioned again.
1

Falsification & methodology of scientific research"

HE~}g !*
g Z}g ( VZbq
-Z L L
b{z @*
xt 6,{@x}g ( kZ,n
X Le *
*_
/

? tHE t kZ {z HX ;g7^6,g Z C
C
zz T {g (x**
[Zq
- 4,
}g (kZ t {z 7
g ZgzZ wyiz}g(x**
kZ {zOX ;g^?
g Z LZ {g (_k
,
i
{@x}g (x**
kZV ZbLZQgzZ @*
(z[~}g!*

gz +F,
g !J
-[ Z N*
g Z {g (x*
* YX @*
4x
gzZ ~(,q
-Z @*
_ -~ a^g #
yZb{zZXYY:

/ZX CYg gz 5q
-Z~k',&nXn Yg gzg !
bHEN oVpyZb YW{g (x**
{zgz kZ
yZb HX 73~ gz {g (x**
{z ,n
X & Qg !*
-Z
q
w !*
c q
-Z Zg }{z 7? Bt b HE Z
{g ( {zzzT 3g,
$J e}g (x**
kZ[cloud of cosmic dust]
}@xw !*
q
-Z @*
_ - a^gh
+'
yZbOX c*
W7
b HE Z } 0
+
K w !*
, Z
/Z Xn Y a
HEyZb[Z HYc*
0*
: w !*
{ z,n
pX Yc*
g Z
! x
',i
ImI
h
+ F,
w !*
cq
-Zt c*
{g (x**
-Z] LZ wL
q
[Magnetic ] F ~ { kZ ] }{z [ Z 7? ,
4] T Field]
5H
c*
g w !*
{zzz T c*
7x 9]WV
$ G
V;z]F{z
/ZX CY~cg n5q
-ZOX e:

1. Imre Lakatos & A Musgrave[ed.], Falsification & the Methodology of

Scientific Research Programmes in Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge,


Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974, p.100-101.

205 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

{z [ Z HXn: (Z ,n
pX : Z pV Zb b ZHE Y
'' /Z F,
zG Z * q
-Z { z 7? Btb HE
7y LQgzZ CY [~ o lZ V g 6,V tJ
-V
b ~ zg ]!*
**
Ct y wVkZX CY
X q
-Z h
+ F,
bs ]d yZ B| 7,UlI r
# & **
7w DmZ gzZ "
$X N Y g p x NZ z ] *ZZ )6,
Z
/g Z- }ogzZ D g Z mZ p6,V\Wu m Z \ WX Y
X$
Y~7]i YZ
.O( o ZgzZ h',a kZ y M
b6,
C }~ kZ ZE

: b kZ? 6,hqX 7y]!*


*
c tx
z
)$
+gzZZ
6q
-Z~ +gt i **
} M y M
zbgzZ **

X VZ bgzZ +F,
Zq
-Zqwq T{z bgzZX
H
yZt k^br
# & **
/Z z!*

kZ c*
gw Cgzp
X Z k{
:y qZ :]~Vb
: D
& **
Z f Z e
6n 7 >2 1] 19+ ne2 6na 1i^je 6na 7] ^ZZ
^i ^ ^m] >2 1 1]u ] oe C (6n` oa ni o l^^
1 ]] 1a ^ia oe m] ^ 19+ ne2 g_ ^ m !!!!1a
6n 1 ni l^e m ] ^ m] om 1a ^ja oe m ]
6n 7^ ^m 7 m >2 ^n ^+a ]j] o 7] ^ o
C1
.XXoa ni
V Zb kCakZ r
# & **
[ ]gz =xx Y fgzZ HX D W xsZ yZb @*
Y c*
gz nZ Zt
/Z c*
HnZ Z
**
, ZyW

KZxEq)~zg]Z ZV Zb
7T jbZb{ z?V}WxEyZ

X 63& **
Zfh& **
Zf C1
206 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

yk: {g Zg7 T gg
/
~pxC
qgzZoe
$.
"
$U*
VY yW
_kZ 6, ~ V/{ Vzi Z0
+Z V
yW
Z =x- q
-ZvZZ D_g/y M
r
# & **
Z e
/Z ? Y
y q
-Z vZ
Hc*

(~uzgzZ @*
k',g ZD
q
-Z y q
-Z vZ CY p~
n ] ^ m o n ] | % ] 5 ] t i : @*
',
Z',
k',
g ZD
k
r jm 4:70 ]
^ m $ ] # ] m% h] ^e
e
\vZ~ =py M
Z
# X 47:22 % i ^$ ^
CYp" lp =r
# & **
}: k6,x- q
-Z* KZy
KZyq
-Z
D
+kZgzZ @*
D
+]5G* J
-}i y M {z @*M ~ {> >gX
'
+
e m : wg ZD
q
-Zg }g g ZlT~y, Zq
-Z CYgkZ Zzg
% i ^$ ] ? ] ^ m o n ] t m $ $ ] o] $ ] ]
& **
a yZ ] a y , Z syZ b 5:32
p vZ ~g
/7 yZ e
$ Mt H g
g Q L L] %=x- r
#
gzZwZ* kZX @*
7',Z',
x- {kV
KZx- q
-Z kZ [
=
gzZ8){z * ~ gzZ8tD7z VZ*zzkZ[z[
zY ? YY H b~ y!*
izV
KZf T * qzg
c*
~
/)g f bZ :gzZ $
7y!*
iz~g uZg Z wqZ z wdZ
#
` n n %f X g Z 7,V{z c*
CyW
gHy
KZ~3X YY
-Zg Zz Z, Z is Zz M9g9 p h^u] 23:78 ^e^u]
q
VZbf
e h^u]r
# & **
/Z Yqzgz Zuz Dgz

=x- r
# & **
gzZM
h[ c*
; E
0J4)!)g fkZh
+

t Z%g Zz Z h^u]H~e
$ M kZN Ctr
# & **
X M
h $
wV
{ Ze 6 Y+{zgzZN Yb u?3g y
W Y

+Z3 @*
Cy M
X 7qx Zz3z
A
?o ] ] : ~$
F
$

5:13 ^ n ^] gvF] ] ^ ]
] ~{y kZgzZ @*
s Hy vZ 7tX
kZ X Bt\ M ~ ] c*

\vZtX ?7c*
e
E
#
/
6,GZgzx- b VZbZz G
nZ Z Z yZZX 7 Z ? [y
'
+
g6~gZ[g Zg Z"
$U*
: Y{z YnZ Z
207 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

VY]gzV isgkZgzZq c*
gsZa* ZX 7
{ zH g6vZ Zg vH Yb 7{zb
"
$U*
r
# & **
?~ 7,
{zt\vZ ?n ~xq
-Z] ~(,
gkZ
rg7
A & n
~ =x- r
# & **
? YZ Mg 6,LZ~ M z=
,
wJ~]g ZVZb
Hc*
g Z wf] x vZ
D {
_6p ZvZxa~pV Zb H X,7
^m ^ : H{zX Zz% Z e egzZ mm^ ^: @*

vZ ?N Y
# ] $ ] ]?^ m$] : ~zq6,qC
]gkZ @*
Za Le
m% ] ] ] ] ^n # ]
$m m e ] xn ]
m e] xn ]
# ^ n q ] o $ ]
^ m ^ n e ^ ] lFF$ ]
-Z evZX 16:85 mm ^ ^$ 17:5 m o oF # ] m
q
}ts
/ZgzZ} ] ~x c*
Zg ZD
k~x- g ZD
q
-Z~=
, ~x
x c*
Z ]c*
WyZ: g
6,]gvZ]c*
Wt Y n gzZ
tZznZ ZX **
7~{ g !*
b[ [ y] ac
t w H } x ~] f] xvZ
/Z YnZ Z
: c*
M n~ <
, q Z kZ P ]|t \vZ

n i ! ^] gjF] p$] ^
! ^$ n ] $ i m$ ] f e
m ^$^ ] ] ] ?o f n oe ]aF ^ ]& j

n ] $ i m$ ] 40:27 m o' oe $ ^
~ i
/Z
7? q tkZ t w H {~ kZ e]
/F
/Z G

kZ Zz nZ Z Y
~x=
, {z Y 1y Z wkZ
Z wt Hw c*
{ Zg Z ] \vZ Yg6,
CkZ?
kZ Vkz V i ` ZbV
KZ Z}
.H ?
Hg
/7VY %x
H ?$
0~V i s H]t Yb 7 {z ?~ V]
b7 t r
# & **
Z f ?7ey] kZ~ V i
, W~ TZ'1:k
,
~ 0*
',#
\vZ Y
Z~] 77:16 h ] ] f ] x $] : kZ Y
} 9{0
+
i VZ VzGy
KZV17 $
{ n~x* Z
# ? VYyb
V;V
KZV17 YYH~VwyZyg Z}iM
hYK
208 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

g7 Vz $
Y g 3 r Y qz[[ wqZ)**
~
t baX ?m 7VY] ~ ] zZ $
Y
A
ZgzZX 1tnZ Z [t Ug r
# & *
* Z f Z$
07~yb ]
7,VVi b [gzi yZ%dt b [a g
$
?VY~ yb ]e
$ M kZ +gzZ x J
- ` M ~
i Zgx ZX
{z <Z vZ} 7,IZg y
MgzZn7[ w^m] jjy
t C7
C]Z ZyZY D7LnZ Z xgzZ [} e
akZ CYg6,h
+ F,
gzZg Zd
$g
CT @*
n6fgzZ w6f
tvZ YYHnZ Zt+
$YV7xs Z 6,f] xgzZ n

qz **
{ Zg ZvZO Z @*
7VY (Z ? CY {z Y C7,]gzVY
V
Zz /zg} ZgZ kZ ?Y qz lpO Z}
H } Zg Z ? C ]gzVY
z ~z)
z Zz ~ =
,
vZ g J \zg |~ Vw>
e kZ x (Z e {z ' ? ]gz
?VY]gz { Zg ZW
kZ X Ygz M)g f ? [o{ c*
i kZ n26,? [C

6,{zX D 0*
',~ { {>yZZ 7~ { =!*
hcY m
CZa
}>#
Zzg!*
0wggzZ D 6kZ Dgz M
gzZ] q Zp Zx bkZ {)z{)z( (h^u] (mX D =
y!*
ikZ7e
$zgzZ y!*
if
KZ ]$z wVZ] **
x
} r Zzg Z ]z ]<Z ~ y z y!*
igzZ}gzz [|Z
gzZ +~ =e
$ M kZ c*
y2%y M L
Le
$ Mt y M

t =~uz ~0
+
z Z}
.w
Hc*
y2%y Mt q
-Z :b b z
-Z ? **
q
Ct
KZ f ] %=Vz D M 7p y2 y M
y M Z (, Z <Z t b
y%V2} v Lg
+Zy
KZ ?n wV" +Z ]P`
t ~ H @*
y y2%
& *
* Z f pX
HHw+Z6,z 0
\vZ C z b

gzZN YZ~C
kZ OF,
Z~ bzge
$ M kZ41b{
V2 @*
g M 7 ,lV2yZ {z,e
$Z@V Zb
a !*
g]c*
M X ~0
+
z Z}
.]mZ)g fY (zbpg
209 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

xE [Physical Science] xEA CaZ~ gzZ yZ yZZ 7


sL LO x c*
Z x x- b r
# & *
* Z fX ' 7a Z~
KZ
X ]**
yZ V Z bgzZ b y M
**
ta kZ s : i
X Zg dZgzZ Zp]gm Y ~ Za _ bp{zD
gkZ *tY $
07~g Zz ZsyZ *t M
hnZ Zt VZb
{gkZ Y g Z tC
gzZ 8
-g g +Z qZ !z Wz
X$
7 ~g Zz ZP ] { +Z g Vc*
~ + YgzZKZ
Z X Y tq
-ZC
]!*
Z [ yZ: gzZ M
h 7L] Z Z [
VZ nZ Z q
-Z q
-Z '] Z Z6,y M

/Z VZb yEZ [
^a # ^` ^` Fe $ ] ] ^ % ] j] : @*M~y M
}M
h
F e ] ^` vF t ] ^` n _]
^` ^` t ] ^` uF
vZ 33@*
27:79 ^ $ ^ ^j ^` F ] ^f r] ^` F
kZ c*
w kZ}ikZ y J e ]ZgHyi Z c*
y M
?VYBg D
+
x t Yb 7 n2X } h ~kZ h N gzZ 0*
g0
+Z
V
KZ tKZ kZ 8Z Z {z ? Y} 7x ZBq
-Zx x t vZ H

$
o ^$ p] :29e
$ M >Z] Z Z ?KVYx zg$
+
zg b

6,n o e lF f $ # $ ] o] p5 j] $ $ ^ n q ]
p$] # ] e$ $ ] :s ZZ >g ?K: VYBq
-Zx x vZM
hY

f _m ^ ] n ] om ] o pFj] $ $ ^m$] j o ] lFF$ ]


# ] fFi ] ] ] ^e lF$ r%] ] $ ] $ ^%n % u
VY~Vb }igzZy M vZ YYc*
VZnZ Z 6,
54:7 n F] h%
?e: VY~g Zz Zg e HVY ~g Zz Z} (,
b ?H7VY~y 0*
H
: @*M ~yG
>g ?Z: VY?Ziz
Z { VY6,LZ {z
'
+

6,
zZ}g gzZ 17:23 n ^ ] ^$ ^ ] f ^
] s M
hb 7 { zp 7V2Zg ]VZ b 5 Zg ]
5 Zgl
/Vzg (] Z% ~ ? L L Vz[?7VYJ M VY
kZ p
HHf V2Zg ]a kZ Zz {g ( #y
KZ i kZa
}g (t1 M
h { c*
iV ] s[Planates] }g(7t
[ ZgzZtZ[Plauto]}g (q
-Z~~,J M ~
210~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

c*
J 7,~ ;gE- wjZJ
-wX {gJ M }g ( {g !*
z~Y 2007
H yZZ LZ {z }g (%6,yZZ kZ v 1 }g ( ~ * ;g @*
Y
$ ^` n eF ^` o] ^` n q :e
$ M >Z3>gn2?,
^ ^ oa $ ] o] p5 j] $ $ n ^$ C ^m$] e ] ?o ^` i] ] ` n
n m o l] F f $ ` F n ^n i] j^ ^ ] ^ ^n j ] ^`
F ^u xne^e ^n % ] $ ] ^$$m ^a ] o ouF ]
m ] mi
~y&KVY~yg ex tvZ YVZnZ Z 6, 12@*
10:41 n ]
VY s}i ?ZzVY sy M y ,v0*
{zx t ?K: VY
}igzZy MkZ ?g h Z u { }i H ?VYVZ
z kZy M
Hz
?D Y M ~ zt@*
{g
Zs{z Y M~ z VY]gzt
$ jm $ ` % ] $ lFF f p$] # ]:e
$ M t :>g{z
^ o e ^u] # ] $ ]$ m o oF # ] $ ] ]? j $ ` n e ]
4Z n }igzZ y M ] vZ Yg Zz nZ Z 6, 12:65
] t 1?wZ H y M ] 7 }u y M ? H kZ X#
f # ] n ] i ] :b >g?I] q
-Z }i ?H}i

$
o pFi ^ ^^f lFF f p] o ggzZ 15:71 ^^f lFF
vZ YnZ Z 6,
3:67 _ pFi a f ] q ^ l Fi Fu$ ]
t
rg7 z y MgzZX ? : VYJ M VYy M ]/
:] c*
M >g Zz nZ Z ?@*
Y V6,0
+e y
KZ @*
y M
/Z

m%] f n ] o ^ $ ^m$] j o ] lFF$ ] p$]


CF ] ]? m$] $ n l ] e $ f$ $] k u]
H ZaVY~yb y Mz}ivZM
hnZ Z 6, 7:11 n f% v $]
y M z }i ?VY~ yb [ Z H Za ~ yz ?H: VY~ y W
y M l
{z ?V { l
kZ l
/ZgzZ ? : VY6,VY6,0*
lkZ
X @*
Y6,
, [Z ]ZyZ)g f} h=
/Z r
# & **
: qyEZ [ZgzZ g ~g Y w Z q:6, L
g l M kZ .kZ~g y kZ ,@*
= Z a Z
z qzggzZ Zgq
-Z CY Re~({z Sg7=s{ z C~
211 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

G
V- ZzgzZ Sg CVZ ]Z: hY nZ [pure reason] L X CY 0
X CQ {
~
:}u *
*:{o .H@z
J5G
"
4
G
y Zgz Z K 7b 23 s .
H@z & **
Zf [
ggZ
/Z~ zgb yZ )z ) c*
]qb
C
- ~ Z kZgzZ X C "
$U*
b7 y M
A
$ Y
47EZ!
Z @*
Y0~g6r
# & **
Z f 'Z )1i ~g E
5G
a+ Ywd& +ZX D7 bG @*
z & y M
{z
3)
k ] **
x TgzZ 6,Vz _ ~z E
z
**

z b y M

/ZX`~w
& **
X
HgzZ
)$
+**
}]**
kZgzZ "Yy M
b
: e gzZ ` u gzZ: i Zp6,iY!*
gzZ yW
~ w r
#
X ;gspC
b: euZz iYDc*
bs7gzZ
X k{ zgu"YQp.
**
gzZ yW
6,eqgzZo, Z
:~lW#
r& *
* :nZ Z .HZ e
}g q
-Z y]|~ 14e
$ M Y >g .
HZ e
n 9]JL L}K]Z Zz[6,Y] ~
qZgzZg} 9
a ]< c^` 1 p<2 m] 1a | m ^` 1 e
[]ZyZC
C1 !XXa 2 oa ^j o ] 1^qa l
"
$? Dx & **
Z fX 7k0*
r
# & **
Z f [ Z xgzZ
Z gzZ yZZg y
M Z c*
M: x yZxDF
F6,ygzZ
{uF,
? xz[Ug V,Z Z7x{ { CZ{ CkZX ~ 7,
8{ C~
L L: {zHLZ6,

C] c*
M ]**
{gZgzZ 1Zg ?
i l^e o` (1a 1 7m j oe ku^ o m kmC o ^f
gq (1a^ja r m] ^ ] m ] 1i fn 1 # ] ^n 1a o`m
^e ne m ] 1i 1i ^m on 1a oj` m f^e

X 97& **
Zfh& **
Z f C1
212~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

^+ o 6n 1e^ 1 1] 1 ^n lu l^e m i 1i 1a ]n
C H yW
97!*
s]!*
ts 1a oia nm e^^ ^m
lnu ^m ^a ]n 1 ^e ne ] ^m ^ c o 1n^je
1 oFn # ][ ^a c< c^` 1 p<2 ^ o ^m 1a n,]
6n` 7n 1m 1 ^n lu i 1a ^j^ a^ l]r 1m
6n 1a/] ^ ^ ] (1a ^j e j] 6n 1n 1 oF (^j^
m 1n 1 oF^i # ] +] !oe C 1a oi^je m f^e 1a ^ja mfi
C1
oe lm^i ,m j [6n` 7n ] ] ^n lu i 1a
m k`e ^n lu ^a 6n` oa ` i m C 7n 6na
C2
r
# & **
Z fk
,
!1i 1a c< c^` 1 p<2 i 1
pX $
7x ]!*
gzZ h
+]
.e
$ M y M

xq
-Z P [ r
# & **H 7 .
HZz P ]|
s t wZX W p=~ g y Ug {z I x **
gzZ b
~
P
]y
KZ q
-Zg} 9}g z!*
ug Iwz ]|J
-
o zZ kZ Z sp7VY yi Z kZ ? Y{g Z9~
q z 9
E
G

3
5 kZs ?: VY&6 KZ b
"Z GG
Z ?Z: VYk
,5
+
$U*
g
$ q Z m
C
gzZ [Cause and Effect] wzA] Zx t "
e
$ M y M
r
# & **
D Za ~ ` uzZ b
] zGbgzZ ] bpzy M
V 1 CZ7 |
]g q{z Y g
C? Z
# 6,[Pure Reason] ={ ;g M @',
: Z Y W)g f[Reason by Heart] ?p gx
N`
%%gzZ \!*
% bh
+]
.X M
h 7 Za ~f #]Z
et: C M ~ z)g fVo ! " [k7eZa a
}% Zz ~ g @*
)wg ZD
] Y {0
+
i {%
? ]**
x t v!*
f Z ~ y M
]**
)}g t m: {0
+
i
b] c*
M yZ x yZ b7vZ xy
yZ` u KZY
X @*
7t

X 98sZ 2C
X 97sZ C1
213~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

:]gzZy M
^u o^ kmC o o CL L:D
r
# & *
* Z f
C1
7 z~* bx **
]ZZ ! XX o+a 6n` 1
R i c h a r d R . P . 6Z W ~ kZ W: r
# & **
XB
bg
Six Easy gzZ ''The Character of Physical Law z Feynman
~ ~ m,
Z(gzZ VZzVZzgyW{ e
$.tB
_ Pieces
{ C
Z 7WgzYZ ~ ]q Z gzZ y!*
i:
~ }bx bX Y{ .Z
Zg { Z', V1yZ } Y ~ m,Z
D~
.Z } wz A gzZ D )gzZ )g g
yz kgzZ} i Z0
+Z s% wz AgzZ"] c*
X
}@xgzZ" { /c*
g% yZ]
.z s~ b g @*
X K ~
.Z
& Xc*
J
- }
gyZ%wzAV Zb} (,
} (,
D H]X y]kZ }X ] !*
~
[Permanent] EZt H [Relative] Z c*
D [Absolute] t H
gZ h
+F,Lb ? $
[Falsification] d
$zh
+ F, yZ c*
D
:h
+F,
TYB7DD{zC7gykZogzZ;F,Z,Zd
$
gzZ }/7{okzyZyZZ bnYc*
: y
KDZ&gzZnY
Lg~gYYgZkZaZXCtC
ykZkZbYw$
+
6,
%$
+]q

:
W
X
v)gf Z kz ]c*
M xZ IY @*
7tykZ kZ~}g!*
kz <

~yZ6,
wu p szw{wi**
x
*
bgezpCspxC
r$
+{Zp7R ;gzZF,
p~p
VZbp 7gzu}]zGyZ M
]c*
M g9
X 7~y
MgzZ D~
bh
+]
.g Za % \ 5 VgzZ VN`
\!*
V
4
g

W
G
P
W]|gzZ P ]|~ wq ]gkZ 7wJ.
a wZ ~ ` u
N 0*
gZ
!*
~ wzA~zgb] uZz0 Za

X 98sZ C1
214~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

~\vZM
h7VZb yW
p?s r
# & **
X
p \vZgzZ 3:72 ] $ f u^ i$] ^ ^e % q oFFi $] : c*
7g
Cc*
me : 7 0
+
iq
-kZ Z
# Y g
CkZ c*

e o $ f u^ $ i $ m o#] ] lFF$ ]
*%]| aZ 101:6 n o
$ F o m o#] k^ :
Zg=Z
# V;} 20:19 ^n& e ] $ e om
X V7]gg $
+~gzZ 7J
Hypocrites xX t 460 M 7~ y M
sr Zu <DL L
4E
5BEZ DiZ%~ ] KZ
~ [ KZ~xX t& h Tg ZX C EG
}g !*
< Shushruta gzZ Sharaka ~ ~{123X Hf < gZ
g Z <gzZ @*
f Za o {z ZZa ~ ~{131 c*
e~
kZDy M ;e **
"
$U*
.
H~ zg b yZX
@*
{ M iZ%
kZ ~ Vzg 0*
z d+*
HH~
.Z R
]Z Z yZgzZ D
g6,t z t ( ]c*
M y M
r
# & **
Z f ~ [ Z
{z @*
[ Z wq
-Zt D Y} 9~ ` u O [Z
HH7wi **

a & zh
+ F,
{y Tg ZgzZ y M
M
hC
7}] Z h
+]
.kZ c*
LZ ]c*
MM

KZ
zcgzZ M Z CZ f {%izg C
76,g VE
KvZ ] c*
Mt
39:71 : Yt p Z H Za yZ q T HyW
}X/
65:86 18:80 2:76 37:75 46:53 12:23 13:23 37:18 1:4 228:2 4:16 5:86
)g fZzgzZ y"G
CZ fkZy
KZ~ ]c*
WyZ 21 20:7G
7 3 2 1:76 12:7
'
'
+
+
# ?gzZ |~g t Zk
Z
,
+g *q
5
-Z z Zg p
HHz
~g {q
-Z? wt VZ ygzZ 0 Ze
$.} (,
M
hgzm Tg {0
+
i Tg: {0
+
i D WC
!*
D W:C
!*
g 3g ? C: %
.-G'ZD ]c*
E
s ZZuZuz
_zY AyW
Y c*
WyZ[Z
@*
l
/
/
g Z t
# I& ]y
W] gzZ ]z ] t z t ( ]c*
Wx 0
c*
z yZZ V {0

+
i% D VZwZvZ
# X
] *
@Y c*
CZ ? Za %]gx W @*
Y c*
CZ @*
Y c*

'PG
% 3g %]| **
x W (Z a { kZ **
{0
+
i
215 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

4
0*
6,}i {%gzZ **

KZ z {q
-Z ~g 3ggzZ Za WPgG]|

.-G'ZgzZb ]c*
Y c*
E
WyZ[ Z 3Z <X<X7
-e Z }ikZgzZ **
{0
+
i Z Z
/
}
[ Z .
HO ? kZ r
# & **
p ~i : YZ **
VX
e^_ 1 x_ o^ o mq ` ^ CL
L D"
$U*t~
-Z RC
q
H ?ce **
._RLZDZkzHX 1a
C
H ? C ._yW
c*
SgV7 z ~$
+Z EZ x{zgzZ ? C
c*
b y: e?ce xg ._yW
b c*
?ce **
._yW
b
H @*
(Z y M
H ? "
$U*
? I **
(Z H ?~spc*
yW

?
? +Z q ) ZgzZ / H ? "
$U*
(Z [
$
g
Dtt {zQ D#
ZZg t Z
#r
# & *
* Z f
._RZ y M
~gzC
@*
._bDy M
RC
@*
"
$U*
g@*
X ~^Y g Z gzZp.
xC

: i ZC
X @*
Y Y g Z CY w$
+~ Z LgzZ ~x Z
Zuz kZX :
L Z Y Zb ~pgzZpt @*
4{ c*
i i
~!3}X *
@Y` @*
4._ ih
+]
.y M t
] c*
M y M
}oZ !3 }i q )Z bgzZ,<
~{
RLZDy M
~G @*
wZ kZr
# & *
* Z f"
$U*

h
+]
. u}i c*
"
$U*
b~ ~ ~Z @*
._
} i y M
c*
"
$U*
{g !*
zy@*]c*
M y M
[reformers]
GG
E
$
S
4

!3 D Za w{gG
/Z r
# & **
Z f 5G M]o u
k^ZgzZ M]o }i y M
"
$U*
._
E
E

X q )Z6, }i <
gzZb 0i wg ZD
z g Z
|
? {zX Lg 7k^ wgZD
z Dg Z .
**
gzZ x)Z b
y
KZkZ y M
R
/Z~k',{gG
/
wt
0
+Z kZ yZ
/Z 7c*
yZZ6,] c*
M M
0 <
YY c*
g Z
6,
CbkZtQ w HGyZZ [)gzZ d)
'
Z kzgzZZ DDs .
**
D Zg +
C q
-Z kZ
{gG { { C Z DD{ [
$
g Z [8] Z f=g &
+
X g CyZZyZZIZJ
-k',
216 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

:J < [ Z :wq]g:xsZ
} 7,t] !*
t ',
Z',
Rq RdyW

/Z

yZ {z yW
T)g f b~ V- {gG
Y fx xsZ Q $
Rb @*ce *
*g OZ J
- ~,,
] gm a e
$ M y M
{z @*
ce **
q]g6,
xEx Y\gr
# & **
M
hg 6,

g 1+ 6n^ 7^n^ o] 6n ^C
~C
) X $
` ugzZ Ka kz {z k
,5
+Y g Z p ._ ?
3
bpyZ ]c*
M M
)g f { { C = ~z E
& **
Z f eZ gzZg: {0
+
ia } Y g Z kZ { z g
) !*
Y gZ
$gzigzZ =KZ OI$ ] !*
"
y
KZ p 7gB r
#
zhg y
~}IkZ ;g: c*
r
# & **
X &~z)
6,jkC)b Z
Hc*
g Z
b KZgzZD` uyTz!*
& **
Z e ~ [ Z .
HX
H1t [Superior Knowledge] DF,
',
] i 1a ^i] C 1 q 1a o l^e om] o 1 o +]L
L
o ] 1 ] 1 C l^e ^+a k + a ^n ] m 1
kZ It}y M Zuz ] !*
q
-Z
/Z
g]!*
C1 XXo+a
x0Z]~g ZVz
V !*
iZ~g @*
*X
HHu ] !*
}uz q
-Z {z: H { .Z }uz q
-Z L ZyZq CY 0*
tz
x q
-Z tZw H y M
~kZ Zt
iK
M F,
~yZQ Y3!*
i
G-E
#
B` Zg gz# W ~i Zg Y`
6,uX w C Z c*
u c*
g Z t X {@x
: t
# IyZ zg ZZ eX K7}I
X ] !*
Z%Z **
Y]7]!*
Z u~ Y`
L L
E]
G-E
#
yZ L LX H~Vg e gzZ x Zw C Z{ .Zzu~i Zg
BV V,ZX **
v(~uz(q
-Zy* 7 [Copy] c*
/l
Z%
B*.
{zC
s kZ Hwg Z bT6,yZgzZX ~
g Z u j"gzZq
-g@*
gzZq Z Z ~i ZgV}g~X
X
HHy((yZk
,
i[ ZzgzZkZF,

X 101sZ C1
217 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

yZ B` ZgQgzZ gz# M Y`
~ ]c*
]
z
z kZ *L L~VzVz yZ I BG c
{6,]5
G
E
-5 !
B
-Z ~ ] c*
q
]*X Y y Z6,)g f G]Z
# @*M ~
BG X Cg Z ~
VY7e I]!*
5~ w
x gzZz~ Z Mta X H universal experience F, kZ
X c*
yZ VZ6,akZ u
zz y i~ V
KZ
*Z
# c*
t gz# M [ Z kZ ? H XaV Zz 6 [Z Z
EE
V*/
Z { i @*
L LwgB M
=H XVp6gzZy**
Z6,Z ? Zq V gz# M W ZzB**
~` Zg ] H
',

Z',
X CY5]!*
y~p Z6 ] !*
b Z g [ Z g zg Z L L B G p
z D W6,] yZ
H [Substance]c*
[Theme]F
, y*L L V,ZgzZ Hf y*L L
X g V!*
yZ Zj ] c*
g ! qt
g *
!
X p ZZgzZ,@*
p ZsL
L Dwyz0Z {zO
~p Z b yZ ] !*
kZs ]gz~fC

Y`

@*
xgzZ g Y`

Zg { Z',wt yz0Z X

HH Z Z
X 0*
~q
-Z gz# MgzZ
] c*
ZzggzZ d
$V;z YuZ
# [Bertrand Russell] g&
+
R,
',
[Originality] 6 ]gzZ ]yYt kZ H_
Zg { Z',
tp[Originality] 6 Zg~[f 7q
-Z z sg
\
og6,(KZ Y
KZg Z kCgX Y c*
ZC
~ iZ0
+Z 6 ]!*
Z6,

yZgzZ W,
ZxZZZgzZ qZi M pX 4g!ft egzZ q
<
d
${gp s X D M ~ Y
KZg
\ M LZ 6ZL L[Harry Levin] yC ~wZkZ C6,d
$
p kZ J
- Z v k\ZX H [Self-Hatred] ]
c*
{q6,}u!Z F,
LZ ` M gzZ 7Zi M [Self-hatred]
C1
X B7ZZ

X y*zyY 2009',
ZzgZrz
Z',
*zgZzgOZ C1

218 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

[f **
y t 7kZ kZ zg OZ
sZ y y ~ zg Z ]c*
z ] Z bT
) !*

M %gzZ ~zc
L Z d
$ g @*
KZgzZ6,
$<z!*
d
_g Zzd
$
~}g !*
xEh
+]
.wq]g!*
X ] wqZ LZgzZVzg Z Z
3 Zg W)q
-Z d
$sZ V Za ~ xsZ
~yZykZgzZ
Hv
6,bxs Z Zgzb
3]b
Dg6,g @*
zd
$KZ y
) !*
g7xgzZ p x+y
Oz }n
Za ~ xsZ 'gz GkZ X
6,g @*
z b d
$ < D
EG
&

3
sZ 5 wZ rc*
G xs Z z b c*
bgzZ xsZ bN
Y Z46,x } u [fgzZ dZ [f Y Za b
1 Za \ 5SgzZ} h bT bZ!*
tp :
L
=g f Z~ Z @*
~g ]:S: Z% J: @*
Z h:
H
Z
Z1 @*
46,gK1X J: @*
Z h:t Y07
X @*
7',Z',
kZg )g **
4} he
$.
} hgzZg "a
EG
&

3
: b: { z1Y Za h
+
q G z r<
gzZ bh
+]
.
Za t+Zz!*
V@" I e
$h
+]
.k\ZXs <

Xg
:7y M :f iZ%g Z<D
1rnj 1 l^eri qy [xE~*y M
HtwZZ
& gzZ}G @*
kZC
t Z w6na 1ja m ^i] 6n
] ^+ C :& **
Z f Zwi **
gzZ |kZ kZ
1]u 1 nq 1 ^i] ^i6n` ^i] 1 l^e a o n 9m na
C1
y M It oi^q o^6n` kn^m 6n l^m 1 ^+ ] C 1
gzZgzi e
$. & *
* Z fX Zwi **
t Z ] c*
V\zygzZTg Z
!*
gx 7x x(Z **
yiZ%gZ<DC
X ?d)
Zg f AgzZ V6&{ \vZ yc*
i DkZ: e%

YDt)g f]U*
qgzZ]!*
X Yq)g fyZ]
.z=D

X 101 & **
Zfh& **
Zf C1
219 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

47EZ
by M
X ew|kZ )g f]Z@xgzZ
M e
$g E
5G
.-G'Z c*
y - Za iZ%~ T[ ! Y c*
E
Y D: 7[
V
KZC
iZ%x J
-gkZ x ~g Z
X
[Statement of Zz y y <DiZ%yZ ~ y M
X 6,VZ~ D
Hwi **
yM
a T7 [Statement of Reality] |y Event]
g6,RKZ KZ yZ bgzZ +Z wz4,
y M
x t X @*
Y
gZ]x gzZ Fx aDI ZkZ] 0 <
lgz6,~g 3ga +C
[kZgzZ xEgzZgZ szcgzZ x b
] tiZ%t c*
C6,gZz y y M
Z 7bZ]5
KZ
g Z O yZZ 6,] { kZ g
0 }g ( `gt
s Z% Z e1 :G
s@y M
wz4,
gzZ+ Z~ciZ%
(

5
G
[Thales] **
- 0*
]x Hy y M
}
0*
FwZkZX @*
"
$U*
Z @*
0*
] x {zX g Z
|
e
$ M kZ az ~ C|
y M
k',
g ZD

G 0*
(

5
G
**
Z
G @*
ZgzZ ~t W !*
g ]c*
**
- : 7**
i Zg
zZ xC
] !*
t C 0*
y
KZ
y M
wz4,
|kZ }Y|kZ z$
+C| 7,yZ q
-Z { M
z
?&H0*
[g ] **
zs%Z kZ ~DV
G
(
<

/ZX @*

0*
', X ~
KZxkZw ]g izgG
G ]g 6,ggzZ%y
(
5
5(

G
gzZ V\ y M
H ] !*
m{ Ht y M
& y G
Z y M

/Z ? Zwi **
ab & Z c*
$zh
d
+ F,
] **
V Zb
} 7
KZ gzZ <iZ% Fx ] kZ + V igzZV'
M y M
x t gzZ gy } x [dLZg6,V U Z
! |Z lp% ] c*
M [
$
g% y M
wVzg ZD

yM
gzZ ZeY g Z h
+]
.zz y M
gzZ c*
` Z'
y M It ;g
yW
}t r
# & **
Z f
/ZX
H "
$U*
w+ Z: Zq
-Z Za bzg b
Zwi **
a\
oggzZ o g ZiZ%<] z]**
Y vgzZTgZ
zh
+ F,
}] Z@x] !*
V Zb y M
wz4,
Y 6[ f q
-Zt
Y g ZC
? %J
-& **
Z f {? X 7o
220~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

} 0 <iZ%G V Z bgzZ +V\ Zz M y M

E&

3
$Nswz { ~ yZK y
yM

/ZX ykZ G gzZ p


) !*
A gzZ E
Y g Z z 6,] w 0*
4Z gzZ ;g } ] z g6,V U yZ

t s]!*
? t
H~ VhVz
KZgzZ :XZ c*
Ma% } i Zzg
f j~ y M
} ; g s]mZ~0
+
z Z}
.] Z f )y M

XZz ] kZgzZ ~i h[t kZ
t { #
Z ._ ~z0
+wrZ 1Z **

i Z {zce 't c*
W~yW
q
-Z
/ZX M~[ Zgz{ z Y
~yWtiq
-Z y*qY[akZ **
Z6,wg ZD

VY Y c*
} qYgz yZ wEZ ^F, c*
p Z
~ yW
Y bhZ yZ {z 1 Y p Z W
a V1
G yZ p Z gzZ RdZ a kZgzZ
H5u
A
:
HH{E
+,',
~ 16X 13{gW[
XV g}gp[WXV KzZ zZ~
A LL
XVKP.XV}e
$.
4- gzZ ~ Tg bZ~: i [ @*
7{ i Z0
+Zt H p Z yZ
Z wEZk
,
g Z ~ yW
D W: ~ z Lp Zt C: ]!*
t
/Z ?
WD3
DgzwEZ 7D
/ZgzZD V~0
+e[ @*
x kZ
x r Zl
X Zg r Zl
~} * V1 bZX
{g
Z skZ ,qt X k 2 ^- 1 g ,qgzZ {zr Zl
p q
b Ch YYZ ZgzZ Y ~i h[C
t"
$!*
Vz yW
D:6,x dZ kZ y[ xsZ
/ZX 4
o 6n` ]n 6n 7 j omy XXf] o ^% m L LHVY
wo+
Va ~ 7,~ V/dZgzZyzd
$y!*
i! {zp ZyZ
ZQa~gzZ.
$zZ LZ {z~V Zl
gzZ~V
Z gzZDg Z
/0
+
i: c*
z$
+[
Z Z7 ~
Z {
Hzv'," X DZg7 Zg70]@*
mZakZ D
gzZ
KZ z b
C
}7H Z7 ~ }iy{
D ~}g !*
kZ @*
W
d gg Zzg kZy!*
i yZ~}g !*
] @*
mX @*
m,
0
+
i Z
221 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

: Z

yQX 7g66,p ZgzZ ] q Z )~ {)zgzZ,{z~gz


X Z 7,7 Z y!*
i ~uz p Z Z p~ }g !*
]@*
m~
[ Z{ i Z0
+Z czDV1Z6,~}g !*
b) ] @*
m
X
@*
V1
Y"
$U*
j kZ 7akZ f j~y M

j [
/ZX
HHyZzg Za kZ Zz ]j[L X3Z
wVgY ZyZyW
D:Zz0Vz
/~g kZkZsz
a kZ {zgzZ } Y Z**
c*
~gza wVX @*
: 7
xEnZ Vzg
ZgzZ] c*
WwVZ bkZ {y~yW
X: bZ
X 7 Z Z6,
xsZI Z[fI Z **
"
$U*
i Z
? yW.
]|kZ H : *
0 Zg Z+
0YC
knu m C ] 1a oe 1 o^ n2 aL L:& *
* Z f
C1
G !XX1a ^2 ^ne 1` e MPLL
(

5
G
[y |t Thales **
- wg ZD
& y M

[Reality]|
yZ]
.zkZ @*
kCZ@*
0*
] x {z 0*
ty M
HX ~ wg ZD
F wz4,
y M
|t 6,kZ =gzZ
y H]gzCt<Z ? C 0*
c*
MaC
t?Y Z b
Z~g Y Z c*
? [ byW
H ? k
qq
? Data Bank? Pharmacopia\ g ? Blue Book? vv
] 0Zg "C
~T ? Workshop? Junkyardv!*
f

:
W
X
0*
~y M
Z] Z f gqgzZ { Z ?
Hc*
g mZgzZDY ZgzZ
a ]+Z [gvZ Y c*
Ct t H Z kZ f
y
KZC
*&H0*
? Y}g (Z ZV
LZ ? eaz
I
8
g
F
gzZ !*
gp 0*
@*
Yc*
0* u NgzZ @*
+
0
zg @*
wEZ ]g
z6,Z e
$ M [ Z
]vZ=gf Taz (Z q
-Z
X c*
0*
gZ
w2gzZs@Z azgzZ ~gz+h
+]
.O
l|bkZ c*
M 7ZB[f~~,,

X 122sZ C1
222~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

bgz kZ [fg ZS
n |lg y
MgzZ Hg (Z6,gaz
qc*
}g Z
/ZgzZ| \zZ| {Z| |Z
by M
Z
# Z @*
Y H7tDDZb bDgzZ <

K/Z/ZgzZ[2 ZDLZa ~ F,
k Z LZ Z D"
$U*
+ LZ M ~gykZgz f
e { Cb<
gzZDqO
%}g bx kZgzZ+ vZ HX D(b
X y M [ Z kZgzZwZZt?7c*
Y^~*h
+]
.kZ
^i ^j^ ] lFF$ ] $ ] ]? m$] m ] :~Y m
CZ >g
] g Z0
+Y0*
V 30:21 + m ] o u o $ ] ^ q ^ Fj

h F,
+
y M
] *c*
+]
h
.: 7 e
$ M kZ f
[**
"
$U*
]c*
MM
~ zg ] *zh
+]
.yZ: & z
z *
/Z X ibZa d
$z g @*
sZ J
- xit
t 7!*
gxY At
H{g
Z C Z ~ M
] c*
M gzZ ] h
+]
.
6, dL gLzZ D {q6,g N +z h
+]
. A
kZgzZ fp
.
g N ,_ h
+]
.z *x ZY f
/Z D
G-G

{u
Vc*
~ "gzZ z" yZ , & **
gzZ ~z 3E
X Y
:t{ Ze#
r& *
* :g ZZ,
6sp~|W2 zG
6n knu gq ^i v m] Big BangZZ
C1
zG Big Bang !XX6na 1j ^j] 1] a i 1a ^i^q a mfi
#
r & *
* Zf '|Z ZYYH7"
$U*
~{ /kZXzG` MgzZ
V Zb~}g !*
] gzZ] Z0 K -X d
gzZw D ZZ e6,qkZ #
r& **
Z f X Y y M ,] c*
k,5+p
MIT @X N Ygzc Zz yZ X B| 7,?k @Z e
7't yZ& **
Zf ~bgzZgzZ qdZ~b
K-X n
pg~6,sZxEz {h+]
.xEgzZyZb} (,q
-ZpwDZZe
X aZz| V: ##
r& **
?k+yZ6,

X 125sZ C1
223~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

? $0: e<qJb H
: r
# & **
6n ]`F a ^ mq ^n ] m^ 1n 1 n m]ZZ
lf$ ^ pie o C 1a 1i ^j] 1^n 1 o`] ^n 1 o`]
C1
6n ^m] C ^i 7a ^i a]
DZgzZ &g bh
+]
.)q
-Z Zxt r
# & **
: @*
Y0KyZZkZ: ez @*
yZZ6,e T W ? g Z
:e
/Z ?6,xsZ c*

Y c*
6,byZZ bDgzZ : e K ` uZ
# X yW

b{z Zqgz TyZZt A


$N M yZZ6,xsZ)g fb
m
CZ HX 6,byZZ ZgzZ M yZZ C: {z bZZ Z
p Z ]9 xsZgzZ La + J
-V LZ
4Z
gzZ W Y m
CZ H ?1 Zg ]q ZgzZ ]c*
Zzg g ZZ ] G
5G3E
yZ H ? H# D` uLZ c*
~ ._ D` u yZ ] g
4Z
kZ ] Y m
CZ ?N Y{ zh
+
=r Zl
xsZ] G
5G3E
) DIZ} (,X @*
7"
$U*
g it Y m
CZ X C7G @*
gi
}@x "DX &Dg Z b M
hC 7r
# & **
Z f x **
7D| Y} D] b
sDt Z M)g fgzZKkZj
}D= c*
|{z7 ZZgzZ
A &t ~KkZjgzZ=X Y}
Z @*
zgzZ ){z M
h} D b
q
-Z ~ ] b
{z
x ` *g !*
zg kZgzZ BDg Z.
**
bDIZx [fa
Zgz gzZc|l|)g fb .
$X f
e
4
4

3
E

5 G] G
5G3E
C z |gzZ C|[Z
H , [)g f] G
ugzZ ~
/~g f kZgzZ C ~ s|~ f
g Z )X g gz [World of Reality] * |
u! fh
+]
.X ^] Zp kZ [Self] kZ 7b
4Z h
Man is a h y
KZg C G
5G3E
+]
.kZ C [Economics]
0
+
i]N
K M g YI]q
-Z Zy
KZh
+]
.pleasure seeking animal

X 126sZ C1
224~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

c <
*
az kZ { ZpX s@ zZ kZ V kZ J
-]ZgzZ w#u
Z f
e | 7,,h
+]
.r
# & **
l X 7n kZ Z, c*
b

3
y ] G
5GEZ kZ ~ gZ ukZ @*
Y ^ |
# 6f y
KZh
+]
.
%~
KZ g @*
T Scottish Enlightenment *u kZ X
g Z
Wp WZ Wq
zsgzZs
w k0*
T{z gentlemanX c*
?~ ]y
WZ Vx?~ * kS & ZzZ
* [ ZgzZ
z
~]y
W~ * kZ {z Z k#ZgzZzLMg Z **
xz~ * kZ V
]y
Wz A 0
+
i H~ *TX g { g {0
+ZggzZMHgZ **
Z c*
Z
xi Z z6,^+F,
- gI kZ ~ [fX g ) 0
7
+
i H~
C )F,
`Z e
$m,z6,g
$ug Z X~xsZgzZ Wt ~ ]g
: Zg~ ]y
Wz [x~ * + 4]y
WZ +4 * T
yW
I Z u ] o u ^n] o ^i] ^e:e
$WyW
X
G
!*
SG
0e
$.]Zgt Dy +I e
$h
+]
.gzZ g
$u +
G
gzZ u W,Z k
,
i xi Z z6,gzZ Scottish Enlightenment~ xsZ gzZ
]c*
W+4]y
WgzZ * yW
I Z X K v [fF,

y6,g~ ~ * kZ \vZ H~
.Z )g fF,
gzZu
~yZy]y
W gg *
c Z d
$~ * y
/ZY} g ZgzZ dZ4
}7HgzZ ?~ * \vZ& XN Yb ZgzZg Z d
$
]c*
W0 * V,Z D~
.ZtX g xz yZ ~]y
WZ
[ x{ z~]y
WX H~
.Z6,

C] b
O~
.Z [whole]x|
~gzt p $
* Z ~ wqZ yZ Xg @*
wqZ ~ *
V l @*
i %Zt
/ZX 7i 1 $
? Z7
ZzgV
zmvZ -[ $
ggzZ s Z CY Z %
z ug Iwz zmvZ -[ $

ggzZ Dg Z
/0
+
i x Z/p
i/
]| C ZzZ
tig *
) !*
wqZ
/Z X nzH
yZgzZy
KZ+4
kZ6,}i zgZ
# @*
W: ~~
*t 7
oo ^Z ~g Z * kZ { yJZ *tX B[ @*
z[ W~g7
yJZg ZtXI ~]y
W{z1V ] ^n]: k]y
W
A 6,gD~]y
W:gz ~* kZZVkZ 1`wqZV
225 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

u ^n % ] F o ] u] m$ ] n ] ^ e% ] C^ ] i$] m$ n :
gzZ >~*aV( 30:16 n j$] ] n F ] ]
X 4~hyZ gzy ]y
W
4

3
E
:k Z G Z u+
h.
]
\
G

.
4

: y~p ZyZ ,] G
5G3EZ ] h
+]
. Zx W
They consume little more than the poor, and in spite
of their natural selfishness and rapacity, though they mean
only their own conveniency, though the sole end they
propose from the labour of all the thousands whom they
employ be the gratification of their own vain and insatiable
desires, they divide with the poor the produce of all their
improvements. They are led by an invisible hand to make
nearly the same distribution of the necessaries of life, which
would have been made, had the earth been divided into
equal portions among its inhabitants, and thus without
intending it, without knowing it, advance the interest of the
society, and afford means for the multiplication of the
species. When Providence divided the earth among a few
lordly masters, it neither forgot nor abandoned those who
seemed to have been left out of the partition. These last too
enjoy their share of all it produces.

G\
G\
4Z uDh+]
% -. ZX @*
Zz C G
5G3E
.t -. Z
6, 6,g~Zx c*

t sg z ZZ gzZ w@*
7, Y
]ZpgzZ}Z
+ LZ {z V
/
uyZ D wz qgzZ 6
: kZC
gzZ C Za
/
u~ u D VZ}Z
+ ] }
.gz'
a
~z)}iV
KZx !*
M6,}izg *
@Y z)g ftig

1. Adam Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments. (Indianpolis, 1982) IV.

1.10, pp. 184-5.

226 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

G
z u: Zg Ztutig z Yq tig }i 0 kZ
C
~
B; {h
+ **
gzZq
-Z9
: kZ YWx6,g : Z~g !*
zg
qZ yZ
gzZ yi Z ]Z ZgzZ`
M x Zu
}i kZQ **
~z)}i~ V
KZ x !*
M 6,}i zgX @*
Y tig ._
~z)ZgzZ *
*:i Zz.
tigVx Q **
{ i Z0
+Z tig Zz q
\
G
.
kZ |X }oz yZZ Zt 7 eg nbg Z

\
G
.
gzZb}oyZZz b`
%& ? Zt X 7m
\
t X 7k0*
kZ? gzZ C!*
dbkZ G-. ZX
H1wJ6,g
4Z {
] ZpKZs D qzwY Z%Zx ^t C G
5G3E
G\
gzZ g @*
f
e x 6,]`
Z Va
kZ -. Z 1 D kZ ]!*
Z x gzZ g6," _
. kzz mw
Cuh
+]
.wJ}
~g ZtuD ukZ X
Hc*
u )gzZ ~ Zi W V
b ` M @*
Z Zg Z ~~ ` bh
+]
. c*
B [Capitalism]
xi Z r
# & **
, h x ] x kZ Y c*
Z xi Z
X 7t,gzZ7Zz g @*
[xi ZB gzZb
Other than Muslim ~ w r
# & *
* Z f Z% )
zb Z}
.h
+]
.yZZ X~ |zy Zz ggiC ! fg
t Z`gzZ k Z gzZ xsZ ~ w r
# & **
gzZ 6,Y (
ooW LZ x ZY m
CZt wZ+F,
Z p Y (z bh
+]
.
+ )g f ]Zg gzZ V e d : Z
kZ H+JgzZ
+ ] ._ ` u LZ gzZ [|Z LZ j g LZ c*
]

^u ] a ^e ] u kn f ^e ` ` jq ^$ L L: @*
Cy M
?

V*
Kk0*
yZwgyZ Z
# 83:g ` jm e ] ^ ^$ `e
k0* yZ g \~ Y (e
$ Z , b D Q { z D M
,y**
-gzZxzgyZk
,
Zyup=~*Z
# zmvZ-[ $
g
XX bgzZ,DkZ6,
0 LZ ]]Z XZF,
Dyd
$b
!*
KZ ]+Z[gvGZ~kZX CY~Vx -6,
'
! ! ! k0*
}g + {z
Z c*
C *gzZ c*

_G
Z
'
+
b& c
,gzZ,sgzZ s%+F,
dZ DV }g D~gzZ
227 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

DZD 0*
7VJ
-|pD w|?)gfkZ
J45!
gzg )gfkZgzZ wi **
6,EG
ZgzZ Z
/ZgzZ [2ZZ
&
O
"7,
Q"C
ZG
X c*
g}iuyZgzZVyZDgzZ
'
+
VbgE- x ~g ? IY z ~ | @*M xz
J
-vZ {Z |z!*
0
+
a [ gzZ zgdkZ a#{g
Xg
_ ~ z LZ bgzZb c
kZgzZ,
[Reality] | 7 DD{z + T Z}
.] kZ
&
O
z!*
Q[
gX
7Dt ~yW
Xg6zgzm
,X ] ]Z D+ Y|k0*
\ W n t]akZ
ZXn 756,gq
-Z |J
- ` Wp @*
+ Y|

~ kZ bgzZ,X
t a kZ c*
w {B Z e**
g |
* AZ {z Z * At ZJyZ Dg
KZ{z
3 * Az
[whole D * AkZ {z Y M
h C ~ }g !*
gZ 0
ZxE AgzZ ! -~ 0 * ~ k ZgzZ n
pg 7knowledge]
7~=Z D * kZ ZDq j)~VzVV{
6,
g~zb
D * ~ kZtZ
# X @*
)Db
tgzZ M~Y Zb
Z
kZt ]gzDTa|?M
huZgZ|tM
h7q
Y7 ZkZ Y` x~ b)P* ~ kZ D~ Z xz D
* kZ VZ bYC 7 ~}g!*
[absolute reality] |{zZ
sgzZ sX M
h C 7 ~}g !*
* !z Wz ! Z kZ Zgz
4Z )g f ] G
4
&bh
+]
.gzZh
+]
.Z Y 7qD ] G
5G3E
5G3E
g ZS
n gl|bgzZ, c*
"
$U*
]!*
g @*
!

3
E

7 x X c*

`g {
z ]Z] Z C G
5 G Z V,ZgzZ
v; ^#z!*
kZ X 7b meta narrative g e
igzZ a* kZ H
H^Y^I6 gzY (zb
T h e o t h e r gzZ Y (: b : ,: p ]gz `gzZ
only [ Z " kZ
HHwZ~ }g !*
gzZ Z
# kZ thinking
+F,
{xiZyge
7gzZZ(,[ftZ God can save us
228 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

}(,x~qYKa#}(,xq) * Tv;
$h
e
+]
.yZ e
$h
+]
.}gZ
w.
**
s Z@Ze
$h
+]
.
]!*
Z tX `L [Post Modern Philosophy] ,
X ?s Z@Z [Modernism] e
$h
+]
.gzZ [Post Modernism] e
$h
+]
.
X
4
2 k
.G
"There is : H k E
,a Z 7t
~ F,
gzZ ]Zz) ~ Zi M
Y 1926~}g !*
Y ( v; X modernity after post modernity"
c0Z]6,]ZY( Question Concerning Technology ~
sgzZ]Z}
.Z{zz!*
kZp_( Z}
.Y(~0
+
ikZ
XgLZkZZ}
.k
Z k0
+!*
, y Z
:Z t
{ C Z}
.
) !*
V- zg{ nY (zb,[f tZ
tp ;g M ~ l M Z}
.yjZ ;ghZz ,yZ Z}
.gzZ ;g8
-
uF,
Z Z}
.
H[gzZ l%Z}
.q+Ie
$h
+]
.x
9 tX g hZz Y (z b ,yZ x Z%gzZ ! x
Z}
.`z0#
Z wVrsZ {Z tZggzZ+sZ
'!*
wY (zb{z A { {>Y (zb7 Z
~ Zz ZZ}
.t:gzZ Y (zbZ [f:p g
bZ !*
{g !*
6,g]Zg Z}
.gzZ yW
V yZ D 0*

~ ] Z}
. k0*
{)z HEV\I e
$h
+]
.ZZgzZ^g ke bT
Z}
.w! 7 {0
+
i Z}
. ]kZm Z}
. g^ b ~{ lp
g **
y
KZsx [ Z ;gx Zg W{ z[ Z Z v!*
f
Hg "
Hk

,5
+Y g ZgkZf
KZ~]t MVVzIe
$h
+]
.x Y gZ
C
9 L LX py
KZ [ Z ]ta kZ g 7]gz]t[Z
$E
t
~z Vw 0G
LZ =
!*
9 L
L g 7a kZ ]gz
XD YK_Y m
CZaT IZ + Ty
kZgzZ
H.

229 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

230~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

231 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

232~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

233~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

234~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

235 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

236 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

237 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

238 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

239 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

240~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

241 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

242~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

243~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

244~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

245 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

246 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

247 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

o Z EN{ Ze:{o.
HZ e & **
Zf[

248 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

bgzZy M

[*
!a

{^
,Yq
-Z :& *
* Z fh
h
e {^
,Y ] hv r
# & **
~ & **
Z f ] h[ Z

X Y

bgzZy M
8n 9] ] 1a 6n pm,] h^j m o gu^ n^
qi ] ^ ] 1a h^njw www.ahya.org]www.irf.nety
6n m 1a ^ 6n wa 1] h^j^y XXn^ ] l^f_ZZ
] gu^ n^ n 6na 1+ 1m 1 1 o] 1]u 1 l^v
6 na 1 i n i 1
] !*
b {z c*
C 7~ d [ kZ r
# & **
Zf
ZZ ~ }g !*
x lZ Zb ? f
e Z% H { z bgzZ ? g
[ kZ ?by Y c*
C ~ zg kZ Z [Y Hy ,~ ],
c*
Hf xEbwo19 V,Z [
76,,
M Z ~ci
+Z ~ m,Z
y M
xE/Zsr
# & **
% y M
~w{gG
q~kZ YN
z c*
[ xZY ZZ
# n ~(,
y M
v!*
fafh+]
. p kZD YxE{ c*
ig ZD
&
:| 7,
zkZ f xE {g !*
s~T7[q{Z
+m{
[1] Astronomy, [2] Physics, [3] Geography, [4] Geology, [5]
Oceanology, [6] Biology, [7]Botony, [8] Zoology, [9],
Medicine, [10] Physiology, [11]Embryology, [12] General
Science.

230~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

bgzZy M

g] Y%6 6 : Zizg~ ]Yg " bh


+]
.Z
#
g ZD
g e~ *gzZ ]Y%{ c*
i,b~] Y 0*
s
Z
~
zr
# & **
X D Y J 7,~ ] Y ! fxE { c*
i
MxsZX~V' !*
gzZ Zk
,Z ~y **
- M xs ZxE
n {g:%| 7,xEyZgzZ 12{g !*
fh
+]
.Z7sg xEt
b
[f~ w 0*
yxE 12s~ w{gG~ y M
xsZ? nkZ~[fX`c*
gxE { c*
ig ZD
0*
% 7,y M
VZ
] yZZ6,
[ +Zq
-ZN g (Z" v Y7~h
X 7UxE{[fxE{y~T g Y~
:$
eWqZ,
6 yW}g7:@Z #
r& *
*
~ [ KZ r
# & *
* Z f Dc6,yZbgzZ y M


e f o^ lF%$] o $ $:e
$ M~f medicine
F o $ ] ^$ n ] ] j% h] ^ _e t m
mF
X c*
!Zj 69:16 $ jm$
~ Tm Zje
$ Mq
-Zt Z~ y M
}g7
y M
\ M t yZ F,
0Z ] h
+]
.~ [f
Hc*
CY
~ V hh
+]
.X wq]g&5t ,7~es
m,?6,g Zz~ LZ Z e ~ wZ @*
Y H7wEZ Zzg}
s~ Kt yZ f h
+]
. ` M c*
[f[ Z @*
7
bh
+]
.6,w kZ c*
"
$U*
y M
kZ H Y 7e
$Mq
-Zt
h
+]
.v!*
f ?:g66, ]g {zy M
HgzZ ? ~g
z H h
+]
.gzZg EZ wZ ~g Ztu1 :F,
kZ F,
y  Zx
h
+]
. Zwe
$Mq
-Z s y M
p g ,qt
uF,
& : Aq
-Zt X **
Z h Z t Z CZ **
76, [medicine]
Y ! l IgzZ x Z Z * y M
~ }g !*
Z
+Z X ce b
K M',~ wq ~X \ {z g k0*
VO Vz^Z

{ (8
-g kZp V V z!*
Yg
/
wg ZD
g e mZpX
{
!*
hX DwEZ 6,g[Antiseptic] KZ`
Z ~^X
H
V M pCgyZ g
/gzZ 1e~[ @*
V M
231~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

bgzZy M

X x [natural preservative] K CgX D iz0


+Z
X *
@Y 1x ~ sZ` MgzZ'Y g ]c*
z Z~ y**
Z
+Z yZ 7]gzf y M
a y Z
+Z ~ gzZ ?
y7s Zf ~y M
Zz ! lz x Z Zv 7[IZs
@*
Zzs{V)g fwVZzY ZyZ {z [|Z y M tZz
7 BVy M
a kZ X D Zz ! l vx X
: ZwzKs{)g fzyZ y M
@*

g Ztu! fqX s kZ: gzZ s Vh


{ c*
igzZn Y ZY Z w(~g Zl{ c*
i~ T g @',{z |
# VW
c*
MakZy M : 7**
` ~g Ztux f~y M
X Yc*

gz M',w w(g @',._|


# kZN |
# y
-{g r
# & **
X Y N*
V')g fLg ~
g x M
t z t (e
$ M kZ ._e
$Zzg VzI e
$h
+]
. D[ NZ e
$M
65 -{gaKe
$ M kZ 0X c*
i Z0
+Z6,gZ **
c*
Z
f y M
Y Zz wq ]gZ @* **
_ ]c*
M x J
-70

#
e ] e ^n u^ $ ] ] ] : Le **
HV
KZ

F
o ^$ n f ^ ] o $ ] m$ m o $ ] ^ i
n $] lF$ n e# ^ ^^ ^f $ $ ' n e _e
F o $ ] ^u ^ $ ] j$i h^ ]
ouF ] m$ mF
e%
o $ $ m ^$ r$ ] $ ^i n e ^fr] pi$] ] v$] o]

] ] j% h] ^ _e t m
e f o^ lF%$]
F o $ ] ^$ n
# jm $ $ # ] $ jm$ mF
m n # ] $ ] ^n e m o ] ] o5 ] % m% $
~ 7,{%q
- kgzZ c*
',0*
y M vZ @*
]',i M X 70@*
65 : 1 6
yZ ] c*
M vZ ~ Vw c*
CQ (Z {!{zgzZ 7,yY~ }i
[zg Zpe
$. |z { D q q
-Z yxg ypgzZ',

gz M ?G& D "q q
-Z VE gZgzZ VggLbkZX
'
+
}g dgzZ V*H
Ka V Zz =~gZ

yZ tig u 0*
gzZ f
e
H
4
&
t6, [g
VE J m
6,V G3 gzZ~Vg~ Vzh N ~kz] !*
232~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

bgzZy M

kZ g 6,{ Zg gZ [g LZgzZ !a kg V] bC
gzZ y LZ~
G
E
$
S
4G Y aV~T
-Z ~kZ 5G
q
_"
$ 8
-',8
-gg0
+Z
]?zQ H Za ? vZdgzZ DzgaVyZ
K
t hY:Q+ Y ' @*
} @*
Y V/+ F,
+ ~ ?gzZ
$
t zt (kZ r
# & **
65X70:16~]ggzZ ~DvZ
~Z
# c*

] mZ gzZb xsZ 69e


$ M suF,
kZaV
KZgzZ Ey

M 1g\vZ YH_e
$ M
[ Z nZ Z6,] ] Z ]',i M X y ]c*
gzZ xz a
Z}
.
HHzy
KZ 3 {0
+
i}i {%~]',a
~ wVgzZ|za? kZQ } {0
+
i {g !*
z"bZ
Y a V
KZ *
@Y ~ VzQgzZ Vzg YgzZ|z b
$i~}uzq
-ZY Zt 1
_ypgzZ',
Vzg Y 4Zq
# & **
r
p ]"z H Za ? T
H6,x !ZQ'7
6,s~ [ !*
r
# & **
X e M 7 Zb~ ]c*
M yZ
V- !] Zx Y Z gpg "gzZ gLgZ g **
Z yiZ T e {z:gz H rZ
Y Z yZ:gz ~ 7,:yZ6,yZh
+
M
h7~ sfY Z b
Z Vk1 ~ a

X 7g ZZ
+Z ?
c*
Zj~ ci~ *% g r
# & *
* Z f ]

^ q^!^n& ^^ e lf j^ jv :7 76,gsZ
23-22:19 ^n& $ ^n k ]F f k% o jn mF k^ $] q oF] ^]
r
# & **
Z fa Z O+
M
KZci~ kZ y
KZ qY
:kZ V,ZgzZ kCZ
ogzZ
qJD C y M
itci
GG
E
$
S
4

} (,} (,gzZ V
7Z y ~e
$h
+]
.gzZ [fd
${z 5G H7{E
+
~ V'{, *p Dgtzg )gzZ
KZ)ci% x
a
] z j~gzZ D 3N Z~ D 0
+
i j~y
KZ
# & *
r
* Z fp Z~ *% >g f TX D 0*
6,gZiZ%'
} M y
KZ ] O } M ]y
KZ ~ ~zc [f
c ZV ~z$
+ [~:` M X Btzg
{y ~ *% {g ] z ~ q H ZgzZ ] ] * o yzg0
+Z V
233~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

bgzZy M

~ V ,*gzZ ! y*zy Z i
Z X C j
X C%x
agzZZ e Vh~gzZ { ci
kZ 1g (Z 0
+
ii~)h
+]
. V[ Za 7]!*
Z t
uF,
]X C7,]gzV
7Zh
+]
.a] z~)[ Za
c*
gZ
F,
?h
+]
.&g M ~ z j?h
+]
.Z g0*
r z
Vc*
g Fh
+]
.~
gzZ D h yZgz y Vg q'ggz'
CZ ` M ~ c ZX @*
Y
@g e
/
yZ 'gyZ CY 4uF,
x 7
-e Z D VZm ~g
qzx {g !*
zQgzZ Cg
/
iZ%ci'ggz'
{zyZgz Z
g Y x j~) ci }0
+
gzZ }0
l
+6,}0
+
g g Y L H
}i zg j~wC
hKZ~ ZV1gZ ng Z] Z}0
+
6,}0
+
g
%t Z Tg~ wj ~gzZ D 3N Z ~{zVY Dv6,
Z >
: Z [f M
h
+
6,(Z \ MX D 6,g~
E 3 7{0
I
$
o
E
qz^sV 3.GLZ}0
+
6, [f ;g y {z { ZpX M
D Y ~ tig lg w'~ zz] {g Z
zzgzZ
~g bzg m {z D7{zD7{fa{zX
XD0
+
i bZvV'{,J
-wg ZD
]~*D
IG
$
4
h
E
|
# ggLgzZ ~ >XG }0
+
6,F aZ~ g
$uq
-Z
$zZ VT kZ D 3vgL @*
.
Y 7VZgz T
Hc*
g Z
#
kZ Y|
# g gL
/Z CWx Vgz
KZ FY Zt D 3g YgzZ
Z z T
Hc*
C 0*
Zu)g f wVkZ @*M x y2
X|
# g gLbT @*
7
y M
h
+]
.gzZ ~ K ] bh
+]
.r
# & **
Zf
? D
\vZ~ T we
$ M *% >g~ y l] c*
W
$] re

n ] ?p :,Q,gL{ i @*
zF,
6,? hsKZgL
*~Tg7 c*
+F,
{ i @*
WHOZ 25:19 ^n& q ^f
n Fi
WHO, w EZ ] gLYI{z e
$Z@Vgpi
ZWHO c*
0*
qe
$.VVgd
$~ Vd
$ *
9z ZgzZ~g Zl ` **
ZgzZ} &
+ZVc*
!V
VgyZ ._g
yZ CwEZgL ] 'gt i Zgt A
$ H7wEZ
) !*
"
$
234~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

bgzZy M

ZX C **
/
Z x yZ]CggzZ ~ kZ VgzZ
f
e | 7,t r
# & **
kZ {z k\Z "
$U*
^g7g WHO y M
:Z e
$ M kZ ~
z{{g ]c*
M y M
gzZgxz ] X
& **
Z f bZ Xn:
]c*
M {ggzZ *% g~ D zgzZ n
N !*
N Z V Z yZ
H~ T ~g
/7e
$ M { z {g r
#
l] n n ] l] f $ $ ^^m] fvi :CYz
k $ ] ] kn $ n k $ ] n ^e n ] ^e f ^]
Z f 18:18 ^f
zgy M
` ! fh
+]
. Bed Sore kZ& **
yM
b nkZ y M
c*
M 7Z w kZ ] M
h"
$U*
~
Xtzg x Z ZxB
:$
e ZZ Z*
*K
:yW
$Wy M

] o5 mF oFe - ^ r$ $] ^ ] gvm] :e
tp ZZ 1a ^n j] 1 n^ ] 9]J 1 4@*
3: G
%gZ >g, ^e p%
6n c^e 1Yk
Em]] o k,] l^^ o 1` ^ MPLL 1
E
C1

7D.
$6, v y M
HH6,

C2 zGkZt XX^i
|
# )g f] **
KVZ CykZ g @*

zGt Y
~ g @*
zd
$C
* D
X ;g6,g: ~ x Z Zx D
c*
"
$U*
t m,
z* Z55`g U*M [ " c*
gX
r
# & *
* Z f A
$ CwEZ kZgzZ B
bgw~DkZx * Y
g 6,J
-g7 g7 VZ Z
# y M
? Y {g Vw+Z
] gJ
-
=D:g Z y
gzZE]+Z[gvZV
X ]g : { e
$.c*
{tzgtX
G
4

ZI Z L Lb Z W
:& *
* Z f :g GZ e Z%
$]
f ^ ] :43e
$ M 16{gy M
r
# & *
* Z f

] ]~ 43:16 i j ] ] ] ]? n ] ?ou % ^ q
: t= M

=kZX
C"gzZe
$.=t b 7 VZb i LZ L L

X 60& **
Z fh! b
gzZyW
L L& **
Z f C1
235~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

bgzZy M

j ] ^ p 6n c^e 1 o^ ,m ] l^nnqL L:._


1a 1i c 1 ^ p 1 q l^ 1 &m^u]
twq #
Z[ Z C1 XX^n+ ^n n 1^ 1 >jn 9]J n l^]
& kZgzZ yZ c*
N Cg pZ]c*
M y M

H
y M
p6,gZz=t ] a]Wzg gzZ,Wzg
59 e
$ M y
{g Y 1y ? r
# & *
* Z f
/ZX C M ~}%i
G-4Wz6,
kZg 59:25X ] n f e ^ Fu$ ] :,ygG

H Yh7 VZby
\vZ[ Zg7 Zz + Y'y

?y M

f ^ ] : e
^q $]
$ M ->gr
# & *
* Z f
\ M
} Z L L:F,
43:16 i j ] ] ] ]? n ] ?ou %
D Hkz] LZsX M wg LZ
#
gzZ VZ b Z% Z IZ & **
Z eX Y 7pv ?
/Zb 7 f IZ
G
4

.-G'ZC
E
~ Y m
CZ g~ y M
b Z Z RZ 1gGZ e Y c*
Z |
j ] ] ] ]? n ] ?ou % ^ q $]
f ^ ] : M
:F,
87:21 m F ] ^ ^ ^ _$ ] ^m $ ]q F q ^ i
v ? Dkz 6,X 5 wg y
KZ \ M } ZgzZ L L
V: D 3{z c*
7(Z VgyZb 7 [ I Z n
pg7D
/Z
yM
p
8VZ b Z% Z I Z~ ]c*
M Vz yZX
Zz Z{z:gzZ
g z Zzp
pgDV1 M Z%
Z IZ L L~ - >g 7
& Z? Yy
KZ]g ;g Yc*
akZ{7yZ
y
KZ { z M Y m
CZ V yZ
Hc*
qgs[ IZa
~y =kZgzZ wi **
f ~ e
$ M kZX 7] !*
5t
~V
KZwg
HV;z y*z~Y m
CZ >gX
g Z% Z I Z [Z Xb 7 [ 2 Z I Z Z IZ n
pg 7D?
/Z D M
G
4

/Zz xDgzZ Zg Y Z bg Z
gGZ e c*
yZb
kF ] n ] $ ] : lZ
35e
$ M [ Z x
Zr
# & **
X 7 Z

X 45 sZ C1
236~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

bgzZy M

lFf# ] mf# ] kF# ] n # ] kjFF] n j F] kF + ] n + ]


?
n vF] kF # ] n $ ] kFj] n j] kFF] n F]
] q] $ $ # ] $ ] lF# ] $ ] n % # ] m# ] k6 vF] q
HX {z`
ZgzZ]n yZgzZ
HH ] Z Z fz+ Z f~kZX ^n
G-4Z e {z ]nV
q DfgzZf IZ ?
HHgG
] : @*

g Z~114e
$ M >g?g
& b{h
+]
.

F l^Fn $ ] f m kFv] $ ] n $] ^ ^ $] o F$ ]
pF
g6,
g
/]ZggzZ6,VzuVzyzi dgzZ L L:F,
114:11 m#
Zzp
pg c*
Z}
.aV yZ ; c*
-Zt gzVZ',V)|
q
G
4

y M
VZbq)gzZgGZ e Z% + Z f V H 114:11
M
n $ ^ p ] @*M~ WW >g ?N C ] c*
akZ } hf}gzZ L L 124:20 oF ] nF ] m v $ ^
Zz fgzZf V
N VZ J0
+Z Z izg#
gzZ 0
+
i~ *
G
4

DD r
# & **
?gGWz6,H ?VZb H Z%Z I Z
z',
z Z f ~xs ZX D: w+Z t Dq DkZ { z
/Z
IY {z xz ckZ yT]y
M gzZ[g LZ {z qZgzZ
D**
<D g @*
Vz
~ g 3g g Z
D+ T[gy M
X
x Z6,jLZ LZ ] z x?Zm}]|g C
~g 7
X ;g}

237~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-

[*
!VZv*
0

{zt:b& **
Z f :~gK:D
r
# & *
* Z f Z e
o^ a 1m ! ^i^q ^m^ 6n` ^i o 6n ^ ] Z L L
C2
m ^ Big Bang 6n  ! 6na 1jn ^q ^  6n o o
^ g mZZ !^i ^n+ ^m ^je 1` ^ MPLL 6n OL km ^nf]
l^n 1 7e ] !C3 ^n ]q 6n] 1 a 1i 1a 1 a^e n
1 k`e  (^i ^n 1 7e 1  (^i  oa gf ^ 1 oi 6n
C4
!XX1a ^i ^ ^u o^
%y M
~Vzg (gzZVzg *~u#ZDVE**
- V1
G .O>&
gy
KZ Y S7,g @*
]~ F,
y**
- F,
w ZG
1C

] D y M
X 7uV
Z c*
g planatVzg (J M *
@Y {g
yZtXn:Z {g (q
-Z ~* bJ
- ` M y Zzq
+]
h
. g F,Z Zg7 6,ph
+]
. Vzg ( }g ( *J
- ` M gzZ ` XZ
zVzg (~y

M Y 2007 w Hc*
g M%Z& [Pluto] {g(
^e v  ^ ^ ^:D
r
# & **
X
Hc*
`g{
^e ] 1 ^m] ]  ^_ n] n ^ ^ n 1a ^jm
C5
gzZ
Vzg ZD
Vzg ZD
b ? @*
HD**
gzZb !1a ^jm

X 30& **
Z f h& **
Z f C1
X 5 6 sZ C5

X 39 sZ C4

C
X 35 sZ 3

238 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

X 34 sZ C2

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-

Db7 ] !*
' q
-Z q Z Vp
x b x lZ Vzg ZD

E
E
: _7,7, VZb` M p @*
q| 7,b 0igzZ,
D : #@*
7JD It Z *
@Y *
c J 7,,~ V
?ewD7ep
:b+
h.
]:xs Z :] gzZ] i M
]+@z ]] Z@x]g U*M ] +h
+]
.
t gzZ Dl _z x~ bgzZ ]c*
M0
xsZz=gzZ=zxs ZxsZgzZbbgzZxsZ Ug C[ x6,R Z
] yZ b ! f Y 7J
-t VZ **
t V q Z h Z {g
$E
pg0G
] i MgzZ] i M :Uz M n
H~}g !*
C1
A n : " KZ X q Z t y Zy b gzZ <

Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines, [Cambridge:

6 X~ Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1964.]


,
$E
]A{ ]*h
+]
.p c V Um{&
t0G
)g f ]Z@xg M h
+]
.}uzgzZ gz Tt wZX C7
]c*
z`ZgzZ Z yZp Z #0Z ryQ Mt z ] Z 6
~ zg yQ M t ] Z z@Z6 [ Zv p !*
? $
VY
E
G
] c*
z`ZgzZ #0ZgzZ ? H0$ sZ[ Z~}g !*
i M]

:g_V1sf `ga, C1
[1] William Polland, The Cosmic Drama, Ney York: National Council of
the Episcopal Crurch, 1955.
[2] A.M. Corey, God and the New Cosmology: The Anthropic Design
Argument, Powman and Lettlefild, 1993.
[3] William Lane Craig, The Kalam Cosmological Argument, London,
Macmilian Pres Ltd. 1979.
[4] William Lane Craig, The Cosmological Argument From Plato to Leibniz,
London, Macmillian Press Ltd. 1980.

239 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-

[Modern Cosmology]] *h
+]
.H ?6,
CVZ:i ZyZ
&
7(ZC
?h
+ F,
zpLE**
] & qgzZ]kZ H ? i gzZ
& **
c*
xs ZX ` u b 'igzZ pLE
] Zz ] Z XZ
~ ] x ~}g !*
] i M <
gzZ c*
| c*
zy
#
4

Wg Z] G
5G3E] *h
+]
.X c*
7gZ
cgzZZ ] *h
+]
.
4 F
5G3E
F6,2 zGkZ
] x t :Z yZ D6,}i 2Z x ] G
: `g { } ],
Z ] *{z $
: ] M e Tq {zC
X @*
6,
H
#
-E
4
4

zJ
- * e .
]*} ZgzZ ] G
5G3E`
o] *h
+]
.
5G3Eh
+]
.{ z ] G
Zzg}uz c*
<
xsZ~}g !*
] M @',
kZZ
# X
\ ~g !*
Z f s~ |X F
F6,y~zb
c*
y}g7 |Z
+

5~}g !*
VzU A] 6,X
] ~ ) c*
Cx 7
X @*
7,7W,
Z ]Zz]
? H~gBig BanggzZtC*
gzZ Z rg MIT~yZybgZ @Z e
D7t]zGBig Bang {z qm{ yZ ]*
C*h
+]
.x DW6,V- C*h
+]
.{z ~ k q
-Z wD Z
yZX D Y sp wkC

tX
87 Lq=]c*

c+Z q
-Z [Unknown]x**
X C Zg M k~}g !*
V-
[known]xi
b0Z]gzZ ~y
M~}g !*
] & 6,
E
YX *
@Y cz uz M 6,0~3!tt pX *
@Y H76,g
C6 a u#Z @x kZ *
@Y MB c*
g 5KZ VZ b Zuz
kZ }g Z%[ c*
,gw$
+8 } a XZ ] M
g ]c*
} vP bkZX 1c*
g g y*c*
ex *q
-Z
[Multiple 'MX gb~ w q: i6
,gwVX CY
[Big Bang ~gK - [String Theory] ~g8
-7 Universes]
~}g !*
V- } (,
b 0*
]*g0
+Zk',k
/
Theory]
b LZt *C
t TX [ g mZ b
gzZ @*
ZI!*

}uz
C

Ht){ z g Z

240~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-

X g Z
sgzZ
g!*
Vh }g Z LZ
:K- :] %)*
c %:]*D
4

3
E

D ~i t~ }g !*
] 6,k Z 6 z ] G
5 Gh
+]
.v
y: ]*Xce 7wEZ [Cosmology] ] * L Lb ZZ
t X 7zJ
-Vzq % c*
e .
c*
~ s] gzZ X b ]
E
G
$Zzg {
7]p z ],q
] !*
t0$t?t e
5oe
$. .
$ ~ h
+]
.p ~ sZ
4Z
5G3E
!*
H^ CZ bh
+]
.~ zg TgzZ
/{B] G
HtkCgzZ] %)V;z wJ.
**
a[fgzZ d)
Hc*

wC
!*
} ],
Z
KZDgzZbkZ}g Z
wgJ
-kZp
H
7wz ~b ] *~ )gzZ %)kZ ~h
+]
.Z
e
$Zpf
e 7 ~i t+Z +{
gtX
0 ] ._ ]xsZ t x a }g 7t Zg
+]
h
.gzZ bs Z ? H] * +C
h
+]
. Bt Q ,tsZ
&
4G
5I
K - V; It 7]gz&
+
e G
~C
{ Z ({ Zp~ V-
+ f\c*
n L
L 3gy M
~}g!*

bh
+]
. D
r
# & **
Z f }g X [Fiat Lux] ! g%Z D
@& *
*Zf
/Z x**
Z q
-Z@ZjWsZ~gzZ
ZegzZ@Zeg: ]gz ~gZ yZ B|7,?
kZ L L:Ze
$.Zj]*h
+]
.pZt kbgzZxsZk
,
wDZ
bd
$k7akZ]gz;6,
]c*
]ZIb
w {gG kX !*
ttX Z7K- }"
$U*
gzZ `ZVZ
E
$ e # ] !*
Z K - ] * + C
~ gz Z + f~ ~ G
5G
kZ c*
K - ] *+ C
F, Z ` M X ~ (,q
-Z6,
X D 7tb
: & : Z.
]zD
+]
h
.gz Z 6,] g c*
y A Zgz k Z T ] *I
y Z gz Z & : Z]
.z Dt X c e *
*7$ i~ }uz q
-Z ] *
241 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-

4Z ZzVzVYX : Z]
]ZgC G
Z
.}{~
.ZgzZ'!*
5G3E
h V76, V7 Z n
pg m
Idea of incommensurability X M

3
E

$Yq
+
-ZM
hYK 7~
.Z } 96,
CV- Zzpg] G
5 G Z Zz ._

4Z ~
4

3
E
d 5Vz yZX ] G
5G3E
5G Z s Z z +
$Y ~uz ] G
t+Ie
$h
+]
.}g X tzgwJ.
**
t~ * bgzZDM
h7g /
xEgzZyZ<
L y M
g ZgzZ% lZ
}u] !*
{z% gzZ% d
$ K
M F,
Y H,

M F,
y 7e% ` ZZ
- ^] ]f]J
J
- Zi M 0
+
i [xsZ Y7g zqzg
kZ $
7q%=zu= IF,
gzZ K
M F,
m *gq
-Z
~y
M zwi ogzZ]x 0
+
i *g Cx**
-Z~0
q
+
i Zz MgzZ 0
+
i
~ * k QgzZ **
t Z}
.~ * kS X **
t Z}
. {zgzZ @*
~ zg
V6& k Q]
KZ ]Zg, Z z **
sp } 9t Z}
.
D Y0:
L ]z qzg kZo1%z A
$'N zgzZ V
g
/
[Prism]gkZ ~ugzu{Za kZgzZ ~0
+
z Z}
.c~Z KZ

q kZ *
@Y 0=g f y
KZ ~ z ]Yg Zg7 Dw
n
pg 7g] !*
kZ +h
+]
.X Z {za T *
@Y s
~0
+
z Z}
.c)g f ] c*
! f] z y
KZ ] z gzZ ]c*
h
+]
.
ZgzZ W **
c L LxEh
+]
.t Y Y c*
VZ 7xq
-Z +
$Y
8x }gzZ]mZZ+ b{ }g D, ZX DC

!*
D{],
Z
X T e
:K-gzZ]:k Z ]*+
h.
]
4

3
E
._ ] G
.
5Gng Z ~96,
CbkZ ] *h
+]
.
} T} g * @*
6,] ~g7 t : Z kZ e .
q {@ x
& Z Z (,t X ~gz Z \ M 6,X V *{ z } Z
- ~i !*
q
t 46,bh
+]
. ~It h
+]
.t X Y Y H7"
$U*
6,g
] *s Z , "
$U*
] !*
t t x a } g X zq
-Z
gz Z DZ !*
^g M Z !*
-Zt X 7m ] zGgz Z V- h
q
+]
.
!*
z Vzq z Z !*
z t ] !*
k\Z X z Z0
+Z Z !*
242~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-

Zzg X @*
Y 1 q
-Z a x [ z Z !*
z xE z Z
z ~ ~ t
y M } i ~ ] zG C *h
+]
.g z Z ] *
4

3
E

[Creation of life] ] [fX W ] G


5 G g Z gz Z
E
G
56,0$ q
-Z VZbgzZ sp
)u~ V- &
/] Zg
e
$Zzg [sZ ~g7 ~}g !*
mi M] @',
kZn7
qC
X \~g !*
]Z f ZJqC
g`
}T
,] !*
~y!*
i<
c*
! f
/ZgzZX s\~g !*
Z f zkZ
WZ 'Z {z q B; Z}
.' ] x Y
kZV CY 0*
6,Rng Z q ZgzZ q
-Z 0
+
iX Za
smb!*
]kZgzZ{wtgzZD.
} yY" {@x
E
G
$E
] ZJ
Ug K - gzZ K - i M 0$ kZgzZ i M 0G
X @*
7t
/
xsZ& zGpq
C
-Z wt X
H^ Ig tz {

:
X
\ M Z gX SgB ]KZ x! gzZ
zC
Z gq
- 4,
xsZ
*
@Y .
gzZ y M X Y ZZ ]Z B} B
-Zh|q~* ~ wz4,
q

~0
+
z Z}
.gzZq
-Z ! g%ZgzZq
-ZtX
Za ~i~ C gzZ ~z6 p
/Z :X sg !*
@*
kgzZ
7
/Z YYX @*
0*
7Za ~Vz yZp D~(,
H
#
-E
-Z 
D q
-ZQ
B
; Z}
.L ]gp
/Z~bh
+]
.X 8
- ZDq
: Zg0
+Z ] ]Q X 7m Z}
. X
Hc*
^
] q Z +Z VZbp
/ZX CkC~g z ~g Y~]gZgz gzZ]uz
~ V; ]g V; Z}
.] 4V- X D7wEZ
0t{0
+
iq
-Z 8
-/ ~z6q
- k D MwkZX ~}
atgzZX g0
+Z]*p8
-t *
@Y HwX *
@Y
-Z }7 kZ }t \ M
q
/Z pX D Y tv Z lp
t
ezzk Qt! etW[s{z :
L Zgz
Y V-
/Z V;X C M 7~ykZq 6,h
+]
.* ` M
.
Z ~(,
t :
L Zzg0
+Z 7 :
L Zz 8
-
6n` a^e 1n 1 4 (u (n (( knu ^] oeX ] !*
f.
gzZ
243~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-

oa ^e ^ ] ^ ] 1a ^j] ^ ] ] 1a ^j^q ]
1 ] ] ^ ]( n 1a ^i u 1 a^e 1a n 2
1 t^ 1a m g_ ^ 1 ni ] one ]`F 1a ^j:
[Revelied Knowledge y o`] ou 6n] oa >i^ 1 i o] (1a^i
[External j one oq^ o ga 6na oi ^m 6nfm`i ojm]]
g0
+
i C M t 6,
-kZ]!*
8
tX !1a oi ^mAuthority]
}0
+
6,q
-Z \ Mt X DgzZ ~(,{ c*
i8
-t CY s
g , Z q
-Z6, 7y Y 7,~ akZ Z @*
h Z
MN Y n
t c*
X : m i Zz6, T Za
V!*
+ZpX w!*
ankZX c*
qz 9 kZq
- kg 0*
Y gZ
XgzZ g M ~ ]g D76,VE
KyZ |gzZ f
e 6,
q 0
+
i q Z Z q wDZ q q q ] ~
$z g @*
d
sZ ] Zg ]*sZX V**
Z gzZ && q 'g
!*
k0*
}g
/ZX ~g z ~g Y r z
gzZ |
# c*
g yZ 7bZ a
G

$Zzg KZ ,a
e
XD+C
G
0 xEgzZ +gzZ Y fy
A&
Y g Zth
+]
.X M
h Za o ng Z ZgwyxgVzqx {zV~~
V-
/xg iZ% D~
.Z ]d
$z + h
+]
.}g
tiw= }~
.Z }s }: ZDi Z0
+Z
~ s 0 ZgzZ q Z Z Y ZnZa] mZY g Ztf g Zh
+]
.
**
xtgzZ @*
J (,
M x {zkZX
8]YgyZ
!*
gzZ~gzZ q yZgzZ ?FY ZgzZ qt y
M Le
f g Zh
+]
.zgZ eta ?
g 2 Z HgzZ[ Z H~ YxzngzZ
Vzq X C p VAZKZVzq yZ 7 b +Z
gzZ _ hg **
Z Sg 7!*
]gzX CY Z !*
]gz
XgYChg**
Z ~g76,
g4q^~uz[Z]gzX
k{zakZ Len
+Z zzf gZh
+]
.p
YZZ ]xyZ qz bkZLZs~uz c
[Z V#V#wj gzZ Z qzY gZ~ kZQ ZZ q
-Z
244~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-

gzZ qzs}uz q
-Z qZZQ N M ~z qZZ ZY Z yZ
VZ {Z
+V!jgzZZ\ M LZwj LZ|(,
}uzq
-Z
wj ZN[xgzZI$
{zI{gx **
]~kZX
Na
4z]
.Y gzZ Z
# YgZV:gzZV]yZ1 E8F
{z }X ICsp~] q~uz DD F,
,q qq
-Z~
~IF,
Z
ZF,
kZJ
.
-Vg CgziVq } @*
k
H qz **
gzi q pQ sp~ p{zy
H !*
gzZ D z]Zp
Qsp~R,
{zy
H !*
gzZ MpQ~IF,
Z
Z.
kZ
~kZgzZ ;e )6,
zZyZNVgqgzZV kgzZVgzZzZ VzR,

X Isp~i Z{zy
H !*
gzZ M 6,
yZ Z ZJ
-VH qz=
Z
6X
E
.
3
D 5 V; ~ V; Y Z Zz pg yZZ 6,Y g ZtB f g Z kZ
gJ
-i ZR,
gzZR,
pgzZ p } Dn
i ZgzZR,
gzZyxgR,
gzZ pgzZyxgpgzZ} i ZY gZ
gZ,
@VzC
~ yZ e Y 0*
Vc*
/+Z] /yxg

M b q
-Z Z
Z Z V-
/xggzZ6,xC
C
~A kZgzZ V
e SVc*
h x lZ +Z ~ A xgR,
gzZ p}e M
i ZgzZR,
bZgzZX V~Vg ZR,
gzZVp Z
X Vgw6,
Z e Y0*
Vc*
g Zx lZ +Zyxg
xgt V; Q !k
,
q f g ZwZkZ
G
Y
'

& L
ZR,
E
L pkZX t }g +d pX VCY0*
gzVc*
/

Y
&R,
L L kZQ Zsp~ s
R,
L L{zQ
~g R,
kZ {zQ g (Z^ E
dR,
L L{zQ ZR,
dL L4z]
.g Z KZR,
QXgN ?&
H sp
@*
h Z"
H0i ZtspzQ Z Za 6R,
L Q
L sp~
gzZ YVCY0*
}:}gza~x **
XVc*
/

@tX ;g MZ
X zlZ~Vze
I
G
k
J
4
5
/
ZzpgyZZ6,Y g Z {o1l{t *Z} (,
yzg Z e G !*
L L ~ x *Z V,Z yZZ (Z6,g **
kZ` yZZ6,]t
G
$ L LkZ~ Vzk
4G
B
L LgzZ SE
5G
,
gzZ Vzk
,
KZ {z [ZgzZ c*
w ZL LgzZ
245 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-

kZf ] Z {)z ZR,


dL LgzZ R,
L L~ Vz)dyZ y
s{z
/ZVqX ~*iyZ},qt c*
@*M b
p yzg Z egzZ y *Z Y g Z X
i gzZR,
p
4Zg Y76,x **
]]
$Z nZ~ zg]c*

H
4
5
F
5
byzg Z egzZ Hx **
yzg Z e[ ^
OZ GkZ L L[ KZ g wg W,O
g Z
bxi Zg gzZ qgzZ &VZbpg t ~k
,5
+W,
Z
X g
+Ie
$h
+]
.[ Z
zbh
+]
.nkZ
: { ] *
c +
h.
]z * : K gz Z V Z b ~ } g !*
] kZ J
- q **
-
~#
}
. r
# & *
* Z f { ^
,Y ) Z q
-Z kZK 7 ] c*
H H V \
: @*
Y H7
Historical cosmologies
The following table outlines the significant historical
cosmologies in chronological order.
Historical descriptions of the cosmos
Name

Author and Classification

Remarks

date
Brahmanda Hindu
Rigveda

Cyclical
or

The universe is a
cosmic egg that cycles

(1500-1200

oscillating, between expansion and

B.C.)

Infinite
in time

total collapse. It
expanded from a
concentrated form -a
point called a Bindu.
The universe, as a
living entity, is bound
to the perpetual cycle

246 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-
of birth, death, and
rebirth
A t o m i s t Anaxagoras I n f i n i t e The universe contains
universe

( 5 0 0 - 4 2 8 in extent onl y two t hi n gs : a n


B.C.) & later
Epicurus

infinite number of tiny


seeds, or atoms, and the
void of infinite extent.
All atoms are made of
the same substance, but
differ in size and shape.
Objects are formed from
atom aggregations and
decay back into atoms.
Incorporates Leucippus'
principle of causality:
"nothi ng happ ens at
ra n d o m ; e v e r yt h i n g
happens out of reason
and necessity." The
universe was not ruled
by gods.

S t o i c S t o i c s I s l a n d The cosmos is finite and


universe ( 4 0 0 - 2 0 0 universe s u r r o u n d e d b y a n
B.C.)

infinite void. It is in a
state of flux, as it
pulsates i n si ze and
periodically passes
through upheavals and
conflagrations.

247 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-
Aristotelian Aristotle

Geocentric, Spherical earth is

universe

(384-322

static,

surrounded by

B.C.)

steady

concentric celestial

state,

spheres. Universe exists

finite

unchanged throughout

extent,

eternity. Contains a 5th

infinite

element called aether

time

(later known as
quintessence).

Aristarchean Aristarchus
universe

Heliocentric Earth rotates daily on

(circa 280

its axis and revolves

B.C.)

annually about the sun


in a circular orbit.
Sphere of fixed stars is
centered about the sun.

Seleucian Seleucus of
universe

Heliocentric Modifications to the

Seleucia

Aristarchean universe,

(circa 190

with the inclusion of

B.C.)

the tide phenomenon to


explain heliocentrism.

248 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-
Ptolemaic Ptolemy
model

(2nd century

Geocentric Universe orbits about a


stationary Earth.

(based on A.D.)

Planets move in

Aristotelian

circular epicycles, each

universe)

having a center that


moved in a larger
circular orbit (called an
eccentric or a deferent)
around a center-point
near the Earth. The use
of equants added
another level of
complexity and
allowed astronomers to
predict the positions of
the planets. The most
successful universe
model of all time, using
the criterion of
longevity. Almagest
(the Great System).

249 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-
Aryabhatan Aryabhata
model

(499 A.D.)

Geocentric The Earth rotates and


or
the planets move in
Heliocentric e l l i p t i c a l o r b i t s ,
possibly around either
the Earth or the Sun. It
is uncertain whether
the model is geocentric
or heliocentric due to
planetary orbits given
with respect to both the
Earth and the Sun.

Abrahamic Medieval
universe

Finite in The universe that is

philosophers time

finite in time and has a

(500-1200)

beginning is proposed
by the Christian
philosopher, John
Philoponus, who
argues against the
ancient Greek notion of
an infinite past. Logical
arguments supporting
a finite universe are
developed by the early
Muslim philosopher,
Alkindus; the Jewish
philos opher, Saadia
Gaon; and the Muslim
theologian, Algazel.

250 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-
Albumasar Ja'far ibn
model

Heliocentric His planetary orbits are

Muhammad

only given with respect

Abu Ma'shar
al-Balkhi

to the Sun rather than

(787-886)

the Earth, thus


suggesting a
heliocentric model.

Maragha

Maragha

models

school
(1259-1474)

Geocentric Various modifications


to the Ptolemaic model
and

Aristotelian

universe, such as the


rejection of the equant
and eccentrics at the
Maragheh observatory,
the first accurate lunar
model by Ibn al-Shatir,
and the rejection of a
stationery Earth in
favour of the Earth's
rotation by Ali
Nilakanthan Nilakantha
model
Somayaji
(1444-1544)

Geocentric A universe in which the


and
planets orbit the Sun
Heliocentric and the Sun orbits the
Earth, similar to the
later Tychonic system.

251 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-
Copernican Nicolaus
universe

Heliocentric The geocentric

Copernicus

Maragha model of Ibn

(1543)

al-Shatir adapted to
meet the requirements
of the ancient
heliocentric
Aristarchean universe
in his De
revolutionibus orbium
coelestium.

Tychonic

Tycho Brahe Geocentric A universe in which the

system

(1546-1601)

and
planets orbit the Sun
Heliocentric and the Sun orbits the
Earth, similar to the
earlier Nilakanthan
model.

Static
Sir Isaac
Newtonian Newton
(1642-1727)

Static
Every particle in the
(evolving), universe attracts every
steady

other particle. Matter

state,
infinite

on the large scale is


uniformly distributed.
Gravitationally
balanced but unstable.

252~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-
Cartesian Ren

Static

A system of huge

Vortex

Descartes

(evolving), swirling whirlpools of

universe

17th century steady


state,

aethereal or fine matter


produces what we

infinite

would call gravitational


effects. His vacuum
was not empty. All
space was filled with
matter that swirled
around in large and
small vortices.

Hierarchical Immanuel
Static
Matter is clustered on
universe Kant, Johann (evolving), ever larger scales of
Lambert

steady

hierarchy. Matter is

1700s

state,
infinite

endlessly being
recycled.

Einstein
Universe

Albert
Einstein

Static
"Matter without
(nominally). motion." Contains

with a

1917

Bounded uniformly distributed

cosmological
constant

(finite)

matter. Uniformly
curved spherical space;
based on Riemann's
hypersphere.
Curvature is set equal
to. In effect is
equivalent to a
repulsive force which
counteracts gravity.
Unstable.

253~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-
De Sitter

Willem de

universe

Sitter 1917

Expanding "Motion without


matter." Only
flat
space.
Steady
state.

apparently static. Based


on Einstein's General
Relativity. Space
expands with constant
acceleration. Scale
factor (radius of
universe) increases
exponentially, i.e.
constant inflation.

MacMillan William

Static &

MacMillan

steady

1920s

state

New matter is created


from radiation.
Starlight is perpetually
recycled into new
matter particles.

universe

Friedmann

Spherical Positive curvature.


expanding Curvature constant k =

of

1922

space.

Friedmann Alexander

spherical

k= +1

space

;no

Friedmann Alexander

+1
Expands then
recollapses. Spatially
closed (finite).

universe

Friedmann

Hyperbolic Negative curvature.


expanding Said to be infinite (but

of

1924

space.

hyperbolic

k= -1 ;

space

no

ambiguous).
Unbounded. Expands
forever.

254~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-
Dirac

Paul Dirac

large

1930s

Expanding Demands a large


variation in G, which
decreases with time.
Gravity weakens as

numbers
hypothesis

universe evolves.

Friedmann Einstein &


zero-curvature, DeSitter
also
1932
known as
the
Einstein-DeSitter
universe

Expanding
flat
space.
k= 0 ;
Critical
density

Curvature constant k =
0. Said to be infinite
(but ambiguous).
'Unbounded cosmos of
limited extent.'
Expands forever.
'Simplest' of all known
universes. Named after
but not considered by
Friedmann. Has a
deceleration term q =
which means that its
expansion rate slows
down.

Georges Georges
Lematre Lematre
the
1927-29
original
Big Bang.
aka
FriedmannLematre
Model

Expansion is positive and has a


Gravity magnitude greater than
Gravity. Universe has
initial high density
state ('primeval atom').
Followed by a two
stage expansion. is
used to destabilize the
universe. (Lematre is
considered to be the
father of the big bang
model.)

255 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-
Oscillating Favored by
universe Friedmann
(aka
1920s
FriedmannEinstein;
was
latter's 1st
choice
after
rejecting
his own
1917
model)

Expanding
and
contracting
in cycles

Time is endless and


beginningless; thus
avoids the
beginning-of-time
paradox. Perpetual
cycles of big bang
followed by big crunch.

Eddington Arthur
Eddington
1930

first
Static
then
Expands

Static Einstein 1917


universe with its
instability disturbed
into expansion mode;
with relentless matter
dilution becomes a
DeSitter universe.
dominates gravity.

256 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-
Milne

Edward

Kinematic Rejects general

universe

Milne, 1933,

expansion relativity and the

of
1935;
kinematic William H.

with NO expanding space


space
paradigm. Gravity not

relativity

expansion included as initial

McCrea,
1930s

assumption. Obeys
cosmological principle
& rules of special
relativity. The Milne
expanding universe
consists of a finite
spherical cloud of
particles (or galaxies)
that expands WITHIN
flat space which is
infinite and otherwise
empty. It has a center
and a cosmic edge (the
surface of the particle
cloud) which expands
at light speed. His
explanation of gravity
was elaborate and
unconvincing. For
instance, his universe
has an infinite number
of particles, hence
infinite mass, within a
finite cosmic volume.

257 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-
Friedmann- Howard
Lematre- Robertson,

Uniformly Class of universes that


expanding are homogenous and
isotropic. Spacetime
separates into

Robertson- Arthur
Walker

Walker, 1935

uniformly curved space

class of

and cosmic time


common to all

models

comoving observers.
The formulation system
is now known as the
FLRW or
Robertson-Walker
metrics of cosmic time
and curved space.

expanding Bondi,

Expanding, Matter creation rate


maintains constant
steady

(Bondi &

Thomas

state,

Gold)

Gold 1948

infinite

Steady-state Herman

density. Continuous
creation out of nothing
from nowhere.
Exponential expansion.
Deceleration term q =
-1.

expanding 1948

Expanding, Matter creation rate


maintains constant
steady

(Hoyle)

state;

Steady-state Fred Hoyle

but
unstable

density. But since


matter creation rate
must be exactly
balanced with the space
expansion rate the
system is unstable.

258 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-
Ambiplasma Hannes
Alfvn 1965
Oskar Klein

Cellular

Based on the concept of

universe, plasma cosmology. The


universe is viewed as
expanding
meta-galaxies divided
by
by double layers -hence
means of
its bubble-like nature.
matter- Other universes are
antimatter formed from other
annihilation bubbles. Ongoing
cosmic
matter-antimatter
annihilations keep the
bubbles separated and
moving apart
preventing them from
interacting.

Brans-Dicke Carl H.
Brans;
Robert H.
Dicke

Expanding Based on Mach's


principle. G varies with
time as universe
expands. "But nobody
is quite sure what
Mach's principle
actually means."

259 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-
Cosmic

Alan Guth

Big Bang Based on the concept of

inflation

1980

with

hot inflation. The

modification universe is viewed as a


to solve multiple quantum flux
horizon

-hence its bubble-like

problem nature. Other universes


and
are formed from other
flatness

bubbles. Ongoing

problem. cosmic expansion kept


the bubbles separated
and moving apart
preventing them from
interacting.
Eternal

Andre

Big Bang A multiverse, based on

Inflation
(a

Linde 1983

with
cosmic

multiple
universe
model)

the concept of cold


inflation, in which

inflation inflationary events


occur at random each
with independent
initial conditions; some
expand into bubble
universes supposedly
like our entire cosmos.
Bubbles nucleate in a
spacetime foam.

260~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-
Cyclic

Paul

model

Steinhardt;

Expanding Two parallel orbifold


planes or M-branes
and

Neil Turok

contracting

2002

in cycles;
M
theory.

collide periodically in a
higher dimensional
space. With
quintessence or dark
energy

6, kwD ZgzZ@_
zkZr
# & **
c*
N
_ Islam, Science Muslims & Technology [2007] [
>g xB { ^
,Y Science & IslamlzwD ZgzZ@
X ]gz qg Ttzgd)q
-Zw+ Z K- Y m
CZ
?[gV Z.
}*
!yZb +
h.
] H
: D
r
# & **
Zf
^2 i 7] 1:q ] ^ ^ t 1a q o`m ZZ
4` 6n` i o # ] ] n 1a ^2 4` i ^ 1 ] om 1a
C1
: >Z353e
$WyW
r
# & **
Z fkZ !XX^m^
1 ] ] 1+ 6n^ oe 6n ^ 7^n^ o] ] a gmZZ
o]  m o+ 1^q l^e m ] i 7^`m oe 6n 1]
C2
kZp ! XX1a a^ ^ n2 a h ]ni 1a 6n` o^ l^e m ^n 1a ue
b8 g- c*
71yY[ Z wZkZX l{ {z7e
$W
kZ J
-[ Z {z gN',
Z',V*
K Z}
.~ t Wz Z LZ k',&
/yZ
t r
# & *
* Z f ? VYgzZ ^zg H~ yZZ kZ ?7VYyZZ6,yW

,*x{ Z',X [gV Z}


.L VZb ` W x Zg f] !*
V,Z\WgzZ`gZ}
.L Cx **
{,~V Zb

X 56& **
Z fh& *
* Zf C1
X 56sZ C2
261 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-

1xt- zZ
V Zb,yZ \ W ?~
q :Z %Z kZ
J
-x vZ ZgzZ J
-\ Wq :Z x kZ V6,x !Z {z
] !*
Z r
# & *
* Z f yZ ?g7VY $zyZ& *
* Z f ] h~
XOg:xz

262~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-
Not

a part of this book

t (]g~xsZ
m^f m kF + ]
q ]] o% f$] ^` m%^m5 :e
$ ] o5
$ M y M

mjm$ ^j` fe n i ^m $ a ] jm n m m $ ^n # ^e m
n m $ ` q ] $ `mm] n e
# ] $ ] # ] $ ` j] $ ` m^f o
& **
Z f 0vZwg Vg~ 12:60:Z g n u$

t 6n 1 kne ] 1a ]a ^j] ^ kne 7^`mL LD


r
#
]e ] 1i oe 1 ] @u n 1a ^ oe ` ^ n] 1
1 ] | ] ^i ^ ni ku ]e6n`] ] 1 kne ] oe k
r
# & **wQL yXX^m mi oe u ^ 1m H l 6n o]
$E
M Z
(,! f: n
pgg6,sZ: {z @*
Zz 0G
t
Cg ZvZ wgVgbg Z
$Z zmvZ -vZ wg q
G
$ h
4hI
-E
$
m] $ ] : @*M~Z {gX
ez~[ NZ$Z
qb>XG
m^fm
oF &m ^$^ &$ `mm] # ] m # ] m^fm ^$]
g {zg?v
} Z L L ^n ] q] n i+ n # ] n ` F ^e oF ]
wg Zt kZ 10 :Z B; vZ6,B; yZgvZZ
{ Z',
uzmvZ -vZ wg j~g/s: Zz 6,B;
j~g/s Sq] ]+Z[gvZg6,g
G
'

k0*
} g + Z
# :XZ
g Z 0 ~ 12e
$ M Z >g g
,: q
-BvZ {z, ]!*
kZgzZN Ma'g
V( ,{: yc MV 0*
B; LZ ,: **
i ,: ~ga
kZX z ]n~ hyZgzZ yZ ,:
**
vZwg~
{ Z',
u vZ wg ^zz ~g/ e
$g/ $Z Z% ~ e
$ M ~g7
zmvZ -vZwg VX 7J
-<
d
$zG @*
& }#

yZ g M wJxsZ + 'g]l g} e
$Z@ \vZ
] Z zmvZ -[ $
g~ V(gzZ v {L{ k
H
4Z~} ],Z+yZ yZ V { M6,kZ {z
/Z {z
263~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-

?mH ^zzVggzZ $Z ~g/e


$ M kZz]nayZgzZ
Vgs~xs Z zg e
$ M kZ YwZt & *
* Z f t
Z f e c*
xz ^zz xsZ Vz%}g e" ~ Zi M ^zz
yZg N
7 18 e
$ M {g~]o^zzVz%r
# & **
p
g ?n|
# g {z Z
#
H lp VvZ L
L 0
$Z wg wyZx Zg hzz e
$g/ V
] y
]| yZg m kZ 7
g Z

Vz%~ y M t t Z[ ZX 6,g
) !*

^zz ~g/Vg y M
@*
"
$U*
t T 7ZkZ e
$ M
w+ Z r
# & **
Z f v!*
f c*
xz hkZVz%p c*
h
# & **
r
e
$g/! fT ~e
$g/p y M
Z @*
M',wZ
vZwg H t:^zzvZwg
/Z'g ZzH ?g M', y M

Sq zmvZ -[ $
g H M
h 0: Z',
u3 Z Z}
.zmvZ kZ} h^zzVg c*
MakZxsZ H ?k
,5
+ z VIzzVg
e
$g/=g &
+& $ VgSq zmvZ -vZ wg )g f h
xs VZxLZ 'ggzZ ve Z
# t ~g/?} Z
} ,H Bks kZ ,s', } Z ,C
OZ
VCZz vZ wg H N VZ ]Z Z ,W6,kZ 8 Y N
H} ^zz eTZz ^zzt e
$g/ ? q t x t
e
$g/tt?
Sqg ZzyZpwgzZ t zmvZ -vZwg
e b: ^zz\ M ~ e
$g/X :g ZzyZ Zuz g ZzyZ q
-Z s~ T
zmvZ -vZwg { z ~ c*
H M
/
hwEZ ht\ M
zmvZ -vZ wg c*
} ^ !*
$Z kZ ?}g Z ^zz
h Z9~ $Z kZ! Z0ZvZoo i Z ?} Z9g ZzyZgzZ ~
M
vZ -vZ wg~ e
$g/zmvZ -vZ wg ! Z0ZvZ}g e" p
B& **
Z f }g v!*
f
Hc*
7h~g/ $Z6, zm
a g Z
e
$g/ kZ:gz 7Zz
LZt Zj 4 \ M LZ C 7
264~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-

Zz Ca4 qzgkZLZgzZ {zZu


c*

~}g !*
vZwgy M
@*
~} ],
Z ^] ^s
}n$Z+F,
klkZ ^] ^wJ
) Z gzZ
G
4hI$
-E
e
$g/ u ontX
c*
]gZ c*
b >XG
gzZ zmvZ -[ $
g #+ pt M', b Z M

)g fe
$g/ zmvZ -vZwg J
- O] M
] c*
M
g Z~ ^ oe n 7xtr
# & *
* Z f c*
7g Z
qZz
#
Z
1Z ]|Wa { 0]| V
kZpgzZ c*

7x **
b ZZ0{D1Z ]|gzZ/]|a
**
a}kZ {z
} Z
/
g Z [
$
g g Z',
wJ}kZxT 1kZ #
ZwZkZ Z IZ
ZgzZ d [ NZ kZ { 0gzZX c*
g Z
6,g~g/1Z]|: Y 7t & *
* Z f HwZ \ M ~
/
]|b J (,aB; gzZ H/]|yZ q
-ZX /
]|:
-Z O/
q
]| Ht Q #
ZgzZ c*

'
**

1Z]|
/
]| bkZ YY H ~ Z
Zb yZ ~
>
]|X I Z kZq
/
-Z ~ 4Z c*
zJ
-[ Zb yZ
@*
'
**
Z F,
%}gt D {0
+
i b ZZ0{D1Z ` M
/Z
# & **
r
Z fzmvZ -vZwg c*
[ #
Z}ZZ vZw
gY
{h
+]
.qY ! f 7#
}
.+ 6,Rpi ZgzZyn" v!*
f
a# ZkZgzZt
# I: e
$g/kZ {z }e
$g/: Zg ZtugzZ
Og !*
Z x6,kZ n
pg 7g{z 6,qT Zz**

gzZ ~i y e
$h
+]
.**
gLZ ~ IgzZ gZ ce
l^q] o 1n u 6n p^ ^ ni] 1 ]L L: MX ]g
1i 1ja^2^ u ^e o ` u lu 1a km] ` 1a p
m  gq ^` ] o< km 6mne o ^ 1 ] o:] l o\e m]
^ 1 u i 1a^j^q ^m oe nJ ^ ^6n ` 1a^jm l^q]
1 k n ^i ^u u 1] oi i^ ^ m wQLVvy6n` ^nj]
265 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-

oni o t 1 ]j] ] ] 1 l]q o j]


^i^n ]j] p o n 1 i^ ] 1+ 6n` a6n l^u_]
l ] ]a 1 1] ] ^i  i n ^ 7^ n
wQM vy ! 1a ^jm oe u ^ k 6n p^ ^
zg BmZe
$.r
# & **
Z f~}g 0*
zx9C
/kZ
D xsZ + |~ ]q Z : Z
yZ )g f 0 yZ W
@*
xX $
x]g q~g7 xsZ T ~ w 4u ~zg !*
+Z D
xsZ7xtZX 7xid
g ~
.Z sZx ZZ
.Z ] Z fgzZ g;ZY#
~
Z~ zg <
L zy M
C7~i y ~
G
E
G
CC
:gzZ ZD
gzZ ~g Z)f >X$I ZDI ZsgzZs7h~
GEG
~g Z)f Y fz Y yZgzZ V
~ ++
$ yZ s~ >X$zDIZ
[Federalist g 8 y M
X V B+ F,H * kZ gzZ n
pg Z}
.sp
gzZ e
$g2 ~ [f{z #
] !*
kZ '[ M M 6,i Papers]
}u~i y ~xsZX Zz**
[Constitutionalism] g @*
M M
zgg rg e yZ Z kgzZ q )Z<
L zy M
U%z ~
. y Y7 C
zz =yZ c*
D YK ~
.Z] Z)g f}~eb)Z~
GEG
A & ) }o ^Z q+D

+z >X$ IZ sg (Z kZgzZ CY
X n
pg
~ yzZ "
$U*
t Zz { kZ r
# & **
Zf
gzZD YN Zyiz%x x ZD7DI Za~
.Z] Z
- yZ c*
y ]!*
w V;z { z Le w ]g%T
city states **
~ **
- yZ D Zg]N Z%x s V
VgyZ X DZN Z%'gx V
c*
g4
c*
g%
gtr
# & **
Dg i~
.Z] Z
zq ZgVz%
" X ge
- ]gzxWx Z/gzZ #Z GE
0G
$.
k6,city states y**
x gzZ D
~x kZ~ V~y**
-
**

g @*
~g7 xs ZgzZ yzZ D YKg~ zg Zg ] V- 2 Z
~xs Z *
C
@Yc*
0*
7g Athanian Democracyc*
V~y**
-~
266 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-

~ Z] Z <
.
L zy M
sZYX 7h ~i Z0
+Z 4~ b)
D @*M ~ y M
i **
~ ]I ZgzZDIZ Zz Zg Z C
^] : [
$
g
g ZX D7',
Z',
L
C**
gzZ ZzV\ M D7',
Z',
DgzZ Zz
o h^e ] oe] wZ`
zdL L ]] o] ^
] : ZybkZy*~Z >g OOR &mu nj] |rv]
M
X b 7f c*
DI Z Y7?
/ZV} Z L L i j ] ]
~g g ] n jj] ]^ : 2] !*
6,gm{\
M~[Z M zwZ
G
'
+
~ kZ Z
# gzZ gA w }g J
-Z
# 7,y M
:F,
KZ
G
G
E
'
G
$
g
{gt >X [Z~e$/
]|} 9JZ Ys %Z ~g +
-Z c*
q

7~/>w CZazg~zg <


L zy M
~ekZgzZ
C" bx **
~i y ZgkZ ~7Zg KZgzZ W Z ]g
c*
] !*
]g gzZ ]Z`
e
$. bg Z
~igz s y M
Zgq
-Z /]|X
kZgzZ M ]g{z ] ~igz s y M
/
]|v!*
f
xsZ Z"
$U*
Z c*
uzg h y M
M M /
]|] Z`
s %Z
7]i YZ ~i y ~ xsZ X ]i YZ
~ ~i y ]g
g U
~ T h g @*
m{q
-Z g! f{ b Z ~i y
{z 70*
}gte
$Z@ y
KZ Z
KZ *u D7{ [ Z
xsZ Lg m$
+
B iz iC
y e {z 7{ [ Z
gzZ C Vzi y <
L zy M
C 7~i y ~
CY ZgzZ *
@Y Ho ^Z D YK ~
.Z ] Z s~ zg 2 Z
X Y7C
!*
} ],
Z kZgzZ $
Y 7~
.Z Zg x <
Lz y M

gzZx3,
x3,
gzZ: xe
$. C ~i y ~xsZyt r
# & **
r
# Z f ~i y z e
$g/! fgzZ zd
$z g @*
sZ~p Z
X1/Zze
$.
A q
-Z x Z/{zg7~igz s M M /
]|v!*
f
kZ ~g
/
V;z ]gq
-Z ck
,
i~/yZg { e {gt~
e
$ M kZ y M
]gx q
-Z kZ c*
7 CZ " _
. Zp
Zwg~}g !*
v
X:Zz e
$ M kZ! g;ZY6/
]| H Zz
267 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-

[ $
g r
# & *
* Z ftX @*
/ @*

/Z } c*

gzZ} 9$g Z \ M Z
# 7w{z /]|6,wz
Vz Z]
. @y
/kZ
w.]zmvZ -vZ wg
/Z
wg q
-Z ' L L:F,
X S7, 144:yZ/w M e
$ M y M
6,kZ
1Z ]|
YQ ? bOc*
0*
] z { z
/Z H ` g
/wg yZ
o5 jf ] j ] l^$ ^] % ] f k $] $ v ^ X

#
#

m] ] prn ^n ] $ m$ n f o g $m e^ ]

/
B; yZg Z wi **
` M e
$ Mt ZkCt /]|
rt3 Z Z}
.Zg
/7Zzt/
]|r
# & *
* Z f ]
HMg Z
Z
Dy bkZ ~ ] q Zh
+]
.rt ~ Vzo LZ {z G @*MB; yZ
kZ sc*
g Z 144yZ/w M >gy M
~igz s M M /
]|
X Cg Zz ]6,wgC

Hc*
C V ]c*
M x yZ y M
7 e
$ Mq
-Z
[Constitution of y M
M M H 7g Z s ]c*
M yZ /
]|
yM
Zg aOV (,
M Z~ ~igzs Quran]
1Z ]|Q 7D M M
[Freedom of Zg g Z ~ Zi M V,Z M
DwEZ h
M [Freedom of criticism] W~ Zi M gzZ Speech]
^] % ] f k $] $ v ^ :144e
$ M yZ/w M/
]|

^n ] $ m$ n f o g m$ e^ ] o jf] j ] l^$
]|ZM
h
wzv
Zwg ZxZ | 7,
X m# ] # ] prn
~ xsZ Z "
$U*
: I$ 3Y x Z/gzZ M i !*
~igz s M M /

s: ~igz s M M /
]|
1Z ]|wEZ Zgg Z ~ Zi M
kZ [ z Zgg Z ~ Zi M ~ xs Z Z c*
X ~ m,
g yppM M 1uzg
Freedom of expression ~ Zi M Zgg Z Z "
$U*
tgzZ Z "
$U*
Zz
Y
5!{ i Z0
N*
g E
+Z Z~ Zi M kZ[f$ypzu {zO ~ m,gVp#
Z
5G
[f Y~ ~,,)g fgt
KZgzZg2 O%Zg 8gzZ Z
~ wz zmvZ -vZ wg~ V Zg h kZ ~ Zi M
+Ie
$h
+]
.gzZVzoq)b: hYnkZX _ Mk',{gG
zd
$sZs: {" d
$z g @*
sZ {zYrIw
268 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-

[ Z Zz**
j~i y wZ
MgzZ e
$g2zz! f
yZ/w M ! g;ZY6/]| H c*
M 7B/]| s z kZ M
1VYt/
]| ? c*
$ Mt 1Z]|sH ?Zz**
e
144e
$ M
$Zzg k
e
0Z :%
g !*
i /]|M
h7Z]
.L mvZ -vZ wg
wZw
g Y\ M k
0Z c*

~z LZ /
]|
yY { c*
i \ M } Y 7~
>ZZ ~ H:
L kZ ~
z

] j ^_$ $ ] q L L:S7,
`e
$ Mt\
MkZM
h
gzZ L L MPO km(MV f] ]n n $ ] m ^$] o 

Z Z{X g { Z6,?wggzZ { Z ?6,V @*


#
c*
#
Z aZz w5" V~y
M kZ @*
g !*
bZ~ #
Z KZ w
g @*
w k7, Z~
666X 661B2x 0Z > ~ Zz] !*
{z e
$ M Z,]
y M
{ z c*

6,wZ[
$
g /]| Zx kZ
s y M
M M V,Z6,
C Z `e
$ M e
{zt yZ zg7 ~igzs M M Z
1Z]|gzZ 7~igz
r
# & *
* Z fp ~
gz WZ yZgzZ ~ w{
/yZ T~g?
VZeu **
o Z nkZ 6,~igz s M Mtzgt /
]|
2~ o Z nkZ +I e
$h
+]
.gzZ x VZet ~qX
X
H Vz7z sfp } 7 .]| @*
Cy M

^ q ] m  ] ?oe kFn e kmF! i oF ^n i! :


H
% o]
o m ] 101:LZuZg ] v oF mF
fn q
^ ] ^ ` $] oF] kmF! i o ? n n e t i
12:Z g n F

Zf7ts{V[Zl{~}g!*
Vz7]y M

xZzy ;c*
sY,/~Vz7]yZr
# &**
[zlgzZkZe
$ M'"
/
zYkZ'"tVz7y

?
Hc*
3H~Vz7yZZ7VYfyZXH}7]7*
*
z~
QZ =t Q7=yZZz +6,
C=stZz
269 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-

=yZZZ DkC~p~ h
e0*
|)gf=
] M Zz &
+
e Zz 0*
|{z =g f Ws= CY
gzZ =Dlg 7z [p! Mt ! M q
-Z ~ [Instruments]
y M
1yTvZ
M ZgzZ zmvZ - vZ wg)g f ] M]
{z bZ TbVLZ[
$
g] Z f [I ZgzZlW~p Z
yZ c*
g Z yZp Zz Z vZ
M OkYZ
M
kZ Xg 2~ -6, WS Zp{z H7{ .Z
V D M Z
# 9a kZ az % J e~
yZZB VZ
yZ .6,w i ZzgyZ D# Z yZ s$
+[
z~J
gq
-Z L L~p Zy M
VY Tg ~zzK
-%$
+* w

L
X C Vz9 b { a { w q
-Z kZ Z D 7w
7g Z [

g V,Z H7tvZyZZyZ1 W yZZoo
w1 t H
g Z yW
a Z
7& \ W wpH
vm $ ] ^ m%^m5 :D 7yZZ
?] ^ m$] ] o ^m m$]
# h # ] ^ m$] e + i ] ^e ^$ !

] ]aF jn i ] ] m ] e ] m i^m m!
i jj # ] m% ] u^ i + i $
5 ] ^n # ]
m$]
41:5 n h] F ] o $ p ^n % ] o e _m% ] # ] m
vZ -vZ wg {z~p Zy M
D M yZZ[ I Z @*
6,b [yZZ
/Z
\ M6,g[{z TV LZ bT TbkZ zm
[kZ x KZgzZgzZ ZpyZ @*
7t Zw yZp 5
xz J
-y
M {z z!*
[Z: { M6,sp~? ?
~q g w T c*
Zz y M
a Z X !*
',Vz ]y
Mz *gzZg

f ] $] ?^m] e # ^e : vZ6,kZ 1wJ


h] # ] g n ] ^e | $ F ^m ^e ' _
kZp*
@Yw kZ
7y M ~Vz6,
~61ZX 106:16 n
?Z F,
Z7 VY6,
V M} (,zkZy M
t @*M} h M
~ 67 @*
59 e
$ M?k V- { ] kZgzZZ',
Z ]|~Y m
CZ >g
27 0~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-

X
P-4Z',
Z ]|Z
# c*
M ,
] ~gqg gzZ c*
{ m,g { m,gVGx G
-Z
q
Hc*
CZ H tB Vzq}g nZg **
} (, a
]|wZgzZ
HH~ VZ H> Z',VG Z',Z yZ
X
P-4Z',Z
}g 62:Y m
CZ g n Fe ^ m5 ^j ^Fe ]F k k] ]? ^ :
HY7t G
_m ] ^ ] ]F n f e ^ :H?x tBVzq
X Vs 1t
/Zzx "
$} (,
yZ L Lc*

\ M 63:Y m
CZ g

?
?
j] ] ]^ ] o] ] q :g6,? [kZg
oF ] $ $ V G~: MgzZ 64:Y m
CZ # ]
Y?gzZ 1 u{qQ 65:Y m
CZ _m ? . 5 ^ k
X
P-4Z',Z ]|6,kZ 7s1t
: 7 VG, Z VYhgvZ ?Q G
: t6,gp t6,g[g ? yv: } {Z
+ "
[VY m
CZakZ Q7=yZZ ,:B =J
-Z
# Z gzZX
=p CY [ M = Z **
VX Dh
g Z
ggzZ]tlW 3 Zg+F,
s *, J
-
yZ ? VY; ]tt t nZ Z yZ p 9 {z 7
Z F,
Z: VY6, ~ V M } (,
VzVz y M t L
L t snZ Z
`wz4,]tgzZy M
{z 31e
$ M sy

Z Dvtg[g} H
Ym
CZX C7 ZpWg Z gp T e6,gVg lgzZ
[g t C 5 Zg kZ ^ I VZ KZ / yZgzZ
$Z@ x Z/gzZ [
e
$
g \vZ C { c*
igkZ t k
=g f % $
+
:D

o i ^ ] ] !fvm fvi ] _j ^
{zpn
pgyZ ? 119:yZ/wZ g i j ] kmFF ] ^$n$ e f ]
gzZg} Z \vZ=rZg [
$
g n
pg7 ?

n ] n ] ^] ^q o% f] ^ m%^m5 : M 7Boo
73:/pZ g n ] e $ q F^

A 3yZ C
/wgzZ {fZg6,g Zx KZ [
$
g
q
/wt zmvZ - [ $
g \vZ [ @*
"g~ s
271 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-

yZ\ M H N: yZZg t
/Z wi **
$ M y M
e
gzZ @: ~iw
$ ^e
$ L L:,} yYKZ~
\ M H L L:F, n + ] m $]
g X
W 7 Zz yZZ v t g uh ~ kZ LZ
6,
wqVyZ L L:F,
3:Z l]u n gi 1:Y ZZ
yZ s{z 6: Y E
5kZ _ 7`
Z 6,VKZ {z:F,
X $}: yY \ M }
D[ @*
"a! x ~zy
Z yZ
~4]y
M wb & Z
izg]ogzZq
#
-Z kZ Cg #
Z KZVz9X Z m ZgzZ
4
\vZJ
- 115 109e
$ M Zy~ {Z
+ {g?k{z WPgG]| \vZ
} Z L LY7 c*
]**
Zt kZ A }]| k
H] Z { z LZ
4
~[ Z {z ? Z}
.V ~gzZ= ZZ}
. V ?H*%0Z gG
+Z ~
/Z : h= T H]!*
{ z : x Zt vZ y4 ,n
c*
\ M T : ZkZ yZ ~ @*
Dgz\ M C] !*
G
'
+
zvZ
yZ~J
-Z
# yZyZJ
-
zkZ~[g Zg gzZ [g Z c*
6,Vzq ~g \ M gzZ yZ6,yZ \ M 1 :Zz= \ M Z
# yxg
D)g f \vZ y #
y?gzZ yV u #
Z KZ X yZ
uZ { k
HC
V \vZ z!*
+ Yt gzZz!*

4
yZu#
Z \ MsvZ {g0*
{g 0*
w iZ {z WPgG]|
&p ZiZ~]+Z[g { g !*
/G
i ] ^f $^ e i ] : G
z!*
$^
/ZgzZ}\ M {z, ZwZ\ M

/Z[ ZvZ} Z L L n v] m ] k]
4G
g
+Z **
Z z
\ M ,s
}g zig M t ]|l X 118:5{Z
B]!*
.4Z~}g !*
_
V {z Cg
/ Vz
/ [g J

X D :
ZvZ6,
}izggzZ D ~ :XZ g !*
yZZ ] Zzg kZ Wg Z
# Z yZgzZ9
d
)
,iu N*
g E
5.G W}o} ZpX D M yZZ {z
X C 7]+ Z}{ Zz { Zz V1@*
g (Z [|Zz i Z0
+Z
g 7tzg Z
8x gzg baZg +
$Y +g
1:%Z ,d
$
vZ 7 a kZVG ' l
7 akZb z ~}g !*
b +h
+]
.
27 2~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-

tg gzZ~t~Ie
$h
+]
.N M d
$
xsZg )g fkZ
T]c*
M wZ >g } D w y M
b gZ}g a
~
!*
M c*
g]
.Z**
~ =kZ g Y Sk
B gV ~
wt 9xt DI Z ! fa T ` sZ {z L
L
z ZzX@',
kZ] y M
D Z 7,^ I{ Z ({ Zp6,Vwg ^gzZ
% Z
~
t >76 m X @*
7,**
~ yZy]zZ Z
Zz ]c*
M &qg[Z x
Z7
g **
~
.Zx|t t z t (q Z
d
{z V,Z
H| (,yZZ yZ VzHg yZZI ZZ
# L
L C
X H{zwgkZgzZvZ T
kZ Y { Z Y J 7,y M
Z
# c*
y M

~igz s t
f V1@*
+ q 6, 7 M
] c*
M
/Z ~
*
@Y
/~}>y M
{z Ct kZqD& Zy M
X
% m n oFjm ]] ? f ] ]i ] m$] $ ] ] + i ] ?e ] ! :
bzgDD{z xz}> {>D 107:17 ]r$ ^
E
E
-G
-G
% : t ZzeD7>XG
aZ xz ]
{z:]
.gzZ+
$
/Z>XG
m$] ] % e ] ^] vm ^v] % ^a vm $ $ F j$] ] u m$]
{ c*
i
Z}
.i Zz M T 5:62 n # ] ] p` m # ] # ] kmF^Fe ] e $
i ]
n o ] :I**
l l] ] ] $ ]
~Um Zzh/ZgzZ Z yW
19:31 n v]
51:74 l$ 50:74 j% u ` $^:D 7,
v g e
~*aXvlp{zt @*
C% {>IZgzZDIZy M
@',
kZ
DZ LZ]y
M x- 30:164~hyZ gzy ]y
MgzZ >
Hy #
X {>IZ DI Z X N C ~ }g !*
V ZzKD6,Y
n % i j m$] p m] m mm nF ] m $ $?qi Z Z
yW
akZX 27:16 m F] o ? % ] n ] p ] $ ] ] ]i ] m$] ^
D Y
/~}> D zg F
g ]c*
Wyg {z Z
# Ct y
DIZ~
5 ]:
$ | ^u $ ! m$ nf$] n # ] ] m$]
] % Fu$ ] kmF! n oFji ]] ^n f jq] ^m $ m  ] n e] $m
273~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-

G-4Wz6,
xz }>gG
aZ n: {>V;zD" 58:19 ^n& e$ ]r$
gzZ]
. {>sqgzZc_ DD Y
/~}>DDI ZtX
~U wgygzZ w^ayY f, Z yW
X I Y7 {z:+
$
*
~s ZZ >g X c*
g Z
wh]]yt+F,
+
$
~] Z
^f n i] -
qkZ
Hc*
Cqu
qVzg Z+
? $]
^ e F ^ mF] ^ _6 n $ ] f i^ ^ ^ ^j mF! Fn i! p
ji ] & m n vi ] g] % % F f i$] ] o] ] ? $F
F & m
$ ] ^ ^j mF^Fe ] e$ m$] ] %
{>%Dc*
qD~* @*
CyW
aZX 167175:7 $ jm
{z @*
qi *u6,{ {> *gzZw n: {>y#
{z @*
7
st vZ {z Y t vZ) %
O ? Yt WZ
r% ] o] m$ ^ m mX : CYxz s
n _jm
F a r% ] o] m ] ^ $ ` a i a ^e] ^ 42:86
* qD]y
M ~*Z ZzD~*vt @*
Cy M
43:86
gzZ @*
g Z* D C ]gzZa + T |]y
M gzZ + Y
X B7DDkZ *I Z @*
]y
M
yM
Zz g "
$r
# & *
* ]gzg6,wZkZ
Z ? g H Vz yZ ? D O VY V1@*
O }>
**
7 Zj6,V Zjs **
g b s **
DsJ
-Vx 1gzZo
yZ 7**
~g H g gzZ g V/s **
z Y "
$ s

t V1@*
6,]c*
M y M
L~ g@*
sZ *
*PE
+gzZ b & Z H,

M F,
**
w+ Z kZ b!Zj kZ **

7 *
* J 7, 7,] c*
M y M
Q7e
$Zzg
y M
T i l W**
Z c*
V1@*

yxg ] kZ ]
^ :D
Y zng Z{DA kZ~wZ >g#
OY

g i j ^e h] ] ] mi $ ] kn f] i ^
t V1@*

gzZ D O V' C Hi VyZ k0*


vZ
M :F, 35:wZ
V1@*
6,y M
]c*
Mawz Z~ Vc: #LZ r
# & *
* Z f
y6,W] Zzd
$sZe
$Zzg {z c*
r z
pz e
$ZzgTZT
274~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-

>Zzkgk
,
"
$_o~ g @*
sZ w{gGX
~g !*
',gzZ +X ZTL: O @*
L:6,V Zj]c*
MM
~
9
F
B
& **
Z f [ 7x **
gzZPx " Zg6g F )
, x **

zd
$z g @*
!{gG 0#
Z )g f VC@*6,] c*
M M
~ VBKZ
~H"
${z
H HBkZ7J
-k Z#
Z kZgzZ ~ w$
+e
$Zzg
g @*
{z rc*

O V1@*
s~ 2~ n%
t V1@*
gzZ
E

x " Zgu zw +X CY0VC@*


~
I~[|Z ZgzZ} M z8
-gZ +V q)7x **
gzZP
F
g ] c*
M vZZ
# {z c*
CtiI Z y M
X [[f @*M
D6{ D OV
tV1@*D2~ g ` ] ]:Dzg
?

vi ` j p ] oj#u ^m& ii$^ D Z h Z5


t 9:44 f m$
o a e :g} 7,
~ v {zt 110:23
G
'
+
kZgzZvZ wgzZ ~g H yZ gwgzZ t Z
g ^$ ^$] $ n j^ : BwgkZgzZ] c*
M
D` Z'
3gzZg !*
',
X 65:9 ji j j mF! # ^e]
vm ^$ ] ] ! m$] n ^ :gz6,
g y#
p
]^ : { CvZz%y-YJ 7,y M
Z
# \vZ 34:83

6
$
n ]:7,
IIy M
98:16 n q$ ] _n ] # ^e j^ ! ] l]
z ;gl{gzZz z Y*
c J 7,y M
Z
# gzZ 4:73 n i i ! ] i
204:7 u i $ ] j] ] j^ ! ] p* ]] V YH3g6,
? @*

OgzZ 7D zg1
t V1@*
y M
{z @*
Cttzg +
GLZ y M

z: % N*
O O: V : V1@*
y M
s N*
Z
vi fr i &mv] ]aF ] : OgzZ MvZ Y
q 62 61 60 59:53 ] f ] # ] r^ F j] fi
XM
h {g 7BB 6,<Z WZ ] kZgzZ yZZ6,b Z}
.
q gJ
- WZ )g fZ}
.~ t "
$U*
xsZ b
uZg Zz]kZ)g fV Z}
.z n Zz]!*
xsZgzZb Z Y
]? j$i # ] ^ : q
-Z'Z}
. : Z}
.ztvZDg ZZ6,
27 5 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{zt:b& *
* Zf :~gK-

zg egzZ hgvZ ?HQ 51:16 f ^ p^m$^ u]$ F] ^$] n $] n F]


x yZX 52:16 j$i # ] n ] ^f ] m] ] lFF$ ] o ^ :
j] :,n[ Ze
$.~#
}
.r
# & *
* Z f~zgb
X D{ c*
ivZ c*
Y{ c*
i ?? 16{Z # ] ] ]

27 6 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{g e@c*
~
/c :xsZ

[*
!

{g e@c*
~
/c :xsZ
?c_yW:] W,
6yuy*
c Zx
nL L: r
# & *
* Z f D = 135e
$ M Y
Kg
1 cn !1a ie 1 7j ^i j ^ cn ] 1a ^ ^ n m
l^^ ] ie .e 1] oa m] 1a nm ] ^] o 1j ]
^nq ] 6na 1i nfi o cn o] ] o ga] ^i 1a ^ ^
o l^e j o] ] o n km9 o 9 1^ 1 9 16n
D
zyc*
Z]uzVr
# & **
Z f C1 XX1a ^jm l o 19
g ~ ]x<
Z M sx M
ht {z D kC
6n` ^ nui m px yZZ6,uZz Z}
.~#
zy CY
Ws<
C
g U*M Y1{ ^
,YkZ M w
/Z nui
{ ~g Zz Z LZ e
$gzZ | } 5ZN Y` M ~
~ ZxaZ
+Z * yGgzg xZyZp q g D
+z
g Zi" kZ { M ukZ c*
g uz Zp
\ M
H56,g 9 ~y
M ~ ] zmvZ -[ $
g a
m
CZ x ] x \ M gzZ +F,gzZ Y x m
CZ x ] x
Z <
Z x ` M 7
g yt r
# & **
a kZ X 0
gzZ n
pg 7 yZZ6, <
Z D V}o6,F,
',z vg )
,Z}
. q
-Z
:e
$ M >Z
+ >g%Z {"
$U*
my M
7tD Vu

Z fh! {g e@c*
~
/cxsZL L& *
*Z f C1
X 45& **
NRO ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{g e@c*
~
/c :xsZ

n F] o ] o i$] ^$ k k] m e ] on mF # ] ^ ] : ~116
vFf ^ # ]
j j k ] ve o n ^ ] ] ?o m ^
$]
o ^ ] ? o o ^ i
?H !}} Z ZZ!h n ] $ k]
x tZvZy4,n{z Z}
.V ~gzZ=ZZ}
. V
X @*
Dgz\ M C ]!*
+Z ~
/Z : h= T H] !*
{z :
c*
}oe{z C7V}ovg )
, Z}
.|._y M

kZ zmvZ -[ $
g g y |
/Z X C Vuu Zu
s %ZgzZi ~[IZgzZxsZ ~ ~y!*
i y M
gwJ]
n e ^n e 9 oF] ] ^ i gjF] ^m5 : 7,p Zy M
Lg7 !*
^ # ] ^e ^e ] ^ e ^ e j$m $ ^n e # ] $] f $]
$E
u~ o [ I Z 64:3 ^$^e ] ] ] ] $ i
6, 0G
g Z { {o |gzZ [ IZ Z ~g ] 5
x
/Z C su{ z 7] s {| e
$ X c*

Z X *
<
@Y e Z ~ <
Z @*
(Z "Z
/ZgzZ ] <
Z
kZ /Z +t a Z qx 6,

C o{xsZ ~
X Z gzZd bg Z
z g yc*
Zv g

NRP ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{g e@c*
~
/c :xsZ

[*
!

{g e@c*
~
/c :xsZ
?c_yW:] W,
6yuy*
c Zx
nL L: r
# & *
* Z f D = 135e
$ M Y
Kg
1 cn !1a ie 1 7j ^i j ^ cn ] 1a ^ ^ n m
l^^ ] ie .e 1] oa m] 1a nm ] ^] o 1j ]
^nq ] 6na 1i nfi o cn o] ] o ga] ^i 1a ^ ^
o l^e j o] ] o n km9 o 9 1^ 1 9 16n
D
zyc*
Z]uzVr
# & **
Z f C1 XX1a ^jm l o 19
g ~ ]x<
Z M sx M
ht {z D kC
6n` ^ nui m px yZZ6,uZz Z}
.~#
zy CY
Ws<
C
g U*M Y1{ ^
,YkZ M w
/Z nui
{ ~g Zz Z LZ e
$gzZ | } 5ZN Y` M ~
~ ZxaZ
+Z * yGgzg xZyZp q g D
+z
g Zi" kZ { M ukZ c*
g uz Zp
\ M
H56,g 9 ~y
M ~ ] zmvZ -[ $
g a
m
CZ x ] x \ M gzZ +F,gzZ Y x m
CZ x ] x
Z <
Z x ` M 7
g yt r
# & **
a kZ X 0
gzZ n
pg 7 yZZ6, <
Z D V}o6,F,
',z vg )
,Z}
. q
-Z
:e
$ M >Z
+ >g%Z {"
$U*
my M
7tD Vu

X 45& **
Z fh! {g e@c*
~
/cxsZL L& **
Z f C1
NRO ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

{g e@c*
~
/c :xsZ

n F] o ] o i$] ^$ k k] m e ] on mF # ] ^ ] : ~116
vFf ^ # ]
j j k ] ve o n ^ ] ] ?o m ^
$]
o ^ ] ? o o ^ i
?H !}} Z ZZ!h n ] $ k]
x tZvZy4,n{z Z}
.V ~gzZ=ZZ}
. V
X @*
Dgz\ M C ]!*
+Z ~
/Z : h= T H] !*
{z :
c*
}oe{z C7V}ovg )
, Z}
.|._y M

kZ zmvZ -[ $
g g y |
/Z X C Vuu Zu
s %ZgzZi ~[IZgzZxsZ ~ ~y!*
i y M
gwJ]
n e ^n e 9 oF] ] ^ i gjF] ^m5 : 7,p Zy M
Lg7 !*
^ # ] ^e ^e ] ^ e ^ e j$m $ ^n e # ] $] f $]
$E
6, 0G
u~ o [ I Z 64:3 ^$^e ] ] ] ] $ i
g Z { {o |gzZ [ IZ Z ~g ] 5
x
/Z C su{ z 7] s {| e
$ X c*

Z X @*
<
Y e Z ~ <
Z @*
(Z "Z
/ZgzZ ] <
Z
kZ /Z +t a Z qx 6,

C o{xsZ ~
X Z gzZd bg Z
z g yc*
Zv g

NRP ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

[*
!VZ

t &Zp~xsZ
:/Zz*
*b Z $
e+
h.
]
J g_ ^ Modernize 6n 1f_ ] 1 n^ ] 9]J
6na 1 o 1 J^ ] 1a ^n ] 1 pJ 9fm ] pJ
-a a 1 7^i 1^u (^^J e^_ 1 ]mq (^^e mq
mq l^m 1 ^% ^m l o m]( ^
C1
.o+ 1` 6n` lq l]e ^u l q ^m+ !!!^m
l~ y!*
i ~ m,
Z p kZ Z b Z : q
-Z e
$h
+]
.
[Dictionary of Philosophy] , O
, g Z >],Z c*
[fa#h
+]
.yZ c*
ce *
* l~[Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
c*
Zkzg * e
$h
+]
.~ ~,, V2ce **
qg V1Z
X
4
2 k
.G
~
C~ e b Z kZ k E
,
~qgzZ .
$gzZ ^g ke

4
5G3E Z h
+]
.q
-Z V2
kZgzZbkZ[fq6,T Z e
C] G
2
kZ gzZ What is Enlightenment ? y* .
$ X ~9] Z
y*yZkZ[Foucault]
} (,~kZ by*
C3
X M
hYK5~

X 13& **
Z fh! {
c*
+]
h
.:t &Zp~xsZL L& **
Z f C1
2. www.english.upenn.edu/~mgamer/Etexts/kant.html [31-08-2010]
3. Michel Foucault, What is Enlightenment? [ed. Paul Rabinow] New

York: Pantheon Books, 1984, pp. 32- 50.

265 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

:~a#! f+
h.
] :$
e+
h.
]
gz q
-g @*
i ~,,e
$h
+]
. ]gz + Yt
t:
L g Z + y
KZV
KZ V1g Z ~,, ? 9VY
]>Z ]]y
W ~g
/7d
$+Z ~ g @*
~,,
gzZ_ -6, ZpsgzZ s Cg ZuZu +
M qzg c*
5D Zg f Yg {
by
KZ: ZgzZ0
+
i~y
WgzZ y
KZtugzZ Y7 ]
X: VY g+F,
**
{z { ZpB
bgge
$x X Z}
.y
KZgzZ
1 : ] kZgzZ B
bg 6,][Z t d
$C
~,,
9k e
$h
+]
.X b Y Zg Z Y Zgz d
$C
X b ] gzZ q
-Z
0
+
i iZ y
KZh
+]
.t Z ;g 7b gkZ y
KZ ! f ~,,
E
xi Z yg e ~ a#! f ? Hpxi Z yg e X xi Z yg e x **
] 0EigzZ
:sf `g] d
[1] Modernity is not bas ed u pon one s ingle
principle.... it is the result of a dialogue between reason and
subjectivity.

[2] This cleavage between reason, rationality, or


objectivity on the one hand, and the subject, the collective
and individual selfhood; or subjectivity on the other, occurs
in the aftermath of the decline of a concept of transcendence
2
that shaped the metaphysical worldview of Christianity.
[3] Los i ng h old in t rad iti onal rel igi on a s a
consequence of secularization; the subject is forced to take
up the god-like position of a transcendental nodal point in

1.Alain Touraine, Critique of Modernity. Dr. David Macey. Cambridge

Blackwell, 1995.
2. Cornelia Klinger, ''From Freedom Without Choice to Choice Without

Freedom: The Trajectory of the Modern Subject",in constellations, Volume


6; Volume 11, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2004, p.121.

266 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ
order to ensure the unity and totality of being and
experience.

[4] To be autonomous is to be free in the sense of self

governingL and independentL .

[5] Modernity can and will no longer borrow the


criteria by which it takes its orientation from the models
supplied by another epoch; it has to create its normativity
out of itself.

According to Nietzie: "Transformation in the cultural role of


science occurs not as an effect of any development in
philosophy but with cultural decline of western religion.
By denying God from epistemology and ethics Kant
broke that link between epistemology and God, which was
still found in Descartes in particular and in classical thought
in general.
[6] Kants Wellanchauung "The moral freedom of
man is not merely a freedom from nature, but also freedom
from external supernatural powers. No one before Kant ever
exalted man so much no one had ever accorded him such a
degree of metaphysical independence".

[7] The Enlightenment does not take the ideal of this


mode of thinking from the philosoplical doctrines of the
past, on the contrary, it construct its ideal according to the

1. Ibid., p.122.
2. Routledge [Firm], Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy,

Routledge,2000,p.259.
3. Jrgen Habermas: The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Twelve
Lectures; Trans.Frederick G. Lawrence, Cambridge:MIT Press, 1996, p.7.
4. Ibid.,p. 7.

267 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ
model and pattern of contemporary natural science.1
Western instrumental reason is embodied in modern
technology.
[8] One of the central elements of this modernist
world view is a conception of science as the supremely
priviledged form of knowledge.

[9] This enlightenment requires nothing but freedom


and the most innocent of all that may be called "freedom":
freedom to make public use of one's reason in all matters.

[10] Kant in fact describes Enlightenment as the


moment when humanity is going to put its own reason to
use, without subjecting itself to any authority.

:~g Z *
* [f:
*
c gg:xsZ
P F
F6,] Za 0
+
i x gzZ x ( g<
[f
b K
M F,moral norms t D B morale ^
,
a yZ s
tD~
. = D7q D D=g f Yg { {z v e ^
,
X v
~ [fv D 7tKg Z Kg Z gzZ D Human D B

KZ t ~
CX [Human Rights] X a V
KZ 4Z s Human
{zt y Enlightened Modern{zI e
$h
+]
.gzZ wzgX

t ~
CZX ,g Z + Kg Z D=gf Yg { c*:WXZ kz
gy
KZ g [f a V
KZ yZ st x b ~g

1. Ernst Cassirer, Philosophy of the Enlightenment, U.S.A., princeston

University press, 1979,p.7.


2. John Gray, Enlightenment's Wake: Politics and Culture at the Close of the

Modern Age,New York: Routledge, 1995,p.159.


3. http://www.columbia.edu/acis/ets/CCREAD/etscc/kant.html [ 14-03-2010]
4. Michel Foucault, The Foucault Reader, [ed.,Paul Rabinow], Pantheon

Books, 1984,p.38.

268 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

\ M D7(Z\W
/ZgzZn
pg6,]Zz)ggzZ ~ Zi Mg=
bT Y c*
S bkZVYz, Z~p ZRawls 7By
KZ
Hg (Ziy @*
Y 7t D Y !*
zgzZ D YK Z`
c*
U
Z !*
z~ t ZgzZ yj
jZ Z W,
{ c*
i
i y @*
Y t Y
X gY je ^
,
h
+]
.
t
k~g @*
[f] V gzZxsZ7~%ZkZ
V gzZ xsZ z!*
8{ |p B
bg kZ KZ ~ Vl g @*
]e
$.~a#z +! fI e
$h
+]
.]]g @*
tgzZ e:{ ]kZ
Zg xsZp7b ^<
[fI e
$h
+]
. CC
B
Xg Z **
{ c*
i

g !*
g !*
[f&
c*
gz
( g xsZzz uZz kZ
VY Z
c*
g~
uKZxsZX @*
yj x **
Islam]
xsZ {Z tZg Z 7e%J e 4c*
gt :Z ]Zk
,
zu2Z sZ
a xsZ {z Z Z e [ e
$h
+]
.6,}n LZ { Zp V
%#
gzZ
c*
gg ~0*
<gzZ f <

c*
g
G
E
E
E
"
3
5 kZgzZ ~Wg 6,<%
D 7g Zg " ~ G
c*
gX e**
4c*
ggzZj ( {zg y
M ~ ^TTgzZ V V xsZ Z
&%
LE
c*
g<
~e
$gzZ|#
zyZ
# @*
Y0',x
-{ !*
J
4c*
g { {z J
-Z
# Y 7J
-
z kZ 0
+
i isZp
q
-Z V
rg 7ZzgVz],
Z Private gzZ Public ZgzZ xsZ -: v

c*
gz #
qz
c*
g yZ0
+{ ^ {],Z q
-Z 0
+
i {],
Z
{g7xyq
-Z7eg0
+
isZ%kZ B`zLZ~V Z- Z
gzZ Sq
( gkZ X ^zg ~(,
~ { Zg < VY Y
X ]gkZ ZX 7{ W6,
wJ]g[f
c*
g
[Political

:$
e ZZgzZs zZm{ :$
e+
h.
]
**
hg wsgzZ sh g #z m{ e
$h
+]
.
$ g f Yg {X Cms e
Wkze
$Zzg {z CD0G
$h
+]
.
269 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

4Z D
7t)g f DgzZ |Dd
$ |g] G
5G3E
y
KZ {g Z kZ @*
W7 * zDX
KZ] Z fgzZ ~
. DVkZX C
gzZ Cg Z g @*
{zX*ugzZ ~
. D
KZX Yg0
+Z
*q
-Z g @*
5q
-Z
{ z C7wJgzZ[ M kz e
$ZzgD
g Zz Z ~,,+Ie
$h
+]
.x akZ Cgz *q
-Zy
KZ
y
KZh
+]
.gzZ B7y
KZy
KZgz kZ g Z
[Dark Ages] kyz

History of [ KZ
g Z
y
KZZ s Z Za ~ ~,,
,, @*
C ~ Sexuality: The Use of Pleasure,[Penguin, 1992]
] e
$h
+]
.? YY H Y 7t v ~
X ~96,h
+ F,
z#z$ gzZg Z
[ E x t e r n a l S o u r c e o f D=g f Yg {, ~
C e
$h
+]
.
& [self-autonomous] g Upy
KZt 6,g ZKnowledge]
D~
. {z =gzZX ]gz g0
+Z LZ 7C
!*
LZa w D&
] ZkZ 9 y
KZX 7]gzzg z ~ zg T
7{[ ZgzZ ] Z!*
gzZ / uZ Z}
.p{z ] Z m
qz Z D
KZ =: ep
p6,=X { [Z ps{z
K ` u{z=gzZ Yp6,
C={zz, CY6,

X $
A
$%2Z zwZ
: D VZ w Zt r
# & *
* Zf
) !*
i Z0
+Z pkZ
C1
{ xsZ XX6na m ^m 1a q lq 6n l^ni o ]ZZ
Ie
$h
+]
.q
-ZxsZ D "
$U*
&*
* Z f bkZ ?{
c*
h
+]
.VZt
~ p
g e
$h
+]
.wZtX [modernist religion] <

y Z7h
+]
.akZ~D` ue
$h
+]
.] xkZgzZxsZ7
g

:
W
:
W
X
X
Yg {gzZ external authority zmvZ - Z [8] Z fgzZ Z kz ~
.
g {0
+
iy
KZ, Z7 By
KZ~[fZz+ D~
. D=g f
A+F
G
F

.
Zx Z Z8 g- [OV
KZhz [g Zq
-Z[fZ7h

X 19& *
*Z fh! {
c*
+]
h
.t &Zp ~xsZL L& **
Z f C1
27 0~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

X _x O [Red Indians]V~ycuhzkM%ZWZ',
[ F r e e d o m , ~g Z Zzg gzZ ] Zz ) ~ Zi M ~ D ` u e
$h
+]
.
y
KZ t ~ Zi M X g ZZ ~
CEquality and Tolerance]
[Truth] s [Good] g CZC
X 7i Wz D=g f Yg {
] Zg p
C
Y7DYg { z ~ Zi W [Creat] p
w$
+] Zg z eZ
# { z ~ Zi W] !*
kZC
Yz
n[ Z CF,
',z xq
-Zz~ V' AZgzZ I ]g @*
ZzgX
D7 Z zt Zuz g Z
{ zC

Hsp
Z !kZt ~! fX w$
+ e Z
# ,k
,

C
t
{zgzZ e { zn { e xe %K W,O ~ Zi M }uzgzZ}wE Z e bT
Zg V7
7 z ~ e
$h
+]
.A
$Z% ',
Z',{z~ ] 5yZXn
/Z hZD)y
/
*ZZ9e V g
C\ !*
y
KZ
C ] Zz)~ y Z { Zg Zz=r
#
Y7E6,}uz
] Zg}uzq
-ZgzZ/Zg}uzq
-Z { z n

Z
<ZgzZ /Z~ Vs}uzDRV7] Zg
Y,
Z',

X 7q

271 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

27 2~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

273~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

274~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

27 5 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

27 6 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

277 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

278 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

27 9 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

280 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

281 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

282~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

283~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

284~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

285 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

286 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

287 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

288 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

289 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

[!*
VZ^W
t ]g~xsZ
l 1` e ]a b<mJ 1 t 1 ]ZZ :D
&*
* Z f
C1
Y1t
gyt
/ZX 7
ggzZ yt XX1m u o^
kZX gzZ 7xsZ + x ZY m
CZ Zz M xsZ t kZ
pg D M ~ * wggzZ 9Y m
CZg ZD
aq
-Z t Zuz
Y m
CZx t c*
0*
x Z)g f[
$
gx tg y
MgzZ e: t ]g
i g 8M%Z ` u! f ]]_6,
C t Xv!*
f #gzZ

&*
* Z f ;ggB ] G
5G3EZ 5J
-g t
KZ ~
C qz

~] G
5G3EZ zD` u! fwEZ b Z t c*
i Z0
+Z Z r
#
E
G
t lp 0$ kZ r
# & **
Z fX 7
g ~ D` usZ
]g~<yZ H M Y m
CZ zmvZ -! CZ ] !*
E
G
0$ kZ *y M
?N
zmvZ -[ $
g :q{z
q
-Z + Vz9gzZ Vgx J
-Y m
Z ?{ wzZx M @*
C
C {z @*
h
+ F,

s \ M Z
#
rg7Zzg & ny M
Y m
CZzgyZgzZ xsZ
t kZ ~ ~ Zi MgzZtg b t I~ ]gk',{a
\vZ~ iY m
CZx v!*
fJ
-}]| P M ]|
vZv!*
f M zmvZ -[ $
g&X t ~ ~ Vzi]g
X c*
Z Zi M V- Y m
CZ .gzZ \
:g Zp]gm:b,
6#i 5]g
6,
27 26 25 ] ,r
# & **
Z f Zj#
i 5]g

X 25& **
Z fh& **
Z f C1

27 2~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

N
N
kZ ]ggzZ q
-Zxs ZX ^+F,
]gzp Zp]gm{z b b
N
N
lgzZ q
-Zxs ZX zb
q
-Z kZ %gzZ q
-Zxs Z bZzb
q
-Z
N

3
E

wZZ
# ~] G
5 G Z sZgzZ g @*
zd
$sZ ZX zb
q
-Z kZ
o :~p Zy M
H(ZgzZx +4
]g Yc*
VZ
gzZ
M fykZ y kZgzZx Z ]g
gS
-~VzyLZ ZZ $ i n e
VZq
-gzZ ]c*
[Westernization & Modernization] e
$h
+]
.
!*
C
y6,x **
F, W,
O [Feminist movement] q
-! f
 Cg Z ZgzZ qzgz Z y7lx ~
C ]gX e
$h
+]
.
]gzc*
Zx C
ZkZ ZgzZgzZ @*
^ ~
X ~zc[fbg Z
hgzZ~b Z [f]gzkZ
{z `
Zu yZ$6,yZZ ] Z0 ` Zzi Z x y M

h } 7t :>Zx Q \ M c*
M

0*
zmvZ -vZ wg D
EZ zmvZ -[ $
g
uF,
: Zg g Mt * ` Zzi Z yZY
[ $
g6, M z Zg M kZgzZ *Hz?f kZ 1
wJ~]y
MgzZ *
g
* kZ ~ F,
] ~ggzZ ~qg \
M z
g zmvZ : 7,
p Zy M
1g (Z]y
MgzZ c*
Z
n ] ?pi $ i oq i
k $ kn je] i
F
n |^q
$ % $ jn i! e n m $ vm $ n ] $ i ] o5 ]

% vm X ^n u ^n # ] ^ e o ^ m # ]
] ? e ]
n m k ^ $] $ u
f r ] $ t] ] $ e $ fi
oF # ] ^
kZ:gzZ7w''g~uz a\ M !
} Z :F, 52-51:33 ^f n $ o
I H\ M Ej8NyZ { Zp N M ` Zzi ZgzZ(]Z0 ` Zzi Z yZ ]i YZ
]gZV Zz Vc*
w) z gzZ# e gzZ ~g Z Z It & *
* Z f Z
/ZtwZX {)z **

x ~V- 1k3,
Z e } $
g (Z&] !*
Zuz
Vzy ?zgy !*
',y , !*
M 'g/gzZ] Y {g
'g\ M ]
d~u ! ?gyw VgzZVh1?} !*
M y
]g\ M ZaX Z
# ~ VzyVgyZp BZja#
}
.kZ
t{ Za d
$! ft?}iyZkZ Z Za
) !*

3 y
27 3~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

x +?f He
$.
M F,
z V ~g Z)f yx ~ yx y
W o r k i n g V gwy [fa Z C W
,
O && ]g T
x T wtu Capital [Work]x Y @*
7t Women
X ]gg " ]g+Z Z 7x ~ b Z [f{zA :z
X c*
g Z
]gg Z)f pgg Z
',
z y
{g ZkZy \vZ
Vz% nxk
B ~uzgzZ X g @*
~g7 kZ VYC
!*
]g~ [f
Q 46,e
$ ZZ r z
46,{ gzZ 46,{ Z 46,]{ yZ0
+{ ~ Zi M
kZ g @*
sq
-Z [f^Y^ IV Z0
+{
) !*
0
+
ig dZgzZ F,
$h
e
+]
.: ;Zp]gmsP % C
!*
]gKZ~ ~zc [fi Z0
+Z
X e { Cg !*
g ZD
T
:q~g *
!zg ]g
6na 1jm l^q] oe o ^e^ l gu^ n^ZZ
^e( v 1] l i a +] ]a j] ne!!!!!!
C1
~g !*
zg VgKZ
/Z%xttwZ !XXc ^u o a (o^e(
l LZQ N Y 0[Official Spokesman] y) F,~gu V
/
u
x ]i YZ T ;gg Z ]g~ g @*
sZ H ?,q a
tX~g ZCZ
8z~
/
u~g !*
zg ~g6
q/]g? g Y~
D
r
# & **
p ? YY c*
x wZ kZ ~Zg ]i YZ
7~g Z)f Z
# 7~g Z)f l6,kZ Ma kZz J M ~ ZG Y]g
LZpr
# & **
? g Y~ y sZx ]i YZg !*
zg ]g
"t Bg !*
zg VgKZ ]YZy
Z LZ ]Z|%
/ZX gh
+ F,

x Z L L p {z H g izgVz%]g
/Z ?Bg !*
zg: VYp}g e
T ZlgzZgZx C
!*
y~g Z)f %?Y: ^
,6,
g !*
zg VgKZwg !*
zg Z ~ <]i YZ *g !*
zg %
**
g !*
zg Vz%
_~g Zi !*
]g? i Z H kZ g Y{ Z
U]g6,

C] uZz]ZPgbZq
-Z~zd
$ g @*
sZ

X 27& **
Zfh& **
Z f C1
274~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

HH Mg [f{gtgzZ

gzZ
H
)$
+**
4Z~0
+
ig !*
zg
Zp? Yc*
/
g izg VVg
HNgizgVz%~q)X
h # yA
$V xZgizg ]VgC Z
]gzv c*
yZZ I Z VyzgzZ Y Hs ZZ d
$! f 4
H !*
MV {g !*
',VzyLZ: N YK Z#
i 5 Z
Z)q
#
i 5]ggzZ } :6,
Czb
{ ztZ +h
+]
.}gX Y
]uZz ]Z q
-Z P ~ g @*
sZ gzZ 7~ ! f kZ yDg
| (,y$
+y ysg Zg6,
Czb
f
e {,Zg7
3 y]g6,

3
X 7euZ Z~] G
5E Z ZzX ;g
4Z z
:7eu Z Z~] G
5G3E
N
N
N
N
i Z0
+Z }uz zb
q
-ZX Zuz xsZ q
-Z [f
gzZV X Z **
**
l _zxzt~zb
LZ zb
kZ
4
g
W
G
] ]tyZ0
+{gzZ
zZ
]|z;]Z|gzZ ]|~I ZgzZTIZ
4
]|4Z | H WPgG]|9xbTyHp u
!
-o
-o!
4

Czb
[ ZXvZ0Z PGV;z vZ wg PGV }g 7C
? b WPgG
]|V IZgzZ TI Z bZ YY H7Za Z ~ xsZ z |6,
Z
} x9Z q
-Z p Vix HgzZz ;
] Z|
]|
4Z Vz Z @*
5G3E
Vz Z Z ] G
7t9yZ { z
/Zuz
GI
&
3
Y1t 6,
Cx ~zb
[Z Z8z!*
V ~C
](Z
]%ZA
$kVz k{ ZzKt 7t
~A
$kVz
4Z
~zb
gzZ] ~C
]b
gzZ **
6,6,
Czb
akZ ]%Z C G
5G3E
GI
4Z q
5G3E
-ZgzZ *
*k6,}uz q
-Z6,
CVxz V 3&
~uz] G
4Z
X **
{ZZ'} M ] G
5G3E

& [ Z
/G
6,% yZ ZzG
gy M
r
# q6, zZ F,G
sZ ~Yw~] P
x Z
/Z Z Lg @*
oyZ
~ Zi M Zgg Z ~ xsZ **
w+ Zt 6,
CVhz yZ X Dz
: @*M ~ y M
It c*
w+ Z: Z [Freedom of Expression]
27 5~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

]] ] _ m $ ] ] ^ ] _ ] ^ kF$ ] o m$ $
# ] ^n i + n # ] ^fu ] ^ # ] iF! ] $] _m
tv~yZ wgvZ} Z L L 59 58:9y f F # ] o] $] ?
lp Yc*
}Z ~w kZ
/ZD] Z Z6,\ M ~]
c*
Z wgkZvZ @*
YZ H Y c*
:gzZ N Y
-[ $
gV~
g **
w+Zt e
$ M kZ ZX TgZg{ z6,
kZ
Kq
-Z ~ Zi M Zgg Z Z "
$U*
y M
~ Zi M WznZ Z 6,zmvZ
] m o$ f$] + m m$] :bZX w+ Z: hYg
+ m m$] ] ! m$ u n + + m # ^e + m $n ]
V!*
KZ v ~yZ L L:F,
61:9 n ]h] # ]

W~xsZ **
w+ Zt e
$ M kZX
V t gzZ
wgvZ v gzZ L L:
H~y
M e
$ M kZY ?: Z ~ Zi M
~}g !*
oof oo~]c*
M VzyZ Zwu **
gayZ
g { i i o._ yZ M ] Z J ~ yo{ggzZ/{g

wJ/yZ ]nyZ
Hc*
uzg "7,zmvZ -[ $
V M ZY~ Zwu **
]~]y
MgzZ *yZ c*
gzZ c*
g ZvZ
Zgg Z ~ Zi M e
$g/ }Vzg0q)^ t z t (
b Zm{q
-Z Zgg Z ~ Zi MYX 7 Zy M Z p**
} M

ggzZ y
KZ g ] G
5G3EZ gm{ p d
$ g @*
! fm{ q
-Z
g Z ~ Zi M z6,tx Z ~ c*
b h ]
m] Zp/_
.sZ]p Z v^e]]imkZ7m Zg
Ie
$h
+]
.Z` MX! f~ Zi M kZgzZW: vn]
N E8F
N] uZzbkZ sZ g @*
g}x Z9
+ :h
+]
. E8F
+
X YH mZ t{ Zp ysgu **

:
g :{ .Zd ] Z0` Zzi Z x Z/
` Zzi Z/ Hw+ Zt a ~ Zi M ]g r
# & **
Zf
xE ] Z0 ` Zzi Z g.
Zgu]!*
t Dq ]Z0
4G
&
zmvZ -[ $
g=g f>Z ]'Z Z/ Zz { .Z~ G
0E
276~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

x Z/] Z0 ` Zzi ZX x Zw6,yZ b XN yZ g{ .Z


` Zzi Z z!*
zgt p c*

zg V Z y M
Yx Ha
wi **
[s] Za Vgx #
ZayZBB yZgzZa
] Z0 ` Zzi Z e
$Z@ W }6,._ ]gzZgzZ K
vZ -[ $
gaZ J
-#
ZW~
g U
)g f
mvZ -[ $
g ]Z0 ` Zzi Z ~ ]i YZ b { c*
i g ezm
~g7 \ M gzZ @*
',] \ M gzZ p Z Zz
3 V z
X ,vJ
-#
Zp~ gzZ r f V\ M KZx q
-Z q
-Z0
+
i
g Z Z gzZ ;g Y c*
2+ ~ ]
t:
H49t \vZ] Z0 ` Zzi Z
ZB ]z D Z jp[_
#
.z ~
.ZZ g]t
\ M >Z ]'Z } Z Le vZ @*

gZ ~ [Zx
Z , vJ
V!*
yZgzZ]c*
M vZ}u 0*
b~g7\ MgzZ}gz n q
$ i n e o :!*
z"vZ" CY~Vzy\ Mg c*
# ] ] F$ ] n i! F$ ] ] oF ] n$ ^r] t% f i q$ f i
ZX 33:33 ] n _i _m kn f ] ] q ] g n # ] mm ^$]
i ZqVz% Vg
CwxE ]Z0` Zzi Z
s #
Z gzZ d
$z g @*
sZgzZ gzi r
# & **
Z f w+ Z
X w+Z
:s Zg ZqZ
1 ^ 1 p ] ^j ` e l o 1 ] L L: r
# & *
* Z f
6 n o ] ^ m + 1 a p ] o l ^ ` o 7 a ] + ^ 2 6 n
C1 1 a q ] < e k ` e m ] ^ ^ : ] o , ] k k o l o
H7**
a [%[f r
# & **
s Zg Zt p
**
o6,*Z u 0*
kZ gz Z **
V Z iZ s % Z s
Z
oc*
]g Zz o
/Z y Z okZ6,% x`
Zg V 7
A Zw Vz h R Z } : 7 ~ h } L Z { Zg e % Zz

X Z 44-43],& **
Z fh! t (]g~xsZ L L& **
Z f C1
277~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

X 7H]gz%~ ZwkZX
:yWgzZ Z,
'ug/]g
o 6n i u o cnZZ: r
# & *
* Z f
ku ]e l 6n` q u ^m] o (6n` q km om]
h{gl{r
M
# & **
Z fp;gl{~}g !*
kZ y M
C1 !XXoj e 6n`
{ Z',
#
u ]g6,

Cb [{ z s Z Z kZ~ y M
Z ?
c*
]ga
g z ]tL \vZ wt {z p D
W
\vZ y M
g% gz Y m
CZ c*
Zz)g f ]c*
M y M
H7'
**
ng Z s ]Zy M
H7wEZ+ o LHwEZ+ a
c*

{z wZ yZ zZ% yZ c*
ZIg z Y m
CZ%g Z h
ZgzZ 5 T V Zz g Z6,Za y M

j o ] h k^ ^ j ^$ L L: c*
Zz6,gZzSe **
g 2
+]+Z[g
?o ] m ^ jn $ o ] o%F ^ $ ] n k ^e ] # ] o%F]
e^ n ]
36:yZ/w M gn q$ ] _6 n $ ] ^ jm$
(( ]]:U9aV ZzY{g~ ((y M

D
\vZV YH_ 19 18 17:] c*
M sy

i gHwEZ mF]
~g7 CZ ~ uz cgzZ CY 0*
~ Vzg- i M zZ {z ~{vZ H

n f n ^] o a n v] o ]. $ m% ] : $
7Zzb
#
Z gzZ #
Z Z
HH_ % 9 @*
Cy M
18:sy

Z
: sf `g,myZXg ZzZw% y M

e # ] ^ nf$] i^ # ] $ F ^q u] e] $ v ^ ^
n n jm ] q oF ! ] ]aF ] ^ wPLVOOy^n o
31:43
f ^ ]
] n m ] pF] ] n ] ?ou % ^ q $ ]
] i$] m$ n F ] ] f m$] f ^ ^ n ] n ] o
f ^ ] 109:- g i ]
]? n ] ?ou % ^q $]

X 69& **
Z fh& **
Zf C1
278~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

f ^ ] 43:Z g i j ] ] ]
?ou % ^q $]
Hc*

Zz~] c*
M y Z 7:Y Y m
CZ g i j ] ] ] ]? n ]
{z H{z ng Z s ]Z vZ Vz%4ZgzZ D% gzY m
CZ
& **
Z f X {z a #
ZJ
-#
gzZ Z y ~ s ]Z e
$ M g {g
6,b [apg xz]g #
Z Z C~6,y M
r
#
7
W q]g y M
w+ Zt ~ zg ]c*
M yZX @*
7,**
:g Z
i ]g y M
M
ht \ M 6,

CkZ X w+ Z: ;Zp]gm
{z Z 7 g ( ^
,Y #
Z ]gZ zg 7 #
Z
t :%]gZ}: t :%{z zg7 ] !*
kZ]g $
Hg
{z Z7
W x Z 6,%kZ 7` 6,%]g $
}
y M
X ey%gzZ }x C
!*
p]gg~y{z $
} %
b Vz%z
z ]gp ~ ]i YZ b
z Vgg e %
x]g y M
$
b Vz%z {zZ7
%: y M
$
x]gZ~]i YZ ~&
+
%%Z 7
X $
C
} yZ f Z ]gZ zg yZ f Z L]g: c*
yZ f Z
h77e
M
$ M y M
~e1zggZ yZ]gr
# & *
* Z f
O"
$U*
gZyZ {"
$U*
#
Z q )ZgzZ#
Z<
L Ug { zZ

) ) z %Y m
CZ "
$U*
X ,l "
$U*
=
Z {z 7#
#
Z
) ) #
Z ]gZ
# g Z, #
Z
? $
^
,6,g Z
D x Z/~ V yZ f V Z[

g~ g
$ q Z
**
3Vg LB Vz%1D 3 **
3BzmvZ -[ $
ggzZ

) ) ~ ~tKL Vg~ zmvZ - [ $


g
Hc*
7
)f ~{ggzZ "
$*#
Z]g~x c*
ZJ 7#
Z
a HZ
# X {~g Z)ft%: 74~g Z
t ]gLD
'
**
CZ%zmvZ - [
g @*
a
:
HH74
^$] gvF] q ^ ! i ^` n :c*

y~W,
g\vZ
27 9~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

] m gjF] ]i ] m$] n jn ] m$ j $] ` i$ ^ q ^ $ 5 $]
`e o m$] n + ] gjF] ]i ] m$] h^i m $ ^^m] ]? ! m$]
F % ]`Fe # ] ] ] ^ F]
p` m m$ # ] % m
$
e q m ^ m$
6,ciz 31 30:W,
gf pF $] oa ^ a G$]

4
5
-$
J
+Z wi Z V(+Z q
-Z 6, ZkZ EG g [ Z gHg /Z
Ht
g 19 sa% ex OZ kZ Y ~3 V
KZ
',Z',
V.g hzq
-Zg q
-Zt,?v (gb gzZ x [[ Z ?
$h
e
+]
.gzZ YY H7 { i Z0
+Z
gzZ ]
V.g yZ
*
*t ? M
h
/Z sa V
KZ V17 }gzZ N M I
J$
[Management Crises Science]b m Z[X~]
~y/Z Z **
a^V
KZV17
/Z 9
G
J

4
5
G
f I e
$h
+]
.tX , ,/ E t ~ Z F,P [gzZ x ~
c*
6,gZz~e
$ M Z \vZq wVq
-Z w+ Zi: ;Zp]gm
6,
V
{ z3 ykZ[I Z c*
ag Z/Z
kZ Y H y kZ vZ >}Wzg gzZ n
pg yZZ
ZkZf c iz kZX e
$Z@ Le& @*
{ Ze Le& \vZ b
i y M
e
$ M kZ 31:W,
=Z kZ V
HH 7 n
gs{z @*M C
/ {-gzZ x Z }V
Hxw+Z
LZyZZ IZgzZ @*
a Lh
+'
6, yZyZ @*
a i M
$h
e
+]
.alp] c*
M yZ: @*
aT
Z~yZZ
Xg i+I
:b [#
r & *
*,
6W
: { Z,
'u]g
:b [P~e
W: { Z',
u]g#
r& **
Zf
l^ 6n c e 1 k ^a]e c lZZwMy
6n q 1a oia 6n o^`i l^ m !6na 1ia ^ q 1a oia o
C1
!XX^jm 6n` l^q] o l^ om] ] (^ia 6n` q ] o

X 69& **
Z fh& **
Z f C1
280~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

~6,
okZ]i YZg !*
zg Vz%x**
]gr
# & *
* Z f
kZ , x ZgZ ~g !*
zg )g f {)z' d
WgzZ \ !*
xLZ 'g
iX Y{gx
z]5 VZx%)gzZ]g{ Z',
u
~ kZ C ] 5vtY 7e(Z ,g ZZ & **
Z f G Y
]g Zz
W yZxt [Z kZ M
h {g7vgZ

}
-6,] 5vC
q
{ zC
kZ Z J0
+Z g~
%, Zq
-Z
]Zi ZggzZ C7bz CY~g7ox~]gkZ g
Y ]i YZ
W q]g%, Z~xs Z H @*
Yn
? $
yZx]gyA
$Vn
pgmui **
yZxx *
/Z ?
1e 7]u 1 l 6n ^n 1 gu^ n^ ]ZZ wNy
(6na oje m^i o l ku ]e kn%nve 1a m n p o
]] 1 | ] ] (1a ^i< ^ >i^a 1 7 (6na 6nje 6n m;m
C1
!XX^jm 6n` l^q] o_ o j]
s1 7w'' `- i
+zgzZk
,
z]g t]!*
t V
Z f ?7VYa r
# & **
Z f pgzZ ?7VYa %VYa ]g
]i YZ g (Z&C
Z)
,
gzZ x ~ ~1]gr
# & **
- i
k
+z yZ 7 wZ Cq
-'g~ x Z
/z6,o yZ ` }
Z
+ 6,o %Z: Z Zi W[Z C wEZ ~ * a + VgzZ
VI- i
+z} ~0*
6,rk
,
z~o LZ]g{ Z',
uq
-ZX 7hZ
Z ? $
{ Z',
u{z ~ ]gkZ H 5:B; Vz%}: ]i YZ
C 6,
C wZ ? I V P [ r
# & **
+J
J- i
+z t ]!*
~uz X 76,
C [result]xgzZ [Pragmatism] GG3BE}
C5: B; %'gZ
# XZ - i
+zH M 6,x ~}
- i
+zH ?$
{ Z',
u]g~gz kZ H C] !*
}6,gzZ
spwZjZ wZjZ c*
wZXt $
{ Z',
u]g8{
kZ g z!*
Y sp wZjZ ZXt c*
? sp
?7~p~

X78& **
Z fh& **
Z f C1
281~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

]e kn%nve 1a m n pni o gu^ n^ ]L L 3


^ 1 ] 1 ] ^a gm 1 ] 1n 1 l m] k
C1
!XX^+a oe ^
@*
xb) y Z: Lg d
$
x Z{ Z',
u ` W
& **
Z Dx t } Z~ Modisonian Democracy c*
+_e 70*
Xgz$ ?tr
#
l 6n nu ^m] 1a m n oi2 o gu^ n^L L 4
] 7^nmfi m i 1a ]e l +] (1a oi+ 1 7nmfi oi^n j
C2
!XXo+ 7a ]] $] n l o
7L Za
} { Z',
u ]gq
-Z
Z LZ)g f ] c*
z Z ]g
/Z ? $
0 y Zx{ z ~ ]gkZ H W
Aq
-ZY ?7
g
C{ Z',
u kZ H Y0{ Z',
u @*

]g
/Z ?g: !*
{
W: VZx g: !* AZ
#
H T
7 Za ]g
/Z ? $
0{ Z',
u{ z H Y /
: c*
Mo Z',
u H ? $
0 Z',
u{ zH gEZtgzZ M
? C M
oe ^u l m] 1a m n 6m3^ o gu^ n^ZZw5y
] k ]e (6na oe ] 1 7^ (1+ 7a 13e 1 ] 1a oja
C3
XX1a ^ ]] k ne 7^m] o 7^
{ Z',
u Zz yV rg gzZ V V~ kc*
]g
/Z
~
pK Za a kZ: c*
W: ]gq
-Z
/Z c*
? g HQ e
C
E
]gq
-Z
/Z ? $
{ Z',
u {z H fgzZ} 0
+Z EG45 q
-Z
? $
{ Z',
u{ zH V: agzZhc*
{c*
g (Z 0
+i
6n ] 1a ^j 1n ] u ^ 6n ]n^q lZZ 6
1 c l^q]] o^ ^i 1 ]^ (1a o+ o]J p] o^
C4
XX1 u ^m 6n 1e^ 1 l 1a p 1 q o

X70 sZ C2 X76& **
Z fh& **
Zf C1
X 93 sZ C4

X70sZ C3

282~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

t D
~z) yVz c*
C
]g g izg" %
/Z
W Zt kZ Mz J Wzz
% ? [
Hr
.
# & *
* Z fa ayzZgzZ zmvZ -goz
yZgzZ zmvZ -vZ wg pp ZyW
`~}o
t %Z X 7~y
WgzZ a V Zz WJ
-#
{ zK ~
.Z /

ayky igzZm{q
-Zx m{~ im{q
-Z!*
6,!*
wZ
kZs{zap!*
V- g ZjyZgzZ9~kZ Z wi **
]g CY?tr
# & *
* Z f ZXpzgzZWg a
\ M kZ w 0*
Zu< Z}
. w Nz J M ~ %
]g~ xs Z
/Z 7 ~ T ZgzZ /Z w {z A
$ M: c*
M~
? MVYz',Z',~ ZZ
+Y zZ\ !*
V zg y M
Mz J M ZG Y

:
W
X
7 M ~ !*
kZi Z ZG Y ? 7]gV H
wZkZ DnZ Z6,!*
V r
# & **
X 7w { a
-g \vZ a i Z s] Z !*
/Z 7[ Z

gZ
xi VYt aygzZ
VYG @*
z }z & gZ)g fzmvZ
m{ {z
/Z yZZ & 6,[ yZgzZ9wg .C
{ z c*

g
/
{z: ]gz & yZ6,=rg #
Z Iwi **
#
X
:b&5& *
* Z f :[ NZ kJZ
1]u 1 u h^j] ^ 9am]L L:D
r
# & *
* Z f
1 !1a 6n` p g^ ] o2] p o 9am] !1a ^ia 1
C1
XXo+a om 6n` 9am] le o of
V Z **
gzZ e
$.k],
Z V],Z j
Z ;g7 c*
r
# & **
7~}n ]gzptC
\vZqX C]g$
+~
* 56,

^ * {
!*
-Zk
q
,
iz q
-ZakZ @*
~ Zz
^$
+L e
$.q
-ZkZ^wF la ]gzp

X 95sZ C1
283~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

"~a kZ Y7 {
!*
H7~#
}
.{
!*
~y!*
i * a
{ c*
i kZ~ * gzZ^ Zt { C HnhB; kZ ?c*
M H
E
G
$
C Z
# @*
Za M 0 t gzZ t X 7^ ]gzp
6f [analytical][Z
# X
[ ~uz !*
L q
-Z
7t8
-g {z C[physical]AgzZ [material]~ [mental]
IN N
] Zg bZ!*
q
-Z~ YZbTX C g Ej8

:ce7a Z ~ (
D : wg
/Z
a h ]o I Z , Z
,
k
Z ]gzpgzZ 6,
C Cg$
+[ NZ k ],
Z~ *
/Z
+ O[ NZ
$
/Z ?Y qzggzZ~ H Y ~: #
i 5k
?w'~tH 6,

C Cg
: D
Q
7^ (1a oia ^^e 8ne 8n o ^ 9am]L L
6na 1i 1^ ni] le 1n 1 1 g]
o 1a ^u (oj 6n` p^ i e ^2 9am]
^m ^9m 6n] 6n o ^ OQ (o+ 1^qa j p6n l
C1
!1a ^i^q
Vz%} #
i 5V g]g$
+} { _ Zx y Z*Z
/Z
]i YZnq]i YZ~
k*Z x "0
+!*

L Vz%
} gJ
-
) ggzZz n
#
}
.Vz
)~
qgzZ
~} g~
q c*
Y D z!*
nq~kZgzZ Y ~
H } #
}
.skk
,
Z N Y gZZa gVz
)Y
r
# & **
Z f ]g~ ~1y
W ?Yw '~t k],
Z ~ ]gkZ
@*
o %Z Vz%(C
D] q V ;zZ
# $
x ]i YZ
VY ~V; z @*
o %Z &ZpgzZVYVz%~V hVzg Z Z (
? x ZwVY~*Z w '

X 96sZ C1
284~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

:wZ]]:{ o
n (6n` n: ni 6n ^+ ni ZZ :D
&*
* Z f
7^n< (6na 1jm qi ^m ni g^ 6n 7]] oni ^+]qZZ
^m l^f^ i^] (6na oi k 1 ^u l^ oq
C1
!XX6na 1i ^vj] oq c f
N Zz +Z { E
+Z %gzZ VYV Zz h
eZ ~ Vzg Z Z (o
/Z
~]gkZ H N Y{%!*
] !*
.yZ XN Y ~}g D
_
+yZgz
~%]HX [
7 [ ZgzZ V- ]c*
z Z+Z ?^
,Yo
V :{ c*
i{E
+ Z
/Z ?w'b Vg)g f{ E
+ Z%xz
B]gz g/]]gzZ { E
+ Z
/Z ?w' { E
+Z%A
$V
?V^
,Y**
Usc*
V^
,Y{z
*Z~ wjZ Z Vc*
{E
+ Z%x V D: wZ{ E
+ Z
/Z
,Yo H wj JwjZVD:q] VHV
^
X $
g6,

C[L? [? H? Z Y
:x Z kZgzZ? :~ %:VH
o 1 p^ 1 o o] 7n<L L:D
&*
* Z f
>i^ 1 a o9ne (1j 6n` oje ] m] (1a l^q]
C2
!XX6n` 1 m] 1 ] 1a o]+ o+
H ?]uz Z Z
tc*
q
-ZyZ0
+{kZ+ZzkZ H
yZ0
+{ H ? [whole] q
-Zp(KZ KZzb
C
c*
zb
q
-Z kZ +ZzgzZ

C
)g f e
$ ZZ, bV Z0
+{ 8 g- gzZ ! fyZ0
+{t c*
1 Z
c*
Zzgg g q
-Z yxg gzZ s b H ? @*
~ Zi W~g Up
V Z0
+{ z: @*M ~ z yZ0
+{: % T Z +F,
Z ] sZ
,5
k
+ z[Web of relations] **
!*
**
@*
-Z ]5 ] Vg wZ
q
y ZgzZyZ0
+{ {z H }~
%]gzxyZ0
+{%]g
/ZX @*

]5LZ ;g Yc*
w
g~g>g ]!*
t?}:xzp

X 104 sZ C2
285~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

X 98sZ C1

t &Zp~xsZ

pF a ] F$ ] ] ^] `e ] e ^rj] m$] :z}gt: M


-~x +yZ g Ye
q
$Z@\
M 38:42 m ` F ^$ ` n e
] % g] n ^& k k # ] u ^f :g {gt
u
$ ] # ] o $ j k ]^ ] o ^ j] ^
wq
-Zp 0*
}gtwgX 159:3 n j] g% vm # ]
4Z~/
){zgY~~Zi M Z]gpX !*
{z7]gz}gt
X}$6,
KZp%}gt:{IZ\!*
VD
~B; B;kZ%]i YZ e{z 7ht\ !*
V bT
yZuF,
46,
uyZ%K i\ !*
V { z 7 Zi M e bZ ,
gzZ ]gtzgt }p KZ%}gtgzZ Zg g
7~} ],
Zy sgzZ s]5] ]Zg (ZVh
zC
o
c*

HH{!*
g Z kZ { Zp D~} ],
Z =y gzZ +
y ~xsZ 7[whole]t1 y [part]zb
q
-Z } ],Z kZ 7

sgzZy s~ kn xsZ\ M Z
# 7xsZy sp
kZ h ~ Y Z b
Z @*
Y c*
i Z0
+Z zb
q
-Z @*
Y 1
N
G

3
O
+ zb
q
-Z G xsZ y D Za b)
) !*
T CY% bzg
N

x Z Zzb
t Y7 M',
L kZ Y c*
6,y s
X Y Zz ] Y c*
3 Z+g [Nacl]#Zg* e
X Y**
ay
KZtY* e+g
/Zp
:D:iVggzZg yyZ+
0{
V Zz i Z0
+Z yZ0
+{ LZ D ~
I KZ s
S ~i wZzi VgB V { R Z Z **
**
MY c*
@*
\ !*
gzZ .
gkZ ]g}}gt yZ ]g7.
kZ ~ yZ H
[ !*
g Z LZ y
gzZn @*
Cy M
?}: {gt C
gzZ
}gt !*
{z! d
$sZ p D{gt -z i
KZ e Z
# g U+Z {z X tzZ Y gzZ y
{z7 ]gz
6,kZC
kZ **
M 7:ZzyLZ LZ Yg0
+
i
4a yZ ]q c*
uF, C
kZ ]g y!*
$
y Z Vzg Zg yZ0
+{ LZ LZ gzZ 7]gz Z g
286~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

gq gzZ B 0
+
i uF,
ygzZ wJ e
LyZV:g izg" Lgw]Z rg V:g6zgzmL
~VJgzZ~y_ Zjz] M 0
+
it : ]gz$Z

KZtX 7]gzL!{c*
Yce~Z**
VyZBw
g T ! " [k Zz Za ~ { /[fc*
aV
VZgzZ VVg& {yt H7m \ !*
V 7
wJ eBy Z yZ0
+{ .6,gzZ 1 i M X 7]gz
V{z ~ kZ C

/Z ?}y Z kZ]g Zz hg
} t :Z C

/Z n: Y LgzZ }%izg { z?$ }g ?g
V-
} '~ VpZ c Z c*
hg
kZ ~
~uzgzZ ~
0
+
i0`Z~ y ZgZgzZ C%
/
gVc*
l,Z VHV Y 1Nx Z u
} I F,
pO Y :Zz y \ !*
V LZgzZ C
} h Zz Vc*

v y~ V C 6,t : Vc*

yLZ {z D 0*
7o !*
C 1 D Zg Z
^
,Y b LZ VpZ
bV~ VzbZhgV* r !*
Vc*
+8 'Zg 5 Zg
&
yZgzZ CJ
ggzZyZjV~ V LZ D 0
+
i
KZ ]z z cv{q]) yZ0

+{C
Cg @*
g @*
]
$
0l 0Gg f pgzZDyYX Z (,
Vzh} h=yZ Z T e **

7Vz]aZz:7$
7 Z
D:7} hC
Z @*
Y
0
+
i KZgzZ {q6, LZ D 0
+
i~ [Z6f q
-Z Vzt Z Y
H{@x 0
+
iu **
$f Z Vzh, Z 7:Zz Y0*
e
1 D Yg Z
"
VzI e
$h
+]
.q)X B ]a ~
VH Y

LZ~ kZ c*
S zz LZ T Z { 6 g Z z { c*
i
Z {z c*
g Z Zg 0*
c*
g6kZ Vz 7B; ]
yq H
H aJ
-$
+Z~ V[ Op6gzZ ;g ;g
X 7Y gzZ zgzZ])} {~
$.O[Z,wZq
e
-Z r
# & *
* Z f
B+E
Y AZ~A kZ +gzZ m: Zz|Z Z T c*
~i Z0
+Z: F
287~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t &Zp~xsZ

X
H{g y

288~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t (]g~xsZ

[!*
VZ
t (]g~xsZ
m^f m kF + ]
q ]] o% f$] ^` m%^m5 :e
$ ] o5
$ M y M

mjm$ ^j` fe n i ^m $ a ] jm n m m $ ^n # ^e m
n m $ ` q ] $ `mm] n e
# ] $ ] # ] $ ` j] $ ` m^f o
& **
Z f 0vZwg Vg~ 12:60:Z g n u$

tD 6n 1 kne ] 1a ]a ^j] ^ kne 7^`mL L:D


r
#
]e ] 1i oe 1 ] @u n 1a ^ oe ` ^ n] 1
] | ] ^i ^ ni ku ]e6n`] ] 1 kne ] oe k
C1
XX^m mi oe u ^ 1m H l 6n o] 1
$E
! f: n
pgg6,sZ: {z @*
Zz0G
t r
# & **
Vgbg Z
$Z zmvZ -vZwg q M Z
(,
IG
$
4
h
E
>gX
q b >XG h
ez~ [NZ$Z Cg ZvZ wg
m^fm m$] $ ] : @*M~Z
&$ `mm] # ] m # ] m^f m ^$]

} Z L L ^n ] q] n i + n # ] n ` F ^e oF ] oF &m ^$^

:Z B; vZ6,B; yZgvZZg {zg ?v


vZ wg j~g/s: Zz 6,B; wg Zt kZ 10
Sq] ]+Z[gvZg6,g{ Z',
uzmvZ
:
X
Z
g Z 0 ~ 12e
$ M Z >gg j~g/ L Ls
G
'
vZ {z, ] !*
kZgzZN Ma'gk0*
} g +Z
#

X 50& **
Zfh! {
c*
+]
h
.:t &Zp~xsZL L& **
Z f C1
288 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t (]g~xsZ

: yc MV 0*
B; LZ ,: **
i ,: ~ga ,: q
-B
yZgzZ yZ ,:
**
vZ wg~ V( ,{
~g/ e
$g/ $Z Z% ~ e
$ M ~g7 kZ X z]n ~ h
X 7J
-<
d
$zG @*
& }#
{ Z',
uvZ wg^zz
+ 'g]lg} e
$Z@\vZzmvZ -vZwg V
[ $
g~ V(gzZ v {L{ k
H yZ g M wJxsZ
yZ V { M6,kZ {z
/Z {z ] Z zmvZ gzZ $Z ~g/ e
$ M kZ z]nayZgzZ4Z~} ],Z+yZ
zg e
$ M kZ YwZt & *
* Z f t ?mH ^zzVg
^zz xsZ Vz%}g e" ~ Zi M ^zzVgs~xsZ
7 18 e
$ M {g~]o^zzVz%r
# & *
* Z f e c*
xz
?n |
# g {z Z
#
H lp VvZ L
L 0 yZg N

yZx Zg hzz e
$g/ V p
g
yZg m kZ 7
g Z
$Z wg w
t t Z[ ZX 6,g
) !*
] y
]|
@*
"
$U*
t T 7Z kZ e
$ M Vz%~ y M

&*
* Z f v!*
f c*
xz hkZVz%pc*
h^zz ~g/Vg y M

~e
$g/ p y M
Z @*
M ',wZ w+Z r
#
/Z 'g Zz H ? g M ', y M

r
# & **
e
$g/ ! fT
H M
h 0: Z',
u3 Z Z}
.zmvZ -vZ wg H t: ^zz vZ wg
akZxs Z H ?k
,
+ z VIzzVgSqzmvZ -[ $
5
g
VgSqzmvZ -vZ wg)g fhkZ} h^zzVg c*
M
gzZ ve Z
# t ~g/?} Ze
$g/=g &
+& $
s kZ ,s', }Z ,C
OZxs VZxLZ 'g
H N VZ ] Z Z ,W6,kZ 8 Y N } ,H Bk
^zzt e
$g/ ? q t x tVCZz vZ wg
Sqg ZzyZ pwgzZ t zmvZ -vZ wg H} ^zz eTZz
~e
$g/X :gZzyZ Zuz g ZzyZ q
-Zs~T e
$g/tt?

289 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t (]g~xsZ

~ c*
H M
/
hwEZ ht \ M e b: ^zz\ M
vZwg c*
}^ !*
$ZkZ ?}g Z ^zzzmvZ-vZwg {z
! Z0ZvZooi Z ?} Z9g ZzyZgzZ ~ zmvZzmvZ -vZ wg ! Z 0ZvZ}g e " p M
h Z9~ $Z kZ
v!*
f
Hc*
7h~g/$Z6, zmvZ -vZwg~ e
$g/
g Z
e
$g/ kZ:gz 7Zz B& *
* Z f } g
Zj4\ M LZ C7 a
a4 qzgkZLZgzZ{zZuLZt
-vZwgy M
@*
~} ],Z ^] ^sZz C
^wJ
) ZgzZ c*

~}g !*
zmvZ
G
I
$
4
h
t X
c*
]g Z c*
b>XGE }n$Z+F,
klkZ ^]
#+ pt M',
b Z M
e
$g/u on
vZ -vZ wg J
- x M
]c*
M gzZ zmvZ -[ $
g
7xt r
# & *
* Z f c*
7g Z
q Zz )g fe
$g/zm
Wa{ 0]|Vg Z~ ^ oe n
gzZ c*

7x **
b ZZ0{D1Z]|gzZ/]|a#
Z
1Z]|
} Z
/
gZ [
$
g g Z',
kZ p
1kZ #
ZwZ kZ Z IZ **
a}kZ {z

[ NZ kZ { 0gzZ X c*
g Z wJ}kZ xT
6,g~g/1Z ]| HwZ \ M ~ ZgzZ d
b J (,a B; gzZ H /]|yZ q
-Z X /
]|:
O /
]| Ht Q #
ZgzZ c*

'
**

1Z ]|/
]|
]| bkZ YY H ~ Z
/
Zb yZ ~
>q
-Z
I Z kZ q
-Z ~ 4Z c*
zJ
-[ Zb yZ
Z F,
%}gt D {0
+
i b ZZ0{D1Z ` M
/Z /
]|X
vZ -vZwg c*
[ #
Z}ZZ zmvZ -vZwgY @*
'
**

}
#
.+ 6,Rpi ZgzZyn" v!*
f r
# & **
Z fzm
e
$g/kZ {z }e
$g/: Zg ZtugzZ {h
+]
.qY ! f 7
290 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t (]g~xsZ

x6,kZ n
pg7g{z6,qT Zz**
a# ZkZgzZ t
# I:
**
gLZ ~ IgzZgZ ce Og !*
Z
X e
$h
+]
.
:g (ZgzZ h ~i y :]g
o 1n u 6n p^ ^ ni] 1 ]L L:D
M
u ^e o ` u lu 1a km] ` 1a p l^q]
o< kmD 6mne o ^ 1 ] o:] l o\e m] 1i 1ja^2^
i 1a^j^q ^m oe nJ ^ ^6n ` 1a^jm l^q] m D gq ^` ]
C1
^i ^u u 1] oi i^ ^ m 6n` ^nj] ^ 1 u
tD 1 ]j] ] ] 1 l]q o j] 1 k n
p o nD 1 i^ ] 1+ 6n` a6n l^u_] oni o
]a 1 1] ] ^i D i nD ^ 7^ n ^i^n ]j]
2C
!XX 1a ^jm oe u ^ k 6n p^ ^ l ]
zg BmZe
$.r
# & **
Z f~}g 0*
zx9C
/kZ
D xsZ + |~ ]q Z : Z
yZ )g f 0 yZ W
@*
xX $
x]g q~g7 xsZ T ~ w 4u ~zg !*
+Z D
xsZ7xtZX 7xid
g ~
.Z sZx ZZ
.Z ] Z fgzZ g;ZY#
~
Z~ zg <
L zy M
C7~i y ~
EG
G
$

gzZ ~g Z)f >X I ZDI ZsgzZs7h~


CC
:gzZ ZD
GEG
~g Z)f Y fz Y yZgzZ V
~ +$
+ yZ s~ >X$zDIZ
[Federalist g 8 y M
X V B+ F,H * kZ gzZ n
pg Z}
.sp
gzZ e
$g2 ~ [f{z #
] !*
kZ '[ M M 6,i Papers]
}u~i y ~xsZX Zz**
[Constitutionalism] g @*
M M
zgg rg e yZ Z kgzZ q )Z<
L zy M
U%z ~
. y Y7 C
zz =yZ c*
D YK ~
.Z] Z)g f}~eb)Z~
GEG
A & ) }o ^Z q+D

+z >X$ IZ sg (Z kZgzZ CY

X 51 sZ 2C

X 50& **
Z fh& **
Z f C1

291 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t (]g~xsZ

~ yzZ "
$U*
t Zz { kZ r
# & *
* Z fX n
pg
gzZD YN Zyiz%x x ZD7DI Za~
.Z] Z
city states **
- yZ c*
y ]!*
w V;z { z Le w ]g%T
~ **
- yZ D Zg]N Z%x s V
VgyZ X DZN Z%'gx V
c*
g4
c*
g%
gtr
# & **
Dg i~
.Z] Z
zq ZgVz%
" X ge
k6,city states y**
- ]gzxWx Z/gzZ #Z GE
0G
$.
x gzZ D
~x kZ~ V~y**
-
**

g @*
~g7 xs ZgzZ yzZ D YKg~ zg Zg ] V- 2Z
~xs Z @*
C
Yc*
0*
7g Athanian Democracyc*
V~y**
-~
.Z] Z <
~
L zy M
sZYX 7h ~i Z0
+Z4~ b)
D @*M ~ y M
i **
~ ]I ZgzZDIZ Zz Zg Z C
^] : [
$
g
g ZX D7',
Z',
L
C**
gzZ ZzV\ M D7',
Z',
DgzZ Zz
o h^e ] oe] wZ`
zdL L ]] o] ^
] : ZybkZy*~Z >g OOR &mu nj] |rv]
M
X b 7f c*
DI Z Y7?
/ZV} Z L L i j ] ]
~g g ] n jj] ]^ : 2] !*
6,gm{\
M~[Z M zwZ
G
'
+
~ kZ Z
# gzZ gA w }g J
-Z
# 7,y M
:F,
KZ
G
EG
'
G
$

g
{gt >X [Z~e$/
]|} 9JZ Ys %Z ~g +
-Z c*
q

7~/>w CZazg~zg <


L zy M
~ekZgzZ
C" bx **
~i y ZgkZ ~7Zg KZgzZ W Z ]g
c*
] !*
]g gzZ ]Z`
e
$. bg Z
~igz s y M
Zgq
-Z /]|X
kZgzZ M ]g{z ] ~igz s y M
/
]|v!*
f
xsZ Z"
$U*
Z c*
uzg h y M
M M /
]|] Z`
s %Z
7]i YZ ~i y ~ xsZ X ]i YZ
~ ~i y ]g
g U
~ T h g @*
m{q
-Z g! f{ b Z ~i y
{z 70*
}gte
$Z@ y
KZ Z
KZ *u D7{ [ Z
xsZ Lg m$
+
B iz iC
y e {z 7{ [ Z
292 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t (]g~xsZ

gzZ C Vzi y <


L zy M
C 7~i y ~
CY ZgzZ @*
Y Ho ^Z D YK ~
.Z ] Z s~ zg 2Z
X Y7C
!*
} ],
Z kZgzZ $
Y 7~
.Z Zg x <
Lz y M

gzZx3,
x3,
gzZ: xe
$. C~i y ~xsZyt r
# & **
r
# Z f ~i y z e
$g/ ! fgzZ z d
$z g @*
sZ ~ p Z
x Z/{zg7~igzs M M/
]|v!*
fX1/Zze
$.
V;z ]gq
-Z ck
,
i~/yZg { e {gt~A q
-Z
y M
]gx q
-Z kZ c*
7CZ " _
. Zp kZ ~g
/
}g !*
X:Zz e
$ M kZ! g;ZY6/
]| H Zz e
$ M kZ
r
# & **
Z ftX @*
/ @*

/Z } c*

v
Z wg~
} 9$g Z \ M Z
# 7w{z /]|6,wz[
$
g

]
@y
/kZ
w. zmvZ -vZ wg
/Z gzZ
' L L:F,
X S7,
144:yZ/w M e
$ M y M
6,kZ
1Z ]| Vz Z]
.
? bOc*
0*
] z {z
/Z H ` g
/wg yZ wgq
-Z
jf] j ] l^$ ^] % ] f k $] $ v ^ X
YQ
m# ] # ] prn ^n # ] $ m$ n f oF g m$ e^ ] o5

/
B; yZg Z wi **
` M e
$ Mt ZkCt /]|
rt3 Z Z}
.Zg
/7Zzt/
]|r
# & *
* Z f ]
HMg Z
Z
Dy bkZ ~ ] q Zh
+]
.rt ~ Vzo LZ {z G @*MB; yZ
kZ sc*
g Z 144yZ/w M >gy M
~igz s M M /
]|
X Cg Zz ]6,wgC

Hc*
C V ]c*
M x yZ y M
7 e
$ Mq
-Z
[Constitution of y M
M M H 7g Z s ]c*
M yZ /
]|
yM
Zg aOV (,
M Z~ ~igzs Quran]
[Freedom of Zg g Z ~ Zi M V,Z M
1Z ]|Q 7D M M
DwEZ h
M [Freedom of criticism] W~ Zi M gzZ Speech]

^] % ] f k $] $ v ^ :144e
$ M yZ/w M/
]|

^n ] $ m$ n f o g m$ e^ ] o jf] j ] l^$
]|ZM
h
wzv
Zwg ZxZ | 7,
X m# ] # ] prn
293~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t (]g~xsZ

~ xsZ Z "
$U*
: I$ 3Y x Z/gzZ M i !*
~igz s M M /

s: ~igz s M M /
]|
1Z ]|wEZ Zgg Z ~ Zi M
kZ [ z Zgg Z ~ Zi M ~ xs Z Z c*
X ~ m,
g yppM M 1uzg
Freedom of expression~ Zi M Zgg Z Z"
$U*
tgzZ Z"
$U*
Zz
Y!
E
5 { i Z0
Z
N*
g 5G
+Z Z ~ Zi M kZ[f $ ypz u {z O~ m,gVp#
[f Y~ ~,,)g fgt
KZgzZg2 O%Zg 8gzZ Z
~wzzmvZ -vZ wg~ V Zg ) kZ ~ Zi M
+Ie
$h
+]
.gzZVzoq)b: hYnkZX _ Mk',{gG
z d
$sZ s: {" d
$z g @*
sZ {zY rI w
Zz**
j~i y wZ
MgzZe
$g2zz! f
w M ! g;Z Y6/]| Hc*
M 7B/]| s z kZ M [Z
VYt /
]| ? c*
$ Mt 1Z]|sH ?Zz**
e
144e
$ M yZ/
k
0Z :%
g !*
i /]|M
h 7Z]
.L mvZ -vZ wg 1
w g Y \ M k
0Z c*

~ z LZ /
]| e
$Zzg
~
>ZZ ~?H:
L kZ ~
zwZzmvZ -vZ

:S7,
`e
$ Mt\
MkZM
hyY{ c*
i \ M } Y 7

n $ ] m ^] o D ] j ^_$ $ ] F q
6,?wggzZ{ Z ?6,V @*
c*
#
ZaZzw5"V- gzZ L L 143:2 ]n
g !*
bZ ~ #
Z KZ w
g @*
w k7, Z~ Z
# Z{X g { Z
C1
{z e
$ M Z , ] ~y
MkZ @*
kZX ~ Zz] !*
>gy M
{zc*

6,
wZmvZ-[ $
g/
]| Zx
7~igzs y M
M M V,Z6,
C Z `e
$ M {
~g? {zt yZ zg7 ~igzs M MZ
1Z]|gzZ
r
# & *
* Z fp~
gzWZ yZgzZ ~w{
/yZ T
VZeu **
o Z nkZ 6,~igz s M M tzgt /
]|
X 2~o Z nkZ+Ie
$h
+]
.gzZx VZet~qX

X 666-661], 2x 0Z> C1
294~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

t (]g~xsZ

295 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

[*
!VZ

$e
e
$g/gzZr
# & *
* Z f
vZ f :VZx Zz ^zzVgvZwg
q ~g/q
-Z[ $
g {z q} (,
e
$g/r
# & **
Z e
& **
Z f ] h v!*
f VIzz Vgs D"
$U*
~xsZ V,Z e
$ M Ty M
~ gZu[ gzZc Z,
h Vz%r
# & **
gzZ 7f Vz%~ kZ H7i Z ^zz Vg
'gk0*
\ M
} Z L L:g 7e
$ M ~ e Zg
,7q
-q BvZ {z, ]!*
kZgzZ N M a
gzZ N:{yc MV 0*
B; LZ ,: O zZ KZ ,: ~ga
]n ~ hyZgzZ yZ ,7
**
\ M ~ szc%Z
m^f m kF + ]
q ]] o% f$] ^` m%^m5 :
$ ^n # ^e m $ ] o5

$ ` q ] $ `mm] n e mjm$ ^j` fe n i^m $ a ] jm n m m


n m
$ M kZ 12:60 n u$ # ] $ ] # ] $ ` j] $ ` m^f o
e
$ M kZ y M
e
Y ~ h^zzVge
$ M kZ
/Z 7f $Z~
Vg) $
q{z h^zzVgysxsZ zg
$e
4GG
VgysgzZ s SE
5G
$ Mt ~ r
# & **
gzZ A 7h^zz
y~ kZ VY Cxz h ^zz Vz%yp h ^zz
0 ^zz Vz%y~ e
$ M ~uz y M
gzZ 7f Vz%
X 7
^zz m ] c*
M yZ p~ Z >gtWz 0 Vz%
295 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

m^fm m$] $ ] V yZgmT wy7

^e oF ] oF &m ^$^ &$ `mm] # ] m # ] m^fm ^$]


{zg ? v } Z L L 10:48 ^n ] q] n i+ n # ] n ` F
{g VZe
$Ws
# z kZ B; vZ6,B; yZgvZZg
yZXg \
Wn|
# g {z Z
#
H lp VvZ L L: ~
R
~ x Z yZ
wi **
6,yZ kZ a kZ xkZ wq V
m^f m ] n + ] # ] o :
`e o ^ r$ ] kvi
/Z L Lb Z y M

18:48 ^f m ^vj ` e^$] `n n $ ] ^


gsgzZ sf ^zz~ y M
^zz~ p Zr
# & *
* Z f
~xsZ ._r
# & *
* Z f Z 10 48 12:60X c*
M ~Z ggzZ
c*

g sZq
-Zp ~ Zi M ^zzVgys{zgzZVgs
7]i YZ ^zz Vz% yBB VggzZ Vz% ) ~
{zg kZgzZ 7bZxVg~xs Zr
# & *
*t] !*
X
+ F,
h
kZyZ ? Zz yZ D6,Vz
C[Oqm
Zg IZ yZx Zz ^zzVY $
7VZx]g C
bg qZ ^zz 'gs[Z c*
B
`g {% y M
yy
^zz%Yce **
~ VgVZx V Z IZ **
%
y M
h ^zz& v!*
f Y IZ
W yZx{z 7IZ
DIZ { z $
07VZx]g
/Z ? $
Y ~]i YZ
W yZx Z c*
7
*
*Zzt,kZ $
VZx%I Z **
v!*
fMv!*
f
X Cb6,g~ Zg Z)qm z!*
m Z? [gz$q
-Z
] Z sZ b Cgz M6,#
w zmvZ -[ $
g Z f b
X YYc*
! l w+ Zir
# & **
{ i Z0
+Z kZ Cg Z
[x
9 H ? D ^
, 6, Zx)g f VIzz 9 H
] c*
D0*
Zg Vx x 9 H ? C s %Z
will of ~ ] q Z (h
+]
. ? +4a
Zg kZ c*
Zg
` Z V
KZ [

g H all, will of majority or general will
KZ q nZ \
W ` Z\
Wy
KZ c*
?Dq} ZxhLZ yZ
D dZ gx Z~ xsZ H ?Dq s ~ * gzZ Dg Z]y
W
296 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

yZx ]gsgzZ s~ xs Z
H "
$U*
r
# & **
Z?
~g Z)f ]g**
`
c*
g wygzZ sx ~
c*
g sZ % $

xsZv!*
f [fq
- Feminism M
hr
# & **
Z
:: Z Zi M +Z y M
X y M
~
. kZgzZ ~ wzZ y

YI Z **
aVz]ggzZ%y~kZ7
p% c*
7 Zg h% y M
gzZ B7IZ Zx]gr
# & **
_g/ g
$uDgzZD y M
r
# & *
*tX ? Y0 VZx
Dq g6,bgzZ! fh
+]
.gzZ zsxEyZ {z l c*

7
)g f "
$gzi sB D}g Z $
{ .Z y Z #
Z
!Zx
_a
&
G
.
mH~ : M {g
HgzZ k e
$ M E
0B >g7xt V
{g
He
$ Mx7t Z X c*

x HVg ]+Z [gvZgzZ


{ C yZZ I Z%liu *X wi **
l 0
VgyQ ;g @*
Y H:Zz .__ Z}@Z g D p=a
wZt 6,kZ Hc_ 3Zz yZ}!Zj }@g Z q z ]
yZ_ Z ~}@? @*
6,Vgt :Z }@iu H Z Za
pI}@kZ'g %q._e
$Zzg~g g~
# ,@*
Z
%]g w yZ 6,Vgt :Z kZ c_ g
p]g ,@*
gzZ ! ukZ Y H:Zz }@Vgx Z ]g
X 7 Z kZ zb
Vg {zz}@kZ l
:xyZ xsZ :t Vg
t{z 1~ g l M KZVg ]+Z [gvZ6, [ &
+E
+kZ
Vg @*
Y gzZ?f H~gzZxYz [a#l Wg &
C1
[ Nancy Tuana a+ Y]] Yz [a#0
]^gzZ ] yZZukZ
1 7 MkZa kZX5
$ M \vZapgpg Z zgSZgzZ wJ
e

1. Nancy Tuana, Woman and the History of Philosophy, USA: Paragon

Press, 1992 .

297 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

kF + $ a j ^ :wi **
6,
zmvZ -[
g V M
=iu{@aVgZ wMLVRLy ^$ ] o] $ a q G
i
JG
4&
4
E
5
E
c*
h
euzg~Vg Zz M]gzZ y M b & ZgzZ
q$ fi $ i n e o :gS
-~VzyLZ {ze
$Z@VgX
H
mm ^$] # ] ] F$ ] n i ! F$ ] ] oF ] n$ ^r] t% fi
gzZ StX 33:33 ] n _i _m kn f] ] q ] g n # ]
c*

zgq
-Z6,Vg y M
X
HH ~ Vz%yZVgzg x
c*
g Z
x Z VgZ 228:2 n u m # ] q $ n ^q :
kZ
zgq
-Z6,]gvZ% 34:4 ] o # ^q ]

Vc*
g Z)f xzg0
+Z {z 7 [gender discrimination] & @zz
)f Yg { x ]ga 5Z Z X [domestic responsibilities]
Z
Hc*
g6,0
+%1 x V- g Z)f z )Z ~', V- g Z
] $ji : @*M ~y M
aZ
H3g{ c*
izg kZ { c*
i ~g Z)f T

^$ gn ] fj] ^$ gn ^q e o e e # ] $ ^
q
-Z 32:4 ^n o e ^ # ] $ ] # ] ] fj]
F 32:43 kqF e ` e ^ :c*
# ]
zg6,}uz

#
\vZt6,]g% 4:62 n ] ] ] m$ n i+ m
7% ]gw+Z gzZ vZ 7]gz kZ Z
kZVz ~ Vzg Z
A a%gzZ ~ V]g
A },
Xtzg ZZ)**
} ],
Z}uzM
h~} ],Z LZ LZw
: Z% Z %
D ay
w CZ {z ~6,
CkZ Z Vz% c*
Zz y M

w gzZl Z"
$U*
kZ 34:4 ] ] ] ]e :
{z Z ~ 6,]g Z
) !*
ay
w %s 4z]
.
n w'tigB M gzZ
e
$.%~ T [y M
yz d
$
tiggZ* zJ
-Z
# %Xn Y g zug ],
Z ~%z]g @*
[external affairs] gZ Yg {x vBB ~g Z) f w gzZ l
X g VZ ~g Z)f yZyy]g VZ7~g Z)f
[Women]: {g (~ k
B yZykZ }~g7 ]c*
gzx y%
298 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

Zpg { i @*
/
gzZx
/
yZyy]g} Z
ggzZ(]gz
D
N Ybz0
+
ibzakZ wua%
N Yb~ Vgtig Zg f%: t
K:
%6,x **
~',
Z',]ggzZ
cg g Zi !*
hgy]ga0
+
ig c*
Y Zzg izg]ggzZg izg"%
C<~ 0
+
igzZ yz d
$)gzZ ~) , Z Y g66,
HX *
@Y e**
**
._ Vz],
ZgzZzu {vZ j
G
Yg{ kZ c*
: ep !Z &
+g t H ? H <g tpg 0
+
i
zu H 0
+
i<gzZ Y m
CZ ? 7]gzp6,6,g }uz gzZ ` u
X ] Z+F,
Zt?D
Y @*
Za Y~Kgq
-ZZ ~ 0
+
ig
Z:.
]gB%J
-Z
# @*
7eJ
-
z kZ wg
TX x !*
z q
-Z B ~ gzZ ]g 0
+
ig (ZC

p 7ep 0
+
ig bkZ 7ep ~
/c b
)g f g
$ q Z~}g !*
0
+
ig { c*
i { c*
i zmvZ -[ $
g
Ym
CZ<
L y M
ZpgzZ zig M [
z!g F,
dZg kZ Z ~
g
X s ZZ 5 Zg zmvZ -[ $
ggzZG
)g f ] o h Vz ],Z ~ %]gd
$gzZ,! f
Vzg ZD
6,x **
0
+
ig gzZ W b # F,
wC
!*
],
Z Z yZVg
T Le **
n] ZgHg MgzZ ZzgkZ w
gzZ M
h VZ 7Vc*
g Z)f x 4z]
.~g ; yZy LZ LZ ]gz %~
X @*
Yx Z0
+{
: I+
0iw y]g
Dg Z y M
{zT e
C~g Z)fC
Zy]gv
kZgzZ ng Z Y **
w 0*
zuyZ c*
zu Vz6,
g Zz T
?I e
$h
+]
. kZ O X YgzZ Z 7 Z **
lb 0*
Z {z , } :a %$
+0
+
ix !*
gzZ q)]Z|
a%s g!gZ x {z ]g~y{
gzZ A < g ],Z ~ %gzZ ]gtgzZ,d
$x {zC
X
g ],
Z V7 gzZ e ~z)a Vz sp6,g~)`z
299 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

:ce 6g ~gY4z]
.J
-6 gz bgzZ d
$+ZgzZ !*
{ z}
%g ],Z ]gw$
+mxsZ ._0
+
ix {d
$!*
kZ
x Zgz g ],Z LZ]g Ug6V V ~g ZCZ
q Y c*
~z)
gzZ ]gg q
-Z{z $
Y ~6,goz{ xg]i YZ
l]g: ~z)%Wz],Z ]g: Y~6,gx OZ zz
# z kZX 7Z < kZX Y g66,
s
3C
!*
ya
E
G

Tce ~ p Z 4Z$gzZ >XG ?~ p Z s ]i YZ +Z


oj n ki] m k] n ] : ~gyW
b
# ] $ ^ $ ( ^rj n o $ _] ^m ] kn
Zs6,gig q
-Z {zYH Ug6~g ZCZ
qx 3:5 n u$
<x Z ]z { k
H~ w ~
q kZgzZ ]gzh
+J
-uTJ
-u
kZgzZ [ \ vZ yZZX:J
-<
gzZg s ZZ
tzg s ZZ V . c*
m,
/ 6,] Z C zmvZ -9
kZ wgzZ
HHg6
/Z {z ayZZ ~ zg -gX
vZ6,kZ 1wJ ~q g w T1 A
$ t6,yZZ

f ] $] ?^m] e # ^e : [ZZ (,
aV
, ZgzZ
h] # ] g n ] ^e | $ F ^m ^ e ' _
] c*
x4,
gzZ: Zg Ztu~{[f~q 106:16 n
% ;g Y HU 0
+
i i (Z C
!*
y{ z ~g6]g
) !*
x Z yZ0
+{ @*
} Zg7 ]gkZ gzZ g: .
Z Z `z LZ
$ ZZ,gzZ Y
e [Hedonism] 46,]gzZ [Individualism] 46,e
~g66,
3C
!*
g ],Z ~LZ ]g
/Z ~g ZCZ
q kZ X Y
}g Z
A ]xgzZ ]: Y W,Z x : ZgZtuZ
sZ ]Z h
+]
.)g f z =5 + c*
* m +
X Y ] Zg! f[Reconstruction of Religious thought]
ZZgzZ
H1g
q ~q
-Zg ZCZ
q~qtZp
u N*
~z K Zz } :X g Yb} :6,j{ i Z0
+Z
X @*
7m sZxE X{z+
300 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

: ]Zz)]ggzZ%
d %gzZ ]g
-I
yW
a kZ ',
Z',~ } gzZvZ >XE
3g 7t
6,
Vz
C@~ yZ N C] :S VggzZ Vz%
}uzzg gzZ M
h| (, M }uz q
-Z
) !*
wqZ LZ Vz
]g+
M Z]g~ w[gcX
6 {z { Zp Y
M @*
zPE
+
agzZ oz sgzZswkZ C7bq~
kF + ] n + ] kF ] n ] $ ]: @*
W~yW
aZ7{
F

F
F
kF] n ] lFf# ] mf# ] k# ] n # ] kjF] n j F]
?
k6 vF] q n vF] kF # ] n $ ] kFj] n j]
gzZ 35:33 ^n ] q] $ $ # ] $ ] lF# ] $ ] n % # ] m# ]

] m ^e ^m e n ] e kF + ] + ]
5 ] # ] n _m F$ ] i+ m F$ ] n m
$ ] # ] u n
F ] ^ j vi pri k#q kF + ] n + ] # ] n u m # ]
F f ] # ] ] k#q o f n F ^ n m F
]
yM
pIyBq
-Z] :SVz%gzZVgV 7271:9y n ]
~z Vz V;z y Z Z ] :S%z ]gV V ~
z s zZ yZg V- g Z)f ._ t
kZgzZ X
H3g pt

v$ ] vF] fF] fj]:


HaVz%}X Ky`z

$
v vF] ] ^] ^e F ] r# ] # ]
aVggzZ
HH7
SVg~e
$WkZ 112:9 n + ] e # ]
kF $ ] n ^q] ] ?f m% ] $ $ ] ? e% oF :
Hc*

Z(~uz
~112 Vkmp o ei 5:66 ] ^e ]$ kfFn $ kvF 5 lFfF kfF i5 kjFF kF + %
$h
e
+]
.X y~111 kmp o ei:f VgBVz%
~"
$gzi D"
$U*
{ Z ({ Zp] Zz)%gzZ ]gW,Zk
,
ie
$h
+]
. K ZI
yZ V \vZt | HyW
X D YlZ
Ue
$WkZ
D%gzZ Dg D ~ { Zg \vZ {z ah
+y

$
+
A w yZgzZ
ygzZX ~ yW
gzZ gZgzZ ] Zg {z q
-Zf\vZ {z
A yZ
?6,}kZ LZ oVp: ? Zz Zg7 LZ| (, \vZ
] n + ] pFj] # ] $ ] : ! x ~(,

1[ Z}
.
301 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

o ^& u n ] jm jn # ] n f o i ^m $r] $ ^e ] ]
e j m^e p$] n f e ] fj^ # ] e oF ] ! ] n r ] F j$]
F
111:9 n ] ]
c*
Z
kZVgZf # ] n f o i^m ~e
$WkZ
#
Z {z!
HH)Z ~', 5Z Z vZ VgZ
#
H

E
.

5
wEZ ]a Z 4gzZ s VY I ~', ~g Z)f
a#
Z bZg ],Z %~g Z)f #
Z Z}%s
z IZ #
Z ~V/}uz n
6,Vz%#
Z K 7I Z]g
q
-Z e
$ M /g 7:21 43:16 109:12%Y m
CZx aZ I Z #
Z
- yZyy]gH6,gZz g ],ZVz%gzZ Vg {g
J
H

3C
!*
}iz} ],
Z kZ Z
# ]g {],ZZ kZ c*
z
)f ~
C y kZ i ,g66,
3C
!*U Z2 h
+]
.c*
}
~ T g: .
VZ 1 V- g Z)f ~C
z {z V W,
OVc*
g Z
4
O
&
E
E
G
]o kZ wZzi ] ZgzZ nyZ0
+{~ [f zg Y~ yz d
$
V8 g- DZa Zwa,~o Zzg6',
~[fX
Za VV , Z ! fZgzZ J
- } bt ~
3g D 7 Za a7t ~ !*
M t tb Z~ ~ !*
MgzZ
]]gX
Hc*
sp~ y*GgzZ { x Zg M ~y
M { OGVg
a gzZ } ~C
!*
{ z 1 a Z C7Zg Z { i g {
Vc*
g F
M F,
yZ Q }iZC
yZ eZ JZ VZg 0*
LZgzZ ~ Z **
Q }wJZ ~ V- g Z)f 6,V- g Z)f Vc*

1 z ]g! f}
Z',} i **
Vz Z VZ ZVZ7 V7
X c*
N1q
-Z]g! fZD Y7 VZ
: xg,
6]]g Zz3
C*
! y
zl~ Vo)gzZVrIZ &ZpI{z~oIy 0*
VLgLZ
) !*
5Z Z Z
IgzZ O zyZ {zq
- lzy

yX ~g Z)f ]g**
|z J
-wz y M
7J
-|z
g Z+ t]g Zz
3 { ZpX CYw$
+ lpK
M F,
Z
]g
3C
!*

z1 %$
+`z ~ kZ $
g 76,]LZ {z: VY
302 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

ce{za+ Y~pkZX Y7kC M~pkZxz


X qV~
/>g 7~g Z)f ~
CVg**
LgzZ **
g **
~ { Zg \vZ
-Z y ]:S{z
q
HHf ]:SvZ +@WyZ~ 112: e
$W
s~ e
$WkZ
HH7
Vg~}E
+kZa ZX [a%
X % ~+@W
~ ]g t
KtY ~ ]g t
KVz%
o`B]gzZ ^e ]
9
\ vZzugzZ
gZ mz ~ 6M yZZX 7aVg~g Z)f 8{ ]
Z ~',
6,V Y KZ m{aVz%~lp0 Z
HH) LE
X 74 i q
Z@~kZ g Z)fvZzu
: +,
Fx:x ZgZwy:]g
~g % eV c*
g Z)f x Vzy'g._!*
L \vZ
<
} } y Y~ x Z gZ yZ ]gX gZ w y yZ a
t @*
~ y Zyy%zx ] Z
H3g',Z',
Lzg kZ
oF : @*M ~g
$uX Z **
VzIe
$h+]
.q 'Z Z Z
T (ZaV gL L wu] y ] sv] n ^j ^`q ^]
o ] j pe ki^:g
$u~g g6,x kZX
{/gzZ e {z7w y~
: g
$ugzZ r] ^q] ^] :g
$ug Z ),
gzZ ^] q]
:t
K:
Vz% Vg~ y Zy Yr i^f u # ] f ^]
o %Z: Z Zi M%gzZ]gX CY Zz |h
e:zs
V g~ z d
$z g @*
sZakZ *
@Y ~gz Z s ~
zmvZ -[
gX 7Z
Z,jgz Ma] : Zizg~K
IG
$ Vk W._#
4
aVg Mt ~>XGEh
| y ZVg
vm r] ] : `ge
$Zzg~g g x Z~ ] h] K 7
y Z m{kZ3,
7 ]g
HhVV gm]^e
Z fX ~ ga k
B y ZyZapgp w!*
V>
E
G
~ zg 4O]Nz y M
g ],Z%z ]g g
$ q ZgzZ ] c*
M yZ#
r & *
*
}g !*
y M : 7]gzg Z6,={ Z ({ ZpakZ M
hp
X A kZp7] ]gkZ]gzt ~
303 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

:g ,
]Z%gzZ]g:yW
: g {],Z%gzZ ]g)g f 11 2 111 :]c*
M / >g
-Z
q
) !*
t
`z AgzZ ~ yZg !
{],
Z %gzZ ]g t
X s zZ m{]giz wu 3ggzZg 3g Z8 }uz
C
Z',pp gzZ w e
$.iZ%x lgz6,a {z
) !*

G-W8
)f #
ZX *
@Y 0 yZ w17g a kZ { ig
^ ] : ~Vz%\vZY m
CZx aZIa%Vc*
g Z
f
]t 7:21 i j ] ] ] ]? n ] ?ou % ^ q $]
*: {yzx vgzZ

) ]g \
( #
#
Z
g
c*
a % #
Z ~ < b Z v !*~g Z)f F,
x
e
$Z@ 6,g Zz y M
X
H
]0 kZgzZgZ * z Vg ~
Z
M F,
gzZ g D
+wN |
# Z6,
ZVYKZ{g Z
gzZ y
q
-Z a +F,
Z #
Z @*
**
Z Z ~g Z)f +F,
Vg)g fg kZ ~g Z)f +F,
Z ]gL t YKg v+4
-ZgzZ
q
Hc*
Zi M J
-Sizg \ hzy;C
!*
y *
z wLZ {z 0*
gZ
~g Z)ft #
gzZ
c*
g} \ yZ0
+{sZ
ih
+]
.X }g (Z jgzZ Zg fx a /zg!*
kZ \vZ
7 0
+
i ]z H1 Yq s tig ] bz%
) !*
0
+
i
]_] @*
g y]gZ @*
0*
7q s tig {z }gzZ Y
kZ O} Z Zz CZ~e0
+
i]zHc*
}yz~
HZgg Z~}g !*
kZgzZ Y% $
+] x gzZ 0
+
iih
+]
.kZ
g ,wJ~g Z)f V LZyZ0
+{ Y HH,
gzZ
M F,
VgzZ Y
Yfz@*
I
3C
!*
Vg O kZ ,g Z + Z}
.0
+
i
X Z~ng Z
a +@Ws N Y xzVY Vg t
KyZ ,: 'g
/Z
E
$
{z
) !*
]g
/Z ? m
bc kZ H lz 0~G
x ~ y]g)g f[
$
g \vZ ?xz ] ZgzZ]',
a ]g ygzZ c*
#
g Z
gzZ t ZZ u Z~ ~g Z: {gZgzZ
X
Hc*
sp~ yZyJ
304 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

H3g Z V- g Z)f
) gzZ
gz]tg wi Z]g
'
V;} @*
g Z {ZzyZ Za PG%]|Z
# aZ

^$ :@*
7bgzZ kZvZ kZq Za
o%F ^ $ ] n k ^e ] # ] o%F] j o] h k^ ^ j
e^ n ] ?o ] m ^ jn $ o]
e
$ M kZ 36:3 n q$ ] _6 n $ ] ^ jm$
]gyZ/Z
# L
L t: e
$ M kZ ~Hg zu%gzZ]g)g f
}{z V Cg 2
+~ ~ }a kZ~g gz6,}} Zg
LZ'gZ
# : i {zq
-Z 35:3
wJ7kZ ~zax
f LZ 'g : it ` M Cz a #
}
. + d
W
gzZ +g Z { vDRz a * Y s Za
E
4& Z eR,
3H
VgzZ Se **
HE
g e bZ Z e ~ o ! fC
.
$ Z
G
wZzi #
Z kZ 7 fQX xO!*Y CZ4Z~ Vg
7za+ zZ KZ { zgzZ 7wZzi ]Zp~ VgJ
-Z
# ?g
kZ v
6,e
$ g l M #
Z kZ Z
# Y7`zL#
Z ,
za+ Z
# ? $
JZ Zz La+ \vZ l M
kZgzZN M V Zz% e#
Zz ] #
Q 7 {
?$
+k
,

f
e| 7,g
$ q Zt {z
/Z ,g
/7g
$ q Z sf r
# & **

]g~xsZ~V/}uzX c*
g Z
7q N#
Z ]gy M : L
: e gzZ ` u=
/Z
HH =sgzZ s7 g ],
Z
{gzZ4 i= i ZC
gzZ Sgk
,5
+Y g Z =
$ =[ Z C
4GG
g ],
Z]g{z k
,5
+g ZgzZp= YY $
+SE
5G
+ F,
h
= We
$.XD
: 7b, ZgZ6,=sa
o cnL L ::]gzt~"
$lr
# & **
X $

6n` ku ]e l 6n` q kmp o om] 6n p i u
C1
!XXoj e

X 69& *
*Z f]h! ]!*
Zz]Z:?{
c*
+]
h
.t &Zp~xsZL L& **
Z f C1
305 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

6,}fg
$ q ZgzZ` M6,zZ ZjT f
e
_[K!*
y M
{z
/Z
:D
:
gZ
/
] !*
C
tX sf `g f
ew Z e
}
#
.zmvZ - { zZz vZgtg Zh
+m,
M Y Z 1
6,zmvZ -\ W+Zz}! X
p=evZg/] Z|gzZ N W~
z tX Z6,zmvZ -\ WyY ~X V W0 +
$Y Vg~ Z
bg f Zg b~1 :X 7q :Z W~]g[f
B
\ WgzZ6,\
W 5+
$Y VggzZ Vz%Bh \vZ\ WX
C Zg7 VgzVz% ~Vzy
) ) VgX yZZ6,kZ W
] V%
) )- ] Z|%gzZ C
Z',1 zZ gzZ
zz ~ 5 Zg Z}
.aZ kZgzZ e6,egzZ ~q~} i
yZ D Y~ { Zg Z}
.gzZ {/ e Z
# ] Z|%tX D 0*
[ Z N{ c*
i
Dlgz6,VyZgzZDg } ayZX Dw
{zV',Z',X Vq
-~ [ Z N zmvZ -wgvZ} Z
HsevZ g[ Z cg CZ zmvZ -\ WX | (,~ [ Z N wqZ yZ
evZ g/] Z|X wZ YZ H~}g !*
+ ?wZ ]gkZ ?gzZ
V!*
yZ b ]gkZ x7zmvZ -wg vZ } Z
{z LZ ?gzZ Y c*

gzZ H cgs]g zmvZ -\ WQX B


bg]
V!*
yZ gwVpyZgzZ @*
',BVzC
Vgz CVgx
p}g ]g{zO',Z',
g% wqZ
yZ ' ZyZ
C1
X 9rz
q Z Z ]Z0` Zzi Z ~z% \G
vZgx Z]| 2
'
+
6,V" VzykZX e a}g 'c*

zmvZ -\W6,
C2X
_#
C
!*
yX
8xi

E
t
E
,
eKZ zmvZ -\ W ~z%vZg0{ ]| 3
!*
C
yvZgZ]|gzZ ,x w y{ z c*

0vZg]|
gzZ bzh **
w_ **
0
+
N*
W Z% #
}
.y 0Z X , x

X 4616 (g] o o`ne C1


!o]f(217( r C2
306 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

gzZ bx ZgZx wy)f]g Zx kZ C1X x }g wygzZ 0*


**
x OZ _} **
**
3~x wyX **
` e4gzZ 9y
ZgzZ K
M F,
wN VgzZ Y Z x w ygzZ **
{)z zh y
kZwNgzZ ZV Zz@',
gzZ gpx gzZ kZ{)zX

x C
!*
y f% bJ
- 0*
y x C
!*
X )f
X Y:C
!*
akZ]g
zmvZ -\ W ~ e
$Zzg sq
-Z vZ g Z ]| 4
{z~wqkZnqC
LZ {zZ
# 7lp6,] !*
kZ ~ ? c*

gzZ ;gg { izg~ Z}


.{ Zgg Z { izg kZ A M[Z N ZkZ Zg kZ
uQV\WkZ @*
DV Zz}i:V Zz y W: @*
{ igZ Z
#
-Z^ kZgzZ
q
_7{|zkZ X^ { zZ
# gzZ
H3g Ha
zz a ] Zg
/ZgzZ Qnq
-Z6,.
$C
gzZ {C
Zt17*a%
VglpyZt M[ Z N Zi W~ Z}
.{ Zg V z 9G.Oc Z Y
C2
X C7~]**
VzC
LZ g Z
a
Zg6,]!*
kZ ? c*

Vg zmvZ -\ W ~u 0*
$u 5
g
vZ 6 M[ Z N (ZkZ CnqC
LZ ~ ?Z
# 7
akZ @*
{ igkZ Z
# gzZ M[ Z Ng Z
gzZ Zzpg { izg~ 5 Zg
gzZ Y 7
}iz y W Z @*
y uQV\W ~
A
^
/ZX Qnq
-ZV 6,kZ *ac*
|z .
$q
-Z^ Z
# Za
C3
X M[ Z N Zi WV,~Z}
.{ Zg Y7,k
HY~] Zg :
L
"^ ]g c*

zmvZ -\W ~ e
$Zzgq
-Z 6
yZgz Z
/ZX Zz uu~ { Zg xsZ +Z J
-Zr|z gzZ
C4X M[ Z N'
,Z',
LYwZ
zmvZ-\ WVg e
$Zzg vZgZ]| 7

X 95 G
0.Z^Zg Z :]z(^n]n p o ^]]~iZZ0Z C1
G
I
-4<X
7629:g5604Zg Z :]z (]] f]] r + GZ1Z C2

X 45114:g 16816 G
0.Z^Zg Z :]z(^ ] ]] o ^]x 4Z0s C3
G
X 45151:g 171sZ C4

307 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

X ^ % zmvZ -wgvZ} Z
c*

zmvZ -\ WX 0*
T a Vg
G
'
C1
X',Z',
t5 Zg +~x wyV;
D tzmvZ-\W~ e
$ZzgvZg/0Z]| 8
G
G
+
B
Y7 ~}g !*
V 3 LZ q
-ZC
~ ?X yq
-ZC
~ ?
y wzI Z LZ WgzZ YY70c*
gKZkZgzZ Zgx ZgzZ Y
C2
X y ~w WL Zzx {gzZ y ~yC
L Z]gX
yZ zmvZ -\ W ~z% vZ g k0Z ]| 9
G
'
',Z', s Z Z y ZyZgzZ
) Z C
z] 5 ~g + VgX
z { z Vg Y7 Vg ~ g
$u C3X ~ ?'g+Z1X
C4X s Z Z y ZkZgzZ
) Z C
c*
t zmvZ- \W? H
c*

zmvZ -u 0*
C
\vZ g:]| 10
w gzZ } c*
V !*
(} Z Zh kZgzZ}
) Z C
LZ ]g
kZ C

/ZX zg q
-Z VzL~
A ]g+Z }6, $
VzL\vZ ~
]g+Z:gz A Z ]gt Zz t Z4gzZ
C5
X }
X c*
#

zmvZ -\W e
$ZzgvZ g Z ]| 11
Z Z6,
zB ~0*
Y HwZ0 i
Vgy
C6?H @
*
',
BkZ wZ0C
Q X 7
E

c*

zmvZ-\ W ~z%vZg W zZ! Z0Z]| 12


7 Zz Z ZJ
-
zkZ h Z}
.]g yY~~T]Z f kZ n

420m6` C1
STO (Nt (p^e (PP (] h] C2
OLT (Pt (]] r C3
PMS (Rt (o`ne C4
PMP (MRt (^] C5
MRR (MRt (^] C6
308 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f
1C

X}: Z Z hC
LZ {zJ
-Z
#$

\ WgzZN Wk0*
zmvZ -wg {z e
$Zzg Ya 13
~
ZzC
{z H HGx yZ zmvZ -\ W Y7 zmvZ '
@*
',HB yZ Zg + Y7 yZ zmvZ -\ WX V; V,ZX {
{zz @*
',YZB yZ c*

zmvZ -\ WX 7{ Zz6,yZ= ?
C2X 3z
A a}g v
c*

zmvZ -\ W e
$Zzg %vZ g/0Z ]| 14
uu~3 ZgZ}
. A M[ Z N Z kZJ
-"^ VgX
C3
X M[Z N LkZ YwZ kZyxg Z
/Z M[ Z NV Zz
zmvZ -u 0*
wg ~z%vZ g !*
) Z1Z ]| 15
/Z V1Zz !*

$x6,V LZ V1Zz
Z',] zgzZ : c*

C4
A ,:
**
C

C
vZg {0zzi ]| X N Y4Z~

A
g Eq
-Z Zk0*
}X HwZ kZX V HzB kZ W]gq
-Z
~9Q c*
}gL J W J WV@Vz kZ ~} ~X 7
y zmvZ - \ W ~ p= zmvZ - \ WX gzZ
B yZ kZgzZ
Hc*
i W=g fVYyZT c*

zmvZ - \W H
C5
X V
) !*
] 3akZtH @*
',YZ
q ~ B zmvZ -\W D
vZ g',Y ]| 16
vZgw ]|\ W i X#
ZzyZ f Z i [X Z
QX ~ (F,

) ZyZgzZ
c*

zzz } 9}g
g e Z}
.c*

zX BvZ gw ]|X p=~ V g


~3?X z]Zz! g?c*

gzZ Zg Z+
$Y
) ZX
yZgzZX c*

OR (Ot (q^ e] C1
PMT (Rt (o`ne C2
MSM (MRt (^] C3
P t `] ^vi](PLU Rt g] o o`ne(PLMQ t ^] ^ ^vi] C4
QRS
QN (] h] C5
309 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

4V ?c*

\
W ?zmvZ -wgvZ VY Y7 ]gq
-ZX { c*
i
VZVzVzg ;Vzg- i LZVgOXC~]**
VzC
gzZ{ c*
i
C1
X c*
}~Z}
.{ ZgyZX c*
qz 6,
} vZgw]|w

zmvZ -\W ~ C
\vZ g ]|J3. Zx Z 17
X e Vg?c*

\ W e]i YZY~

zmvZ -\W ~zG


% vZ g ]|J3. Z x Z 18
'
C2
X e a}g + +4c*

\ W Hx0 Vg
:Hg ,
]Z Z Z :%gzZ]g
!*
g ],Z %z ]g~ zg #
ZgzZ q )Z g
$ q Z <
L y M

6, gzZg(ZVg
/Z% 7gzZx Z ~kZ
6,V, Z Z ~igz s kZ
H ],Z LZ { z Y~ y
6, ZX 6,yZ'gc*
V%{z { Zp,g (Zg Z
yZyLZ
Ixg bVg~ Vzy ?
H~}g !*
yZ {g1yY o%
~ Vzy~ z \vZ vgzmgzZ 'g D Y ~ yZy % H
n :7`w M:a !%gzZ Z 6 J0
+Z
/Z @*M ~y M
Tg
#

] _m% $ t u m] o $ t u t ] o $ t u oF ] o
17:48 ^n ] ^e] e m $ jm$ `F ] ^` j vi pri k#q m
m{z7`w N Y {g ,:
~ xz { Zg ZigzZg F
oF ] o % ] o n :Vg Z zwgkZgzZvZBw
n v] o ^ # ] v ]] t u m ^ rm m$] o
yZyUg6 twq Xv{ztxz^ Zi 91:9 n u$ # ] n f
~g z ~g Y M V\ M yZgzZ @*
Y w yZ ]gzZ D Y : Zz
$

$ ] i n u] q] k vj i] ]] m$] o $ :D
ow!%1X 92:9 m ^ ] rm $] ^ u $ ] n i n ]

akZ @*M 7a
t 38:9jn ] ] o] j^$$]: {gi }i ?c*

k] p] :Yc*
s DZZpg v
~ o

(p^e C1
PO (Mt (p^e C2
310 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

^j] ] ^q # ^e ] ! ]
^ ] ^ _$ ] ]]
e oF f ] ] ] m$ ^e ] m F] $
~VzyX 46:9 m F] ] ] :BVCZz
gX 8786:9 m
yZ Vc*
g Z)f wyyZ 7n
ayZ ~Vgs]i YZ

yZ {zq
-Z 9z VCZz
y1 yZyZ yZ y yZgzZ
:
HH[ ^] ]] yZIg
/
kc*
{z~uz
n $ ` e ^n $ m$ ] |^q $ `n n ^u^ q m oj #] ] ] ]
gzZVz%oX 60:24 n n # ] $ ` $ n jm$ ]$ me kqF f j
I >gzZ Z',
t
Hc*
C D6,g~ y M
f Vg
e e kF F] F] :n
pgzgB;LZgzZD
$ ] n # ] ] mm] fm ] m ^e ^m
$ ] | :lp6,
gyot 67:9 F] n F]
] ^ :gBV Zz
y[ Z HI? 81:9 e
] m$ ^m ] :HI**

~VCZz
yV,Z 83:9 n F]
gzZZg6,
0
+
i *gzZ n
pg7YvZ v{ zt 93:9 ] ]
m$] ^ e ] %^] ^n % ] nFv^e ] ^ q m m$] $ ]:t
skZgzZ TgyhgwgvZ : d
$iyZ 7:10 F ^j mF!
] f m # ] $ ] $ jm$ ]:D Yy~LZ LZZz6,
"

{zgzZ ~]i YZ
~y I Vg 120:9 ^e
gzZ Vg Zz
y]i YZ% c*
]i YZ zmvZ -vZ wg v o
K wEZ 9~ y M
ayZ {g B Vzgzm
&
~g{g 24:5 95:4 168:3 120 93 9087 868381 64:9 /GG
a,
^] ]]Z ~]i YZ g @*
Zg eu~VzyVg{g/
Y {gXooXVzg6gzZ Vzgzm c*
qVgsFZ
H
g ygzZ :B wgvZ {z ~ zmvZ -vZ wg ]i YZ
gzZ Tg~ y Ug6t 6,Y]i YZ DFt
/Zq lp6,
) !*

0*
:^ Zi {za Z D {fZ6,Y {gxz `
Z
~
vZ wg~}g !*
yZ ^VzyLZ D zggzZn:
~ Ug6
wt { Z_ H{z~ 5 ZgC
gzZ ~ ZzC
1 ~ {z c*

311 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

c
*
tayZ~x`
kZ { c*
i zggzZ ? HGV, Z y M
x
: ZzZ f ]i YZ \
M
3a {z
/ ~yZ
/Z { M
HIg ?7.
~ ~?gzZ
# ] F e $ ] | : gBV Zz
y[Z
v] o ] i ] ^ # ] n f o ] ] ^e ] ^rm% ] ]?
q$ ^ m ] ^ ]& u % ] $ q ^
^j^ oF] # ]
$ ] ^e jn $] ]& o ] i^i $ ]e ] o ] q i $ t
^ :~gVYZ\ M c*

\vZ 8381:9 n F] ] ^ $
n$ fjm oj#u k ]
# ]
43:9 n eF] i ] m$]
kZgzZvZBw m{zI+@Wxz { Zg ZigzZg Fs
rm m$] o oF ] o % ] o n :Vg Z zwg
# ] n f n v] o ^ # ] v ]] t u m ^
{ Zp xgS
-~y9
]g] ] !*
kZ]c*
Mx tX 91:9n u$
zgzZ Lgg~y m %
/ZXC
!*
yg {],Z %gzZ: VY
q
]g i
_C
!*
y kZ~]qA
$ mkZ 0
+
i
X 7]i YZ
/

C
S
-~yZ~
q S7i a
: ZL
<EZ :FZ *gZ ]g

:
W
X
J
-$
+Z wi Z Z<
L pglzgzZy p *gZVg
t
#
Z)g f~

gstX aV'gzZVz V
KZx
\
W
~ i P ]| ~y M
Z ~ VZ
Hc*
7
VgVc*
g Z)f KZ { Z
# p D%x x C
!*
y g2
*gZ: { yz 'gUg6 Yx **
~ Z Z jW,
~gZ 0
wq ]gz C M 7Vc*
g Z nZ ~ wq ]gkZ X x Z

m ^$ : @*
Cy M
7g ` MVg~x BVz%

^f _ ^ ^ F i n i] ] q m ^$] $ ] n q
] o] o# i $ $ ^ oFn f n ^ e ] ] m oj#u o ^j^
@*
xt e
$ M Z 2423:28n n o$ ] k ] o] h ^
$ ] k^ n vj ] o oi ^ Fu] i r g- i ]g~kZY zx
mrn m oe]
^ ] n
$ q ^$ ^ kn ^ q]
312 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

? I ]gna%\vZ 25:28 n # ] ] l r i
yM

z[NZ{ z ~g Z)f } sZ M~*gkZ


!*
g
g Zg Dh
+#
Z~A kZk\Z}I._
mfq F a # ] $ ^ n ] ` 6 i ] ^e k # ] o] e ji ] :
F e 5 ] n + ] x^
^q] ] ?f m% ] $ $ ] ? e% oF n `
5 4:66 ] ^e ]$ kfFn $ kvF 5 lFfF kfF i5 kjF F kF + % kF $ ] n
-vZ -[ $
+Z\ MvZ ,} t :] Z0` Zzi Zx \ M AXG
g
/Z7
g Z { izgg Z
/
/g Z
/
) ZyZZ !*
yE4 yZ }
~$
+Vc*

"
X M
h { ^
,Y! l
qKZyqV{ !*
c*
EG3I
:XgzuV'Zzgx :zx
]gz]ggVx z x @*
xt >g
x bZ Tg~ z < ],
Z
z
x**
bZ gzZ $
t
W x*
*{gg0
+ZzugzZ $
} [ Z wZ
Y >gkZ $

0 0*
t :g2 pgxi 5%x**
bZ ~Vz y~kZ @*
x
\
W

?
P
v] ] m] o] ^ :
Hc*
x b ]|aZ s ]

] ki] ^ sru o F$ o q^i ] o5 n jF o$ je ] pu]


n $ ] ] m]
t >g 27:28 n v # ] # ] ] ?orj
Zzgx gzZ & x**
zx~* [

g @*
x
Z ~ [ Z x
Z ga Z 0*
gzZ _g Zz Y z [ sx Z gzZ < ~

Hc*
2i W }uz q
-Z} pg Vz%Vg

i $ jn i] ] ] u^ $ j of$] mF :_wx t]
"
Hc*
CtZ 32:33 ^ $ $
f o p$] _n ^e
m$] ^` m%^m5 :
Hc*
a a
kZ a
Z YtYH6,

] o5 ` ] n ] m$ ] o5 m ] !
e ] ] e h^ ^e ] e^i ] ]? i $ ` ] n $ m$
5 ^ gjm $ ^m ]
apgg Z
',
0*
VX 11:49 # ] a
z } 6, "
/Z
Hc*
t~g gz [Z x
Z g
A: ]i YZ: 4Z ]i YZ ~ Vzy%Kxs~ y
Hc*
VgzZ
+ m% ] ?$] o f$] l n e ] i ] ! m$] ^ m%^m5 :z:C
~g Z **
6,kZ Y M : Zz
313 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

e ] F h^ru p $ $ ^ ^j $ j^ ]] (
]^ji oj#u i n e n ^in e ] i ] ! m$] ^` m%^m 53:33 $ e
]u] ` n ] ri $ ^ $ i $ $ n F ^` a ] o5 ] i

^e # ] oF ] a ] q ^ ] q ] n ] + m oj#u ^a i

~ P ]|Z
# ._44e
$ M Z >gX 28 27:24 n i
E
-A J# 0*
l
j 4Z Y
F LZ kZa F,Z ~ kZnj 0*
$] ^ ^` n ^ k$ r$ jfu i] ^$ | $ ] o ] ^` n :aVZ
h # Fn k] o k o] h k^ m] $ % |
=k]F,~*'gugzZg Zx e
$ M kZ 44:27 n F]
: '\ Z Z Vg [
$
g @*
J
-Vzck]yZgzZ
kZD
~
F,
x Z 127m5`Z
+ZzZ ] m ]u ^ ]f ^f
:l7,{ c*
iayZ @*
pg Z n'Vg~g
$u
q)+
$Y~uzX 206m~F, $ j] m X ] ]q o ^]
-J#
AE
3GVgzZg| m
6,zZ0*
gzZ nj% F
0*
X 'gV Z y
gwZ e gXV1a V-
/
gzZVH J
-n~ l,
Z
X 7VzIe
$h
+]
.x 6,Tqd
$tg Z VHgzZ
a Z #
d
$ ~i 0*
~ o y4^*
y;',\vZ\ MgzZ gzP^- ]| ~ ^m,Z
#
m,6,Z F,
x ZZ kZ 7wJ{ k
H]1
wJ{gzZ g 6,o Z

28:12 n $ n $ ] $ n ] ^ e $ n ! ^$ :p Zt^
kZt 7Vgx gzZ Vgx ^X ~ kZxNt D C
0 ~zg { Zg" wdZ, Z CC e
$ Mt Zg Z" kZ / CZ f
/ { k
HL

) !*
ZX : wJ.
~ d
$~^V
Z Z ^m,

k
]
f p j] ]F ] m :e
$Z@
gzZ% 1^~} YkZ Zx e
$ M kZ 29:12 n _F]
x kZ @*
Y 7x ].
{ k
HgzZ @*
Y { k
Hg Z bkZ ] !*
.
_
X m{Mzd
$ZzgC
*Y zx @*

%Z
# *%]| XgzV'Zzgx [ sgzZ z x
yM
H
Z',] u +pyZ \ M Z 7,**
g
/ i M g Z`Z%K
314 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

^ q^:Lg: y
Kzx **
ZgzZ CY% kZ~l' *%]| @*
C
a G23:19 ^n&$ ^n k ]F f k% ojn mF k^ $] q oF] ^]
'
Zg +: H{ k
HZ (, ?! *%} Z Vx :Zz {z
m mF ] ^ vi ^ e ki^:]g$
+V ~g v:gzZ M Z',\ !*
^n& e
% ] k^ ^ $ ] ] e ] ^ ^ F k^m5 ^m& ^n kq
~}g Z vZ }]|Qzx a c*

\ M6,kZ 28 27:19
o ] ^ ^n&f ] o ^ n ] ^ n ] l ^^:Hx6,
g: Z7
F$ ^e oF ] k ^ m] ^ fF o q $ ^n& f o q gjF] oiF! # ] f
#
wgzZ @*
x ZzkZ 31@*
29:19 ^n& u k ^ F$ ]
X m"Z V'Zzgx
:Zt x

_m ^%n e # ] m m$] : \~g !*

gZ
5 ] ] o m m% ] ? e # ] ]
]$ ] ? $ ]
p
kZt
~yZZ IZgzZ"0
+!*
tx
\vZ 25:13
zq
.
-Z Z Z kZgzZce **
( Z nZc*
Zj[g LZ

^e j] v ] o] ? q m% : 1x Zg
KZ {z Cty
]ggzZ%y M
22:31 ] f ^ # ] o] oF$ ]
Zg~VZKZ D ZzSk0*

LZgzZ ZzV Z
F

$
a` `j F a m] :DVzi KZgzZTg6,~i !*
oF a m$] `i F`Fe a m$] F
^vm `i
wqC
#
wp Z xg 6, ZgzZ] KZp t x
34@*
32:70
kZ St x
y M
X
KyZZ I Z b] E**
S}z gg Z
',~
E

]~e+ yZ}~ Zg Z~wZ g e


$Z@g
6,+V Xs }@ Zz g]t
/Z c*
uzgV
E

g
/Zp n
6,V ZzxsZg Z ]yZZ IZ}~ Zg Zapg
kZ X Y n
**
St x
g: n
]t Q [ {@
] q^ ] ! m$] $ ]: YYH{ i Z0
+Z Zt x
gzZ }@ }z
5 ] ]? $ ] ! m$] # ] n f o ] ] ^e ] qF
n ] e
] ] q^ m oj#u o j m$ ^ ] q^ m ] ! m$] e
315 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

^e # ] ^%n n e n e oF $] $] n m] o j]

] o j i i $] e n ] e ] m$] n e i
7372:8n f ^
:nqZ t x :b
~y M
Zg7~wqC
VKZgzZ Zg7St x
LZ
-ZgzZ} \vZ~zmvZ-vZwg<
q
L b Z
Hc*
g !*
g !*
Z Z {g kZgzZ x`
**
h VZ
# x`
**
h zz kZ Zyxgy{
yM
akZ YY H{ i Z0
+Z kZ x`
Z (,g**
h zz b i **

oFjm ^ $] ^ ] n e k$ u] ^e ] ] ]? ! m$] ^ m%^*m5 :N @*


~
e m m $wZ 1:5 mm ^ vm # ] $ ] u j] n $ ] o v n n
F ^m] ?o $ ^e # ] ]* m ( 20:13 ^%n ] m # ]
?o $ ^e # ] ]* m ( 225:2 n u # ] e kf ^e ]* m%
] n F ^ ] ?i ^$ ^m ] i%$ ^e ]* m% F ^m]
F ^m$] %F$ ^n rm $ f mvi ] i ] n ] _i ^

F ^m] ]? u] ju ]] ^m] ^$
$ j mF! # ] nfm
^ n i e ^m ] ]i i% F ]] # ] e ] ] ( 89:5 i
oj $^e $] n j n ] ^ ] e i 91:16 i ^ m # ] $ ] n n # ] j q
-Z ZX 34:17 ^ ] $ ] ^e ] ] $ ] fm oj#u u] o
q
s t x
0
+!*
[g kZgzZ ]gkZ} t :zz ~ KZ y
k
B ~ wqC
* y M
ZX @*
0*
gZ
>% x{ k
H ~iz
g y M
X:60
+Z yv+ kZ ~ F,
6,gzZ i
* e
$Z@wJ6,gZ]qm{7 * +
$Y
Y )g f * ( ]i g Z
$
# 4 gzZ k
B wq
7b VY6,* kZ ? Y} t :VYzz ~ ( KZC
yq
-Z
*g yZZ I Z Y
Z', {z F,
*B V7 + ?@*

{z
/Z y M
, !*
',
yLZ~ : M%gzZ 'gyZZ I ZgzZ B
G
'
+
B; M z *ss~g gzZ g i !*
gzZ N Y {g ) ? g
^m m$] $ ] :g7~i Zg
6,
yZa}g v\vZ N J (,
$
[
g 10:4 ] n n ] ^ _e o ^m ^$] ^ oFjFn ] ] ]
316 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

{ M a kZ \ W V b ssz *
/Z
} Z e
$Z@
G
E
$
S
4Gz6,
g
z 5G
vZgzZN Y
$ ] vq ] : Zz+ YgzZ ZzG
zkZs]i YZt : 61:8 n ] n $ ] $] # ] o $ i ^ xq^

wEZ Zg f kZ x gzZ V,
C ] %Z Z
# a
( ]g
/ZpX g: Za ]g gzZ "rZ z!*
tx
0
+!*
\vZ b t : Z 7~ kZgzZ Zz V g Z +

% vm: t]okZ 7x w'**


? e ]
(Z **
h
n m k ^ $] $
fr ] $ t] ] $ e $ fi ]
oF # ] ^
X 52:33^f n $ o

JwgzZ ~gz gkZ}~igz s t x


kZ \vZ
Y
13:5 n F e ^ q # ^%n ^f: **
:] *
c Z@ M Jt : s %Zyxg~Vx
E
$
0~G
**
SgzYZ }@kZ x **
}@{ m0
+
i b
Y A y M
X @*
7 b {z @*
b % +
M kZ
gzZ _~

/Zb N Y ~g7 _ ZgzZ z l b


: @*
7iZwq]g+Zy M
n: Za 3 Z Z}
.Z
-Z Y VI**
q
"{z
/Zz0
+
i j@ByZ 1

vm ] ! m] ^ m%^m5 :~g >~kZ\vZ1:I"q


u^e n i^m$ ] ?$] $ jn i! f e ] f j $ i ^ ] ]$i ]
n # ] rm $ ^n ] i ] o5 $ j ^ ^e $ ^ n f %
X 19:4 ] n % ] n
b & Z O t :yZ Vq u~ ` Z'
'g+Z 2
: [ZgzZzg (Z e yZ~ V[Zp Z @*
Cy M
Z

] ] ] ]e $ e o e ] ^e ] o # ^q ]
$ $ ^i oj #] # ] u ^e gn k6 uF kjFF kvF # ^
^ # ] $ ] n f $ n ] f i ] ^ $ e] q^] o $ r ]
34:4 ] n f ^n&
G
'
+
yZ { Z ({ Zp N Y .~g kZ {z
/Z @*
{ k
CZ6,gZzp 3
^n& ^ # ] $ ] n f $ n ] f i ] ^ :z: l~i Zg
6,
317 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

34:4 ] n f
]i YZ t :Q y M
: b & Z ]g z!*
VhyZ 4
yxg yZvZ , *gzZ b & ZgH
U*

7
^u ] ^u ] % e ^ ^n e ^ j ] :} w]gkZ
35:4] n f ^n ^ # ] $ ] ^ n e # ] m% ^u]pmm% ] ^ ]
E4)7
z q
-Z "ry M
N Y x **
~ Z *G
/Z 5
*~ : M 6,t ~Vx Vz7B pX @*
Cid
$
: M 7 yZ ?p D Yb s 4wq *B
^v ^ n e ^v m% ] n |^q ^] ] ] ] ^ e k^ ] ] ]
^e ^ # ] $ ^ ] j$i ] vi ] x$ % ] ] l u] n x% ]
128:4] n f i
t :y M
A
$n: Za ~4~wq]g
/Z z!*
iZ%x yZ 7
WVz%gzZ]g @*
CY ~ M zM z~&t :t ]i YZ
t : ~uz c*
%
/ZX M ]g b & ZgzZA J
- ~y
M
X *
@Yh qgQ Y~}t :~
/Z CY*}qg
Z }uz q
-Z zi
/Zp @*
C yZ
iZ%x yZ 8
^$ jm$ ] :}i *" Y Z}uzq
-ZC
]gWzKZ \vZ N Y
sy M
t : 130:4 ^n u ^ ] # ] ^ j & # ] m
g m$ :YHg}:]g jZ @*
e
$Z@%

$
n v # ] ] o ] ^n % ] o n _] ] Fe] $
2Z 9C
q nZ y kZgzZ Hy y M
y {z t :t 130:2
X i a%
:it :~] q ]Z
g D
+yZ~ X D ]qgzZ ]U*
q ]uZz ] 5, Z%
BokZy M
]i YZ t :~] q ]Z, Z Z @*
Yw6,iZ%

^ m%^m5 :zg j@% B;Z ?gzZ 7xi ]6,]g


$ n ^ $ % i ] f $ j$ $ $ kF + ] jv ]] ]? ! m$]
gm o j ] 49:33 n q ^u] $ u $ j ^ % j i $
j ] # ] p ] ] % e ] i^ ^f oF ^$ ^$
318 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

0
+
iB<iT g Y~kZs]i YZt 23:2 n F
0
+
i Y Zzi ZZ: Za akZ: Zg Z
/
z:B~ kZ 7
tx
{ Zg Z 0
+
i )g f b kZ Zg
/
D
Za yZ c*
Mt ] uZzgzZ ] U*
q]5 r Z, Z pH)g f
pgLgzZK
vgkZ~ w~ X
Hk
,
+gykZ
5
)f q
-Zt 1 e kZ ] M Dxzn]**
kZ
L Z~ VgzZ ~ !*
:
', zZtyZ0
+{Y: Zg Z
~ yZgzZ
H3g Z ]q i t :~ ]q ]Z, Z Z
C
# M
Z
h7BVgzZ]uZzg ", Z 0
+
ii
HH7
iZ%g D
+
] q ]ZyZa M Vz LZ <Z CY Za wq]g+Z
X 3gp m{
:xi b :5Z Z$
i 5Z Z w $
zykZ @*
6,
{@ b
^ ] ]$i ] % vm ] ! m$] ^ m%^m5 :Y 7:Zz%&
$ ^ nf% u^e n i^m$ ] ?$] $ jn i! fe ] f j $ i
] n % ] n n # ] rm $ ^n ] i ] o5 $ j ^ ^e
5Z Z $4 4._ wKZgzZ e YK Z Z lp$t 19:4
^ o f ^ v $ j F ] ]i! :
Hc*
g Z
n

-[
g Z nt Y Y7 b %$ 4:4 ^?m$ ^n?
$ t] ] $ e $ f i ] ? e ]
% vm :
Hc*
zmvZ

F
#

$
fr ]
$ 52:33 ^fn $ o o ] ^ n m k ^ ] $
kFv] xm$ ] _jm $ :Y jszc5Z Z
e ^m^ e ] # ] kF + ] j nFj ^m] k ^$ kF + ]

n kFv ^e $ q] $ i! $ ] ^e $ v^ e
o ^ $ n u^e n i] ^ $ u] p^ ]] lFj$ $ kvF F
F h] ] kFv]
# ] $ n ] fi ] k ] o
b c*
t :}}~$
/Zw Vze {z 7]i YZ% 25:4 n u$
$ t ^$ t ]fj ] i% ] ] :}c_h
e: ZzZ~]g U*
p]g 20:4 ^n f% ^$]$ ^^j e ^i] ^n ] ^i ] ^_ $ Fu] jn i!
319 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

p]g
/Z 237:2 229:2 ]!*
Z e **
0*
] b %}
Zt} hg$
o f ^ v $ j F ] ]i! : ] !*
]%
/Z ZZb 6,$X 4:4 ^?m$ ^n? ^
@gzZz w Z c*
y M
Y 7: Zz $A
$}} t :
] f $ j$ $ $ kF + ] jv ]] ]? ! m$] ^ m%^m5 :zg j
^u] $ u $ j ^ % j i $ $ n ^ $ % i
[} {z Y 7:Zz~w kZ
z t :%X 49:33 n q

Ynt %]g{g: 6,:WXZzuzi I]gt%Z


iF$ _$ ] :}qe}zC
LZ]g7B p~
^ ^
^n $ jn i! $ ] ^i ] % vm ^u^ e xmi ] e
^n ^n |^q # ] u ^n m $] j ^ # ] u ^n m $] ^m$ ] ?$]
5 ^ # ] u $ jm$ ^ j i # ] u
i e lj]

z!x KZ~g zgzZ]!*
.l% @*
_
(Z]zZ 229:2 # ]
Le **
g (Z e 9
L oxgzZ ` Z'
~ x **
]g ZG Y
kZ @*
i Z Z t : H Zz q Oz w 8 t 1

it $
iA kZ} :Zzw ]gag 6,:WXZzu~]gE
$ j$ ] : i 5Z Z $}%t :] @*
B 7
] m ] m$ ] ?$] j ^ m $ j $ % i ] f
^e # ] $ ] n e ] ] i pFj$ h ] ]? i ] |^] n e p$]
3,
%{zc*
:$gzZ D',3,
]g
H~e
$ M kZ 237:2 n e i
t x 3,? e
$Z@ 6,gZz%1} Z Z$ Zg7 gzZ x
kZ Z ]gzg kZ x Z {z
Hc*
a kZt %
rg9
L o{ c*
i
]o ]zI{ c*
igzZ 5 { c*
i 3,{ c*
i ~ ]g{z t
gzZ 0*
kZg Z M Zzg(Zr
# :
L ~ kZ X}
2 kZ
Hc*

#
Z%aX ]gz{ c*
i
\I
N
g Z MZ ce gzZce g w~
qC
% LZZ Z
wEZ$Vg{z c*
Vz% y M
XM
h ^7Bw Lg
gZw ,[ g Z $
+{z
/Z7h%~T w yZt ,:
^ ] ]$i ] % vm ] ! m$] ^ m%^m5 : YYzgw ~$6,
320 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

$ ^ n f% u^e n i^m$ ] ?$] $ jn i! fe ] f j $ i


] n % ] n n # ] rm $ ^n ] i ] o5 $ j ^ ^e

rg 7
A & Z Z V$gzZ $

/ZX 7:
L gzZzz p 19:4
w $gzZg U*
&
gzZ: ]glr
#
Y b %kZ
\
W
wJ Mn b P ]| 6Bt Z6,kZ
m,
?gzZ
236:2 10:60 25:4 24:4~ y M
$X
HHgb n#
}
.

Cd
$sZX ZzZ kZgzZ
HHy , 5:5 27:28
] ] i :#
5~]5: M c*
y M
X6,
5

Cd
$kZ {zf
e x k~A $VgvX 237:2n e

Hc*
#
Z%: Y^yZ0
+{:%5 J e
5 Z Z
+6,%Vc*
g Z)f x ce **
6,]zI Z Z
X kZt ~gze
$.a%
@*
{ nyZ0
+{%!% igzZ 2~ gz6,aw q z
, ZvZ $
Y 7yZ 5~ A V, Z
c*
g z gzZ
vZgzZ De
$Z@<VzuzgzZ D< X @*
7IV

$
f ^e ^] ^m fm m] :D Z c*
i Z7Z aLZ

akZ5 37:4 ^n % ^e ] m ^j ] # ] iF! jm


kZ kZ wt CZgz!*
y
KZ Y c*
f kZ ;g Y c*

#
? z~wG
kZ i! p] ] ^ :~p Zy M
x4z]
.gzZD
'
+
vZt 7Zg t x ZgzZax kZwt 33:24G
c*
vZ
'
+
%KZ {z ay

p e A w %KZ y
KZ $ Z k0*
} g w
D C)g fkz]+Z[gvZ jwZ[ Z Ma ay
Y7
I
^

w x KZ E
PG3 ]|Z
# a kZ X D~zc VyZ yZZ IZgzZ
hgVzq}g LZ C2t i ~ H t [ Z yZ zg s ZuZ
s._ Y A LZ ~ w LZt c*
D Z Z \ !*
}g -6,X,

] ] . e ! f m ^ j ] ^i i] gn mF ] ^ ::g (Z
$] ]. 5 ^ ^] ] ?o $
w d
$zsZ 87:11 n $ ] n v] k

zps ZuZgzZ CZ
+ 6, ay
kZp C7gHu6,
C**
Zx Z ] akZ C{ V- zgyzo Z
ZgzZ u
321 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

E
yZ w kZ %Z @*
4w Y <X^gzZ V Z **
yM
a Z X
$ ^nF # ] q oj $] ] ] % ] ]i+ i : c*
~g7]c*
gz
kZgzZV
$Zgz F,
w 5:4 ^ $ ] ] ^ n ]
w p g {],
Z%gzZ]gy M
X%+F,
Z 0
+
i
KZ
g_g Zz y }YvZY c*
Ci._ ~g Z)f yZ ~
~\ !*
V _g Zzd
WaZ 11:4ce **
z H kZgzZ d
$
Zz %
_g Zz _ ZC
Y%% zZ ~
/Z 6,g~z)_ Z
',Z',
VYzzq
-Z~_Z\!*
Xz \ !*
gzZ Az ZV
7 s V z q
-Z V \ !*
V s: zZ
/Z
q
-ZVq
-~ q
-Z
V { c*
i q
-Z
/ZgzZz q
-ZC
V
_ Z]g~X +Z qg e s ~ Vpq_ Z._
kZ c*
',Z',
%
_ Z]g~ Vpq !*
ZkZ %
{],Z%gzZ ]gwZgzZ ] c*
Mt _ZX C0*
gZ
_gZz z s~ gzZ { c*
i
~ Vkx ] Zx 0$gzZt : b X ag
C +F,
Z x ~ Y
K{g~ y M
a kZ 7m"Z ~
<t g
6,Vh7ZgzZ} ZzVhyZ6,? LevZ L
L
HtC] Z

#
n fn ] mm :DY 1}g
/
?~zcX`"
#

C 26:4 n u n ] n h jm f m$] m m
] kZ yZ0
+{ ;g C 6,j 1 VZ x ~ e ] Z
k Zzg~ kZgzZ VzgZ- }g Z Z kZgzZ {g Z Z +F,*gzZ ~
z% wi ZgzZ Y<Z sA
$Z%yZgzZx yZ
Z
# "
$U*
y M t g q
-Z ~ VZ x Hg {],
Z ]g
k^ o pFf k^] 1n 1 li 1 p 6nD
r
# & **
!^+7^ 1 ke^$ 1 o] jf] ^j 6n` ke^$
vZ)g f] Z C ~ ] ( l]rv] ( _] (^]>
Vc*
0*
XCj{ zyZ 7Z
+Vc*
0*
6,VzLZ \
D Zi W ` ZzgzxgyZV{z @*
t W,Zq
-Z Y m
CZX Iy MgzZ
/{zgzZ}6,
yZ Dg @*
Z1{z6,yZD {z~X
n k^ oj $] F ] ] m:} ~Xs
322 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

5 ] ? ] ?p$] %] ] f i$] $ e ! m$^



{z
HH Za gzi y
KZY x ZakZ9tY m
CZ 157:7 v ]
0
+
i @* @*
Z
+ Vc*
0*
z yW
gzZ xsZ Z Y7
Z',Vc*
0*
{ c*
i
C
*
* 0
+
i { 0*
7x Z ~ X
) !*
V- 0*
{ yZ X Y yW
y M
X 28:4 ^n ^ ] m% ] # ] mm :
HF,
y Ma
'y Mb pLZ ? Y yb F,
y M b C
X e
$h
+]
.
:2Z z] *
c Z@sZ0zuf
{z 7

c*
g ~g Z)f zuf ~g @*
zd
$sZ
yA
$ p**
ix`
V\ M KZkZ
/Z}} ZwpN @*
iux`

BY Zx`
X ~g Ys u:gz ~gzZ e {6,6,Z',
gl{}:
:n]uZzgzZV!*
e~} @*
e
$Z@pg~Y Z {6,kZ
HH
] [ y!*
i6,x`
kZ7]i YZVz c*
wZ e {6, \vZ6,x`
T
0*
t 7]i YZ nx`
kZ z!*
] [ X B%
[
g { 0]| t x|Te
$Zzgq
-Z s ]g gzZ
~{ k
H
qB%)]gKZ
/Z !vZwg c*
HwZ zmvZ , [n
zZ ,g OZ VZg e} Zg Zt])~g B
Z}
.Zz wi **
kZ !
} Z c*

zmvZ -[ $
g6,kZ ?
sZ ~ ]c*
M g gX q]) { c*
i ?wg kZgzZ q]) { c*
i

Hc*
C wZ ~q
-Z f i x GZ ~} z z g @*
zd
$
'
+
Y:g Z~
q3F,0E
!_
.g0
+Z}g
zZwJ Jx`
C
6,DZ`
C ZM
h7*gzZgz yg { c*
i wgkZgzZvZ ?
gzZ]m}g7 w M: kF,n6,V" D**
Zw+F,
JkZ
gzZVz%] sZ @*
zf V ZwJyZB
~g7yZZ
n ]$ ] :g: !*
KZz Zag~] gzZ Y { Vg
#

] ] m o ] ^`e ^i $ q ^ ^` u] $ ] q^ o]$ ]
Z3g 2:24 n + ] ^` e] ` n F ] n ] # ^e + i j
u/_
.3g
z kZ
Hc*
I 3g Z
# ]i YZ [g Z
# [J
-
z
~}g !*
V Zz ;JgzZ Y~ }i y M
a Z @*
Y0iz
323 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

T 3:3g nzO} } Z wRMVOOy nji ] j :6,gZz


3g6,%gzZ]gy Tg~] z d
$sZ y6Ziz Zi$
+
Vz%~] zd
$sZX 7e
$g{zH2~{ k
H YZ c*
3:
Y Zz6,yZ $
+X x ZwJ
-$
+Z b w ]g%kZC
6,VggzZ
X ~gz**
C yZgzZ b Zwu V$
+, Z
kZVb_gzZ Vx gzZ **
wJz ZA
]Z
GX }ZgzZ_g ZzZC
kZ/x C
yZZ bVut
7gZw Zg Z
G~ h W3gt MZ/_
.ggzZ3g6,ZwgzZzu
x ~
CT
Hc*
z #
Z#
Z kZ T s kZtzgt
yg !*
g !*
~y M
t 9
Z Y m
CZgzZVZx )zg
GgzZszc
] m ^e ^m n ] o] m$ $ ] j : Z
5 ]
^e ^i ^$ kq] $ ] n j 104:3 v ]
$ ] n ^ gjF] ] ! # ^e + i ] i
^m F ] n ] # ^e + m (w110:3 F] %] + ]
5 ] lFn ] o ^m ] m ^e
n v # ]
m$] ( 79:5 m ] ^ ^ f % ^jm ] ^ ( 114:3
^m n r ] F j$] o ^e j rm p$] o$ ] o$ f$] $ ] fj$m
m & f5 ] n vm kfFn _$ ] % vm ] Fm ^e
] fi$] $ e ! m$^ n k^ oj $] F ] ]
5 ] ? ] ?p$] %]
e kF F] F] ( 157:7 v ]

# ] ] mm] fm ] m ^e ^m e
F e $ ] | ( 67:9 F] n F] $ ] n
v] o ] i ] ^ # ] n f o ] ] ^e ] ^rm% ] ]? # ]
v$ ] vF] fF] f j$] 81:9 m ] ^ ]& u % ] $ q ^
v vF] ] ^$] ^e F ] r# ] # ]
oeF ] p p- jm] ^u ] ^e ^m # ] $ ] 112:9 n + ] e # ]
] m$] ( 90:16 $ i $ m of ] ] v] oFm
] ] ^e ] ] F$ ] ] i! F$ ] ] ^] ] o #$ $
n ] ou ] i] 41:22 ] f ^ #
F$ ] $ ] F$ ] ] gjF]
324 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

o$ f mF ( 45:29 i ^ m # ] f] # ] ] v] oFi
F $ ]
e ^] oF f] ] ] ^e ] F$ ] ]

X Zy~g !*
~g!*
~ 17:31 ]
:p zk*
0 %zx gzZg yZ+
0{ :zuf
E
G

~eV ZwaZ [d
$z zy M

zx gzZ CYf~Zw %zx @*


Y3gp m{ %zx
~ ZwO ~0
+!*
6Zi wZ kZX CY| (,Zw %

z ]~kZa zyg ZLZ Z


Hc*
D WgZ
Vg V ]gzi a % Z : qD yZ0
+{
u^e n i] ^ $ u] p^ :C Z Zg Z Z~
M F,
zyy
KZ ,i ~
yZ0
+{ LZV- 0
+!*
yZY 25:4 h] ] kFv] o ^ $ n
yZ0
+{~yg Z b zg kZ f C',3,Z 7q
g Zt Zg y yZ0
+{X
Hc*
)g f~Zw!Zi Z kZ Z @*
{ i Z0
+Z Z
@*
zy,+4q
-Z g y Zz d
$
we g %
ggzZ ~gZ)f ~

C} sZ g .
6,a xz \ !*
a Z
bkZB} #
izg {z 46,
ud T c*

zmvZ -[ $
]gl b {
Hc*
zg +F,
xV kZ bZ V
_Z bT
+4q
-ZwLZ !*
M0
+
i Y Zzi Z{ a LZ n
pg
Zzg x g Zt a VY !*
t a yZ0
+{ y!*
6,w

N x ZZ $
+6,}uz q
-Z Z
# ~ Vx c*
C y M
X w V'
[ ZkZ Z Yc*
',~]gVzh[ZvZ6,yZ:gz**
3n%g eZ

$
#

] ^e l]`F e ] ` i ] h] ] ^` ]. m : niv
&~g Z. c*
{~
]g{z]^]gpyyX 8:24 n eF]
@*M ~ Vs x p fp dt qC
c*
yZ0
+{
y+Z6,
Vz
C6M ] Tg Z- 6M gzZ g yq
-Zq
-Z b
b a kZn: Za s Vg ~ V zg Z- ~ kZ
VxaZ @*
7 b : [t
/Z g Z
/
Bq
-Z 0
+
i
kZ~t Vz y M
~ ]g]%Z ~
] ] ] :OgpOhgkZgzZ, St x
gzZ z
325 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

x% ] ^v ^ n e ^v m% ] n |^q ^] ] ] ] ^ e k^
i ^e ^ # ] $ ^ ] j$i ] vi ] x$ % ] ] l u] n
7] !*
.s b ~] sZtzzkZ 128:4 ] n f
_
gzZ ~
~uz q
-ZgzZ eg ~
~uz gzZ ~} t :
Hw
~Y
K>gaZ #
h
+:Zzf, Z~g
$uX Y|t :
^ $] ] kFv] $ :7~iz0
+Z] b
Hc*

6,gZz
] ^e ] jf i ] F p ^$ $ u] n # ] gjF ^m] k
|^q m $ q] $ i^F $ e j jj] ^ n v F n n v%
X 24:4^n u ^n ^ # ] $ ] m] e e jn Fi ^n n
])z s CZ fgzZ
M F,
z Z0
+{ *Z u 0*
KZ ]g Zi M
zz h
e~
c*
@*
3 Zg W Vzg Z- Vg C~ yZ0
+{
) !*
Y 7wJ.
g kZ } h g y kZt
/Z Z C~ dg y
ZwVzh6Ziz Zi {~
gzZ gH} h 2:24Zw6Ziz Zi Z0
+{ Zi M Z
!*
i Z **
iyZ0
+{gzZ b ~ ZwWg%Zw c*
B
X @*
Y{g7
V { c*
i t kZ { c*
i ~g Z)f T ~g Z)f m Zw
G
E
"
4
5
E
D>XGyZ ZN #
Z ]Z0 ` Zzi Z X { c*
i ZwkZp

$
$ l^$m of] mF :Y~ Zw~C
zyZ6,
[ g Ze
Hc*

30:33 ] n m ] o ^ n h] ] ^ m% n f % u^e
4
Hg Z Zpwz4,
{Z
+ y MayEZ V- g Zj WPgG]|
~ IZ Vz[ Z{z
HHg Zwz4,
{Z
+
/Z
Hc*
[ Z
?$ ^e] e ] ?o ^ e m$ n ^ o] # ] ^:
Hc*
:

\ M
Hc*

zmvZ-[ $
g 115:5 n F] ]u] ? e ]
^ m^ ] e ^n $ i n F] h $ mi: {vg
#
ZY m
CZ
y#
wZZX 45@*
43:69 n n ^e

~#
aZ Y ] yZgzZ Y Ha] t
gzZ b & Z #
Z wz9 Y 1 LgzZI Z ~g [
X Yc*
30%**
yZyZ
X ~B; Vz
/4Z ~g Z)f ]
326 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

}]Z W,
Z|:w+Z6,
$g/:& *
e
* Z f
a "
$U*
xsZe
$g/ ! fgzZ h ^zz r
# & **
Zp b & Z ]gzxe
$g/ HX 7
g 1 Zg 12:60 e
$ M y M

s Z e {g !*
z 6,y M
a h
e {^
,Y c kZ ? w z s Z
&
: /GG

: qZ$
eg/gzZ]gzxH
k # ] u ^f : ZwEZ(&s]gzx~y M

u ] % g] n ^& k
j] ^
159:3 n j] g% vm # ] $ ] # ] o $ j k ]^ ] o ^
` F ^$ ` n e pF a ] F$ ] ] ^] `e ] e ^rj] m$]
$ j m% ] ] ] n ^ n u $ ] m lF] ] 38:42 m
$ i ^e $ i $ ] o ^$ ]
^ $]
F % '] ] o e $ ^ e ] $ i
^ ] ] ] ^
] ]? ji ] i% ] ] ^n |^q ^i ^ ] i
i ^e # ] $ ] ]? ] # ] ] i$] ^e jn i! $ j$ ]] n |^q
:W]5LZ 159:3Og {gtq
-yZ ~x +\ MgzZ 233:2 n e
:Ws %Z~Vx~A
) g 38:42 D }gt
ngzZq
-Z]gzxazx ~Z 233:2f i ]gzxgzZ ~qg
Vz V: s %Z~ ]5~ VxZ
# ~ 35:4 Y
Kgf
! nVq Zpb & Z
U*
/ZgzZ

Hc*
gH
U*
-Zq
q
-Z +
$Y

Vz}gt]
^ n e ^ j ] :,a M yxg
327 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

^ # ] $ ] ^ n e # ] m% ^u]pmm% ] ^ ] ^u ] ^u ] % e^
kZ[ Z }gzZ] Z W,Z|:w+ Z6,e
$g/r
# & **
35:4 ] n f ^n
YY Cgzx~g/H Z b & ZgzZ {gtW]%Z~Tx
]gzi ZgzZ ~$
+q
-ZtX g @*
J
-$
+ZgzZ ;g wi Z {gt~ : M ?
# & **
r
[ p7m ]gzxP+_e ! f c*
$g/ kZ
e
^$ ` n e pF a ] F$ ] ] ^] `e ] e ^rj] m$] :e
$ M gg
kZ vZY e
$g/~xsZDw+ Z 38:g m ` F
! f e
$ M kZ X
c*
` }gt : M ] 5 LZ ~ e
$M
?
HHf~e
$ M kZ ne
$g/n C7t{zs e
$g/
: gzZx|Wz:$
eg/
y
Y
- yZg Z',^m,
$
Y e
$g/ e
$ M kZ
/Z
zmvZ -g%\vZN
Hr
# & **
~}g!*

Z D {gt x gzZ Z IZ g !*
g IZ Y Zgiz LZ w Vzg ZD
M
y M VYg Zbe
$g/Y
gzZ y
M [
$
g6,g]g @*
x x s v
Z wg [ I Zg W
gpX ] kZ
^
: M V P - ]|X D e
$g/]gzx: M
~g/~,.0
+ZZF,
~gzZO
- ]| ]gzx
F

o ^^e] $ ] f v ^ ^n e] o] g% u] ] n ] ^ ] :H
e ] i n e] q m$ ^ ] u ] ] m ] j] n f%
^ ^^e ^m5 ] ^ n v F ^
] vF ^$] m oF ^$ ^i
X 12 11 98:- vF ^$] g m i m$ ] ^
:~g Z *
0 $
e/:^,
m
G
E
EG
.
3

{
G
/
x~ G Ze
$g/V ^m,

{
!*
{ zq H ^m,g kZgzZ
HH)gf ]gzxg ZY)
c*
@*
OZ F
g x ZZ ~i Zg
6,P^- ]| +
$Y ~KZ ceZ
KCgzZ >

!*
Y x h
+]
. Zzpg yZZ6,e
$g/Y Zg$
+o
{C
b ~gZ ZzggzZ ]c*
Zzg ~g/+F,dZ ^m,
p w ~}g !*
p A +F,
ui **
gzZ CZ f kZ O
Wp A LZ D
o$ o i ] o ^:H ]gzxgzZ] }uz O
328 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

] n eF] k f $ n ^ ] ^ ] ^
^ e $ n ! ^$ n # ] ke e $ n ^

f p j] ]F ] m n $ n $ ] $ n $]
A LZ M Zx kZ 29 28 27 26:- n _F] k
$]
7p A kZ {z Y 0&
A pZ
# YE7p
"
.-G3F
s1 7 LZgzZ D~vZ {zakZ PE
Z Y
q
-Zq
-Z &
Vz
Hc*
~ i ~VxaZX x **
ZY m
CZ
] ^ ] ^u ] ^u ] % e^ ^ n e ^ j ] :,gH
yxgyZ \vZ 35:4 ] n f ^n ^ # ] $ ] ^ n e # ] m% ^u]pmm%
X ]gkZ
]e $ $ :3g{ z!*
{ 0*
P^- ]|}gt^m,

35:- n u oj#u $rn kmFF ] ] ] ^ e


:p zk*
0 g ZZ ~g/L L:y
~g/ VZxZ ~e.]| y

~ +-zg e
$. {z yt Hx ZZ ~g/]gzx)g f

y M

] fj^ oF] : HwEZ L Lay-gzZy

p$ n e k ^ ri ] ^ n e ^ m5 ^ ( 46:23 n ^ ^ ] ^
n ] ^n ^ ^ $] ( 75:38 n ^ ] k ] l f j]
] oF m$ $] o5 ! 31:44
ty
83:10 n ] G $] ] o ^ $ ] j m$
'
Z+ Z Zg f y ; } Y7Z}
.}g + ZLZ ~ !g !*
g I Z} Z y
L
L
\
W
N*
Z ~ VjNZ}
. P ~| m
6,kZh
+
Z ]g qzZq
-Za}
38:28V&
:,
6 $
eg/L L:LZu ZyZg Zu
D{gt yZyZgzZ LZ yZg Zu n]] oe
4E
&Z LZZtDIzc
?o e ] o] i ] :DnZ Z6,Y G
P5E
^ # ] n f o i^% ^ ^ & e ] $ o f ] ^ ] oF e n p ]
# ] n f o i^ $] ^ ] ^ ] i ^i $] ^j ] n gj ] jn

n # ] n $] ] $ i ^j ] n gj ^$ ^ e ] ^^m ^q]
329 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

m o#] ]? ^ ^ l ^ & e # ] $ ] n%f ^ n # ^e


]
^e % u] v ^n
F_] # ] $ ] ^ ^] l+ m
n ] # ] m$ oi + m # ] r] ] o _e ] n
] ^ :D]! n yZZI Z6gzi g ZuVX 247 246:2
% ^v F $ ] i] ! ] j] m$ ] fj] m$]
I
~: M yZg Zux E
PG3^]| 75:7 + e ] e ^$] ]? ^ e $
]] $] ^f n j f i$] ] m$] ] ^ :D}gt
I
] f j] m$] ] ^ :D]Z Z E
PG3^]| 90:7 F$
] ! m$] gn mF
$q
] ^ ^j $ o $ j ] j m
] ^ : }gtZ g Zuy
88:7 n F ^$
o ] n oF i] ] ^ n vF ]F $ ]
j ! m ]
^$] ovj e] j ^
] ^ :D }IyZ g Zux P ]| 127109:7 F
f i$] F ^ ^% ] e $] F ^ ] m$]
^ ] ] m$] $]
^jqF | mF ] ^ n eF % e ^n pF ^ p]$ ] p ^e
n m] % ( 3227:11 n # ] k ] i ^e ^i ^ ^]q l %^
$ i ] % mFjm n $ ] n f] ] oF ^
25 24:11n f% m o] ? oF] ^u ^ ]
:t zg ~g/L L:y]|
gzZDn ] zDg YH@@9 P ]|
jq e vi ^e k% _u] ^ n e n & :D6,

}gtkZ
^` $ o kn i ] ` i ] ] l% q o]n m$ ^ fe ^f
` ^ ] _6 n $ ] ` m$ # ] $ rm ^` ^` i%q n
24@*
22:27 j` m ` n f$ ] a $
X
P-4Z,
:
~g/L LY Z e~z!g *
* : G
'Z]|
-P 4X
^^n e ] e ] ]^ :Zj~g/~v MG
Z',Z]|
97:37n vr] o ^
: ~g/L gL zZ ]|x

T e **
O]| }gt: M g Zux P ]|
330 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

` ^` ^ n $ $ $ a ] $jn f # ^e ] ^i ] ^ :
^$] a ]
z c~ e
$g/bTM
htIe
$h
+]
.v!*
f 49:27 F
~ ZZ Y 5 Z
# r wi Z x- ~ Zt @*
~ yg 0*

Z! WzI
] o5 ] ^e o ^ ^ :;g! WzI V

~g/aZsz^~}I
gzZ \vZwi Zizg 69:38 jm
cp \vZi M x ~g/gzZe
$g/gzZ D"
$U*
y M
}I
[gvZgzZ y-V
V ] c*
M 0x M Z c*

~ Zi M }Iz
~ Zi M W6,C
gzZ,Zgg Z ~ Zi M Z ]okZ {z f W]+Z
g Z ~ Zi M Zy M
v!*
f ~ Zi M W6,vZ "
$U*
y M

^ n e^m5 ^ :
] l fj] p$ n e k ^ ri ]
HHwi **
a
t ^ ^ n j$ ^$ o j n ^] ^ n ^ ] k
n $ ] n q
$^ ^`
m oF] o? ^ h ^ m] m oF] ?oj
i $ f ^ ] k ] m oF] m]
$^ ^ % fm

z P M 83@*

75:38n ] ` ^f $] n q] ` $m
izggzZX "
$U*
k ~g/ Z g
?k V
\vZ
[x
gzZ g Z MZ [ x
* ~ zg ] k \vZ y-gzZ V
wi Z
X
H"
$U*
zs %Z
: Mg,
6 $
eg/L L~3z
, ~
Z\vZWzg izg @*
x
n ] k $ p$ ] ji ^ :D} ~g/~g 0*
bT
N
]+Z[gvZgzZ 96:26 jm ^` n a ] ^ 28:50 n ^e
F $ ] :V} ~g/~c iz I ZX 28 27:50z:} g}

] mm% :@*
{gt VzgZux KZy
64:38 ^$] a ] ^i ' v
p] o ] ^] q ] ]?^ ^i ]^ ] qm%
] o ] n oF i] ] ^ muF
j ! m
110:7 F ^$] ovj e] j ^
q q ( 35:26 ^i ]^ ve ] qm% ] mm 127 111
e i^m ] $ ] o5 mF ^ oF m m] ^]
o ] t ^ jn

C }Ic LZ~]^x WP\]| 20:28 n v#]
331 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

] ^ $ ^] o5 m$ oF ] i^ vf] m p ] ?ofe ^ qF :
n ^$ f$j ? . 5 $ ] ri $] ^ ! ^ ^ F] $ q] o mF
8{gt Vzg ZugzZg!*

g IZ LZ ^m,
139 138:7 m ] ^ ^$ _eF
] ^m] ^m:
yZgzZD}gt VYKZO .]| 43:12 oj]
2726:28D6,}gt
:x Z Z ~g/L L:y
g Z ~ Zi M V x e
$g/gzZ ]gzx~ i y

y
~g !*
gkZ q h [absolute freedom of expression]Zg
De
$g7 WP\]| y
gzZ Dt kZ#W
t6,g]g @*
@*
7C
J
-g s{ Z6,e
$kZy
gzZ
&
/G
] ? u ^: G
,kZ e
$% M ~g/c*

>
!*
~g/wV" *
o n ] mF ^ o pF^ 25:Y ZZ ji
aF
oF j] o ^ 51:sy

Z f i ] oj vi pri `F ]
26:>Z ^] ] o `m% ] ] m f m% ] ^] ?o] e$ n
# ] oe m$ ] q ji] ?^m] jm ! + % q ^ '
$m ] e n ^e ^
m$ ] e $ kFn f ^e q
e fm% ^ ^
?o ] mF ! ?p$] ^ h]$ a p` m # ] $ ] m p$]
i] ] ^ 30 28:>Z h] u ] m % n ^]
j ! m ] o ] n oF
ovj e ] j ^
n vF ]aF $ ] ? u ^( 127:s ZZ F ^$]
^ 35:Y ZZ ^i ]^ ve ] qm% ] mm 34:Y ZZ
] qj m] o i $ ]F $ ] ! ] f e j !
m gjF o$ ] o ] ?o] ] ^` m%^m5 k^ 123:s ZZ i ^ ]
^i ]^: 7 uLZ {
!*
+F,
g@*
b
*y

G
&

/
LZ kZ ._ g G Zy
H ? C [ Z 35:26
?~ XXp] ^ ] m] ^ ZZ Zsk
,
~h WP\]|~g !*
gq
-Z
g{C
b Z{ c*
i kZ HX C M
o= V ;g} Zg zV
X | (, y
Zy
q ?H
z6,yj
jZ(
332 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

:}.
~ Z },
6 C
]
b
Y "
$
$U*
y M
Hx Z} Zg [ZZ $Z
it a $zr
# & **
p wZt ?
\
W
KZ P kZgzZ L L
H~ T M 7155 e
$ M s ZZ gr
# & **
6,
z KgH}g B kZ {z @*
HV M, LZuZ x
h ^ q$ ] i] $ ^i ^n q n f oF ^j] :Vq
jj $] o ] ^$ % ] ^e ^ i] p^m$] f j ] k
% i
n k] ^u ] ^ ^ ^n% k] i p i i ^ e
a` 6,
x`
46,!Vz,x 6,
#{ 155:7 m F]
kZgzZvZ M
h"
$U*
x ~g/x q)r
# & **
e
$ M kZ
tJ
-k',{gG s Zk\Z ` $ e
$g/ WP\9
;g~g/ ZU ~ * 6,e
$ M kZ y M
M%Z [ Z c*
M : c*
$
X ;g c*
$Z kZ0#
ZgzZX
:]o} :gzZ$
eg/:Y

e
$g/ ~ kZ B
bg yZZ 6,g ZZ dZ e
$g/ Y

Hwg Z Z=g f X3NX3N P ]|X ;g^x ne p]gzx


] ] ^ k ^ p ] ?o o j] ] ^` m%^m5 k^ :K}gtV Zzg !*
g kZ
]^ p^

n ] ]$ m ^e ] ]$ $ ] ] v ] ^ ` i oj#u
[ z} ::gzH7g6,oj]r
# & **
Z fX 33 32 29:Z m ^i
D"
$U*
gzZ D &
+
e Y x Y gZ *gzZ "
$U*
VY x
] b
7 } :

z X D ~g !*
g Y
?
X M
hYK~
.Z }: hYbZ~j~
.Z]
: s % Z[
xI:I,
64,
6u*%{
'PG
Iz c ~ x Z}
. a 46,
uyZ Za %]|
'PG
i %]| Zx kZ
Ce
$g/ X ;g ZgzZ ~i Z0
+Z

g
W
G
A }uz q
-ZIz c: Z Zi M ~ e
$g/I W P ]|~
F :~ Zi M } Z~g/gzZ ~ Zi M ] %Zx
f ]
n ] n u gn ]
k ^ m m m%] ] m ] m k ^
44:yZ/w M jm ] m
333 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

: s % Z[
xI~uz :[Z
I ~uz ~ * B | w& i [ Z
[Z ._ y M
Y _ M [Religious Democracy] e
$g/
s %Z ~ : M {z
/z V| D {gta ]g q 6,g
F :g
^ n gm ^$ ] $ ] $ ' u # ] $ ] ]? n n ^ % ]
o5 ] f m$] ^ e ] e% ^^n e n ] e ] ]^ ] n e ^jm ]
s %Z[ x

I~uz~
KZ g @*
ZX 21:l Z ]r$ n $ j$ ]

X
e
$ M kZe
$Zzg
: s % Z[
xI~:?kyzg ;gzZ .]|
\
W
]k P ]|gzZ P zg ; ]|e

$Zzgs %Z[x

I~
Vg ZzX nZg **
J6,P zg ; ]|6,3Zzg P\]|~T
~ {)z y**
- V'I):gz gc e
$g2gzZ e
$g/~ V'I
e
$g/! f h
+]
. kZ e
$g/nTt p ]o]g @*
e
$g/
Dl] i~g/gzZ Zgg Z ~ Zi M r
# & **
Z fX 7Zz gzgz
~ Zi M W v!*
f ~ yzZ{z:gzn V7J
-] c*
M /{gD
$m $ :
7] c*
M yZ6,g~g/wV"gzZb zg ~g/

58:9 _m ]] ] _ m $ ] ] ^ ] _ ] ^ kF$ ] o
+ m # ^e + m $n ] ] m o$ f$] + m m$]
61:9 n ]h] # ] + m m$] ] ! m$ u n +
w kZ
/Z D]Z Z6,\ M ~] v ~ yZ
} Z :F,
~ yZ 58:9 Y c*
:gzZ N Y lp Y c*
} 7Z ~
v!*
f V t gzZ V!*
KZ v

G
'
+
vv!*
f M
h"
$U*
{Z {g{z 61:9 (Za > ~g { z
wEZt{ M
Hc*
t'~: ZwyZ A
$ U9 ^]v
Zwg
g Z ZzgzmvZ-vZwggzZy M
I ^][Z zuz Z **
:
g Z ~ Zi M gzZgzZ e
$g/ g
/g ~ ]t Y
Kg{ z 104:2 [tolerant]
] $ ] vm ] ^ m$] :M
h"
$U*
: Z
Zg

m] o ^ j ^e ^n) ^ ] $ n ] ^n ^ m
# ] $ F ] $ ] n ^ ^ ] ] ^ ] ^ ] ^ $]
334 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

kZ y M
M
h}?t6,kZgzZX 46:4 n $] + m e
"kZs z!*
4E
-E
5G
gzZ ]gzZ ^ ] ^ : {z
/Zq L LH r Z6,>XG
bzg
~6 y M

/ZX 46:4i ~i !*
Zg { c*

igzZ 4a4Zt ^ ]
]gzxv!*
f yZOg7] c*
M x yZr
# & **
**
"
$U*
$g/
e
.ZwZ ] c*
~
M y M
jkZ
/ZX CY"
$U*
$g/gzZ Zgs %Z
e
]o8
- ~g:Z R 20:39e
$ M y M
r
# & **
Y
g **

: 1 y M
g8
- ~g:Z R [fh
+]
. M
hC *gzZ M
h7
`F ] ^` j vi pri n$ f$ ^` ` ` e$ ] i$] m$] F
ayZgg e[g LZv%Z :F, 20:39 ^ n ] # ] m # ]
yM
y*Vg qX Vg,1nX w26,w2'g q
# & **
jZX Zy~37:34 58:2975:25~
'vi m r
+]
h
.gzZM
hl~Vz
CwzZy
g @*
]Zg Z e
$ M kZ 4:99 ^a ^f ]
xz kZ0#
ZgzZ ZY Z6,[f M
h1zx~ e
$ M kZg Z
X g
:.
]~iz+
0Z {f :x?Zm- ]|
kZ DgzZ ~iz0
+Z {f D~ - gr
# & **
Zf [
t Ug {z:gz M 7t Z[Science of Storage and Preservation]
kZ P^- ]|]
. kZ DgzZ VZ~iz0
+Z {f
]|V D M - g? kZgzZ Zz **
* D~iz0
+Z {f
X c*

{ M VZDkZ Dy[ Zp^{



^
T c*
Z [ Zp ^{
!*
T c*
M { *
{z k0*
P - ]|
47:12 ] gzZ~C
B!*
] L
L F,
._

^m$ ] f e oi^m $ $L L: P^-]|~[ZkZ


F e oi ^m $ $ vi ^$ n $] $ j $ ^
n ^$] '^m n ^
kZgD~h !*
kg@*
?J
-k',
]G-:F,
4948q:- m
'
+
kZ!*
gzZ M xuZgp~g z Zh'~yZ I ? ~yZgz
? Y13
{z~ikZN M Jk',
]Qzg~V!*

X
3gp? z'a
/Zz a
zkZ
]|%K wEZ} 6 ~q) Z "
$U*
t ] c*
M yZ
335 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

MYK p6,j~e
h
$.],{ f kZgzZ u Zgp b C P^gzZ xsZ [ yZ:gz m M 7bt ~ y M
r
# & **
Z f ]
X @*
YZ \gzZq
-Z~b
? q$
eg/#
r& *
* Z f
$Z e
$g/ kZ 0 Vg Z e
$ M ^zzVg
yY LZ\ M LZ Zz 9
I q
-Z X 7m ^zz
Y Z: Y{z:6,x ZkZ 49
bzggzZ;
Kx|9e
$ M kZ {z Z Zz**
sZxEgzZDr
# & *
* Z fX
TX qe
$g/{zn C7t Mg z LZ J
- ` M {z g
# & **
r
X 9Vzg ZD
e
$g/ bZ 9Vzg ZD
Vz b
c*
e
$g/ **
- { z } ? @e
$g/~ xsZ {zN Ct
Madisonian c*
Athenian Democracy {z e
$g/ ! fh
+]
.
Constitutional c*
Popular Democracy X Democracy
inculsive Democracy c*
Reflective Democracy X Democracy
Pa r ti c p at i n g J gz c*
De l i b e r a t i v e D e m oc r a c y X
Russian and Chinese c*
Iranian DemocracyX Democracy
X Liberal Democracy c* Illiberal DemocracyX Democracy
Authoritarian Democracy
Theocratic Social Democracyc*
c* Rawl's Democracy Limited Democracy c*
Democracy
gkZgzZ q e
$g/
/Z r
# & **
X Kantian Republicanism
$K e
e
$g/ zz HN C t {z g"
$U*
]c*
M y M
Z
gzZ Vzg Z Z ~g/ Vo) ( ~g/ ~g/ v~ Vg/ ! fx z!*

! f[fy*
0 Y M%Z ? gVYm [Elections]] !*
NZ ~g/
g VY Z V Zz % Z e ^zz ~ ]!*
NZ~ oC
* gzZ \zggz e
$g/ XgzZ gm e
$g/ {z XZ e
$g/ V2 ?
e
$g/ *
c ih
+
X sz^~ Zu b e
$g/ { Z ({ Zp{z 7m
:g q
Democratic renewal requires not more but less Democratic

336 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f
participation.

~ Z e
.
$g/ ~g2 7Zz ] !*kZ r
# & **
g 8 }pMadision O%Z Madisonian Democracy
tu e
$g/ x Y 1NZz [Federalist Papers]
m
Zg { Z', e
$KgzZjD[Globalization of Capital]~g Z
Rule of the Law of Capital sgzZ sw2gzZ s@ nz Z kZ
BB [Capitalist minority] Z: Z g Ztu ~g/gzZ X
]Zz) [Freedom] ~ Zi M [Capitalist Rationality] : Zg Ztu
j~
C r z
~g ZtugzZD [Development] F,
[Equality]
$g EZ t ~
C"wg
[Imposition of human rights e
(g q
-z iE k
,
c*
ih
+
[Democracy] e
$g/=g &
+Imperialism]
:gm{>0g 0*

It is the constitutional rather than the popular element of


Democratic order which is essential for securing and
sustaining the global hegemony of capital and America.

:s Z@Zz:$
eg/

$g/~qL
[Capitalist Rationality] : Zg Ztu e
[Capitalist minority] Z : Zg Z tugz VIzg bq ~ r z

[Accumulation of Capital] tui g Z Z


]
M z ~g2
rgg0
+Z LZpi Z hLZ
**
Z
D{ c*
i { c*
i [End itself]
$ g f Yg {gzZ ? Z a i Z D ~g Ztu
Z 7]gz D0G
4Z kZ e
[Globalization of l
/K u )g f ] G
5G3E
$g/

/Z ]C
Zz Za ^zg~kZgzZ C e Capital]
@*
x O[fV ~ * Z ~gza q ugzZ e
$g/ b
@*
7 t ~
C @*
7s ZZ VZ LZgzZ @*
7 t

1. Fareed Zakaria, The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy at Home and

Abroad, W.W. Norton & Co., 2004 Chapter 7.


2. Fareed Zakaria, The Rise of Illiberal Democracy, Foreign Affairs Vol. 76

No. 6, pp.21-37.

337 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

aVyZ sgzZ st ~
CY @*
x ._bzg t ~
C
-Z ~ Zi M
D=
g f Yg { gzZ Dt [Absolute Value] gq
.Z D e
~
$ZzggzZ
g kz Z}
.D=g f Yg { v {z D7wz e
$Z@
KZ { zC
X D7 By
KZ t ~
C{z D
 By
KZ {z}6,)g f z ]gzZ } ZgZ ~ Zi M
x O~ ZM%ZHD yZ ey 0*
y j
jZ t ZZX 7
t ~
CM%ZgzZ It ~
Cx OkZX a q ~g Ztu
-Z}0
J
+Z kZ
sZ *gzZ
I #
: Zg Ztu{ Zpt 8{ Vbq~ { Zg Z ~tuX M 7C
!*
yZ)g f wEZg7
U c*
e
$Vz% M ex w=
^zg~fgzZje
$K: Zg Ztu YH ]kZC
Vh
kZ c*
GV! zZu
M%ZHVs ZV+@W{z { Zp
c*
Vx ZV) ( { z{ ZpX V+" zJc*
V Zz+ Z}
.V~g 0*
yZ gZc*
g [Z
) !*
x : Zg Ztu Z
c*
g o
yZ g7w .x **
{z[ Z wC
/~ g 0*
gzZx Z
z zF,
gzZG @*
z }Vh{Vzg Z Z: Zg Ztu~g EZ@)sx
yz u 0*
x', CW6,W V V CWV e
$g/X
H{g
)
Z
gzZ y 0*
! fX q Vx9gzZ VV V F~g/
}g v V ~ )g f ~g/gzZ e
$g/ e y 0*

[ |c Z g 0
+
i V- {~ V @ v V
sm,z6,X }g vFJ
-[Z)g fggzZ~g/~uu y
I
~uu/gzZ N*
)g fe
$g/[ l. Z Wz ~g ZgiM MgzZ e
$g/: Z% M
4',
i Vk
H" :e ~ o LZ bL} g Z

/c v
e
$g/tX Q7~
KZ g @*
wV]~z LZ
Hc*
g66,]
r z
j x : Zg Ztu x {zC
Z g 0 M ~g Ztue
$g/ ]
e
$g/i Z kZ : VY )g fgzZ
{ Zp} eSqgzZ
@*
e
$e
$% M }M%Z
/Z Z @*
F,Wz e
$g/i ZuZzgzZ C
tugzZN Y M:~g Z MZM%Z})g fe
$g/~ F,Wze
$g/
kZ~ F,Wzxi Z w_gzZ e
$g/: Zg Ztu Z: h{~g ZtugzZ Vzg Z
338 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

wJe
$% M $
s]g tX @*
YHwJ6,
gig e
$% M
gzZ ~ Zi M X *
@Y 0 ~g/ ~k
,
+zgzZ r z
5
~g Ztu **

~g/gzZ ~g Ztu
/Z [absolute freedom & democracy] e
$g/
cgzZ a ] +F,
s~ F,Wz ~g ZtuZ $
0{a
Z',+

M Z~y 0*
gzZ kz&
+ZztwZZX YYH
~ r z
~g ZtugzZ~g/z e
$g/yZ t
/Zp
HH
{gze t ~g/a yZ {x Z ZgzZM%Z x Z V kC^zg
kZ ~0*6, Zg g Z ~ Zi M wZ Z X '
t ]
3 O%Z a Z CY Z
+9 z Z~ F,Wz[Freedom]~ Zi M
\
NVzg ZgZ
/? gzZVyZY $
Y 3 76,~zK*@D
+L gl
` 3gzZ $
s M%Z) Zg Y~g 6,x ZO%Zsp ]
x : Zg Ztu@ ~ T M
h a k
B yZy]z
~gza ~g Ztux apgg Z
',]kZ $
~ ]M%Z
@D
+g V3 O%ZVzg Z Z) r ZZ
+ 6,Zgg Z ~ Zi M X
Wz } ],
Z t ~
C 7g ZgzZ t ~
Ct
Hc*
uzg 3
~ Zi W~ w~~0*
g kZX i0{tq
-Za
gzZ e
$g/t ~
C~ Zi WtY ykZ +F,Wz} ],Z Zgg Z
M%ZsgzZs~g Z)f x kZgzZ $
)g fx : Zg Ztu
6,x ZO%Z I3] g@D
+
}]i YZ Zgg Z ~ Zi W
zkZ
/Z6,
z kZ F,Wz Z Y h {~g Ztux T } 7,W,

Zt
kZV- zg o t ~
CC
M%Z +sZ X ~0*
6,gg
} YZz ` uyZgzZt ~
Cq B6zgzZko
Z 7 ~ kZ ._ t ~
Ctzg [fgzZM%Z
~y cuX tzg ._ t
KZ t
HHO~M%ZV- y cuhz 10
{z Z B7tu0
+
i { z Z - gzZ]c*
Zzg [Red Indian]
v *
@YHuhVzg YbT ^
,Y bg bkZ7Z}0
+
g7y
KZ
~
C**
(Z IY {z ;g~igzs t ~
C (ZM%ZBt
ZC
i ~}g !*
+ &
+Zi
+g a#} (,
[fX t
X YZz| Y1_kZ
339 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

zg Y 1 [ kZ
/Z Z x O 6,x **
e
$g/~ *
gzZe
$g/7g yZO6,]!*
NZ~]g XN Y} 9
gzZ v W ~g Z p 0
+
g \ Z`
+gzZ e
$g/ [Genocide] x O: g"
A. F
G
F

Y 2005 , kZ V
KZ hz [g Z q
-Z yZgzZ xzFz xi yp
The Dark Side of the [ } Zz
;gE- `~
C1
[ Paul Kivel r
# & **
Z f [ X $
Y S7,~ Democracy
e
$g/ <
gzZ y
KZ u **
$ { n Ph
+]
.kZ Z B_
e
$g/ Qd
$z www.paulkivel.com {z X Yx|
X M
h Zg mZ g z ZZgzZVI]Z m,
z*V1g "6,
q
F u t u r e o f [ KZ V2 m{ ( g c*
i h
+

~ gzZ ~M%Z e
$g/ ~(,
* ~ Democracy
] Zg (Z z {gG k s] Zg (Z: qk0*
Vz
Cg Zq
-Z~M%ZX ~ V; Vzg ZtugzZ VDRV7z
/
b6,V
c*
kZ g ZzyZ Cg Z D 7, ay

Z e Vzhzg ZzyZag ; ]!*


NZ
% Capitalism X n Z tu { c*
i { c*
i a $Z LZ @*
Y
Vo) (gzZ ]!*
NZ ~g Ztu ~ * Z
z kZ Z 7 +_e
a e(gzZ ] !*
NZ
( qcg7g DRX g `
b#g 0*
gzZ ) (t
Vzg ZtugzZ g tu
Vzg Z Z@){yZ :g7g yZ ~g Ztu@*gzZ g
~g Z Zh
+zY Z e 6,xz 3g {)zUNO WB IMF ISO 2000 WTO
: ~p Z
In post-modern capitalism it is the state which captures the
party and not vice versa.

Imperialism must [at least partially] de-soverignise national

1. Paul Kivel, You Call this a Democracy? Who Benefits, Who Pays and Who

Really Decides? New York: The Apex Press, 2004.


2. Javed A. Ansari, The Living Death of West European Democrecy, in

Market Foress, April 2008, Vol. 4, No. 1, p.6.

340 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f
parliments to ensure universal application of capitalist Law.

:._Y 1999ZgJgz

In third world countries Western funded NGOs plus


"Impartial" cou rts ens uring the ru le of the law of
capital=democracy.

$EkZ
}0
+
g Z Jgz ~ Y 2003 )F,+F, 0G
X 76,
gdChua
g 0*7[People] g/~ e
$g/ p .
Zgu] !*
t
f
$zg}D}g Z Z ~g EZ@gzZ [Non elected])7k
,
izgzZ
) Zgz ISO 2000 UNO World Bank IMF a#Z: Zg Ztu
4
H4F
5G
+R,~
i
Lg 5G
Lg *
Z u 6Z Kyotoprotocol WTO xg
Z: Zg Ztu7 Zg Z}@gzZ}g Z Z {)z +zg Dg 0*
[Capitalist Rationality] : Zg Z tu gzZ [Capitalist minority]
WZg Z Z WZg Z Vz Z .x **
yZ6,V %BZg Zb
:sgzZsVzgZ ZyZD YK)gf
Amy

Colonization of the state by the universalization of


market decision making practices and the necessary
de-legitimation of majoritarian [Popular democratic]
decision making that it entails.

k0*
Y Zgiz 8 zg- [Z
) !*
e
$K : ZgZtu
D YKVzg Z Z@)6,Vz~g/yZ g7]Zg (Z
:
That decision making by non majoritarian

institutions enjoys greater procedural legitimacy than the


decisions of west European national Cabinets because
decisions by non majoritarian public institutions follow due
process of law [of capital] and allow access to stake holders.4

1. Ibid., p. 5.

2. Ibid.

3. Ibid.

4. Ibid.

341 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

: ~[ KZ Thatcher and SweetZ


Non majoritarian institutional [market modeled]
decision making provides a democratically superior
alternative to partisan majoritarian decision making by
Cabinets.1

:w [people]g/~$
eg/
[Non elected }g Z Z )x V ~ *
z kZ
x *v} ZVh Vzg Z Z yZgzZ g Institutions]
&M%Z xgzZx {x : Zg Ztu
Y gwJlg 0*
gZ M Z k0*
V Z- ZgzZV;z @*
Y e
$g/+F,
gz
*
gzZZ: Zg ZtugzZ:z
/
b6,g Z M Zz{gG k s
k0*
[capitalist minority and corporations] :g7g ZM
The Future of Freedom [ *
c ih
+
k
,
q
-ziE(g,kZ
@*
7t kZ D] !*
~g Ztux Z
# $
Y S7,~
~g Ztu
Zz ~gZtux VztY qx4,
c*
xc
x q
-Z
xi Zzxi Zzhzx
/
g **
Zxi Zw_xi Z Dxcx4,

{ c*
i ng Z Z **
Zi M
C
~
C Vx yZ N (
Z 0
+
iZ ]gzZ g Y Zz q]q
-Z y
KZ **
.
{ c*
i
gzZZ ~ V
KZ sgzZ s bgzZ b y.xEx
s [zZ
g w_: Zg ZtugzZZ
0
+
i g Z Y g Vz~z*
c*
x c*
q c*
c*
y
KZ

3
E

[standard of living]
z ] G
5 G Z Vx yZ **
Z~kzzmw ZpkZgzZ Z
/
n Rg Yy
KZt
x h
+]
.X Dh
e x Vz
/z Ybzba

3
E
x ZngZ sgzZ s] G
5G Z x (h
+]
.x ]c*
(h
+]
.x
Vhss %Z~x4,
gzZ ~g Ztu **
e{ c*
i { c*
ia
z[ZgzZgZza Zg fg ZzZa #
gzZ} ]
c*
g c*

ang Z

1. Ibid.

342 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

] %Z gi Z ]%Z ~zb
~gZ yZ ^zbz
xi Z x VY7] %Z [belief] yZZgzZ [basic princple] wZ
pgyZZ.gzZ6, ey0
n
+
i ._kzz mwy
KZ [isms]
**
swM **
H <
C**
3 { c*
i { c*
i 0
+
ig X
Z **
Z 7e%tu **
q]*
*s Zu Z [consumption]
)g ftu 7)g f Y (zbs
gzZ ]Y ]
freedom { c*
i Q7%bu{z 7 Z gq
-Z ~ Zi MgzZ Q
E
!
iZ Le
k0*
T W "%bug ~ Zi M cecapital { c*
)g fLg s~ Zi Wpurchasing power Zi M { c*
i {ztu{ c*
i
~ Zi M Z kZ X Cg Z: Z Zi W
KZ)g fCapitaltu
y
KZgzZ Lg 7gzZ Z w tui g Z 4z]
.kZ7
g YX *
@Y0i $^j] ] ^m ^ q:~p Zy M

-Z 0
+
i
e**
pT b ZogzZ relative term )Zq
Lxi Z Dx4,
~g Ztu Z Y 7q
C
0
+
ig V7 LX 7
D0
+
ig v Zz x *
*t! xZ yZpM
h7[ x
kZ z!*
6,gzZ ByZZ ]!*
. k z z mwgzZ
_
4Z gzZ }o]*ZZ
2~ d
$
gkZ D 7g ZS
n ] G
5G3E
eg (Zxi Z w_ Ug t C ~ ukzgx4,
f
xc
/Z Tg
~uz ~g Ztu Ug t @*
3xi Z w_~ {)z !*
Y z z
/Z
~\g- gzZ*`
Z

/ZD Y ~l M xi Zzx4,
xi Z D^
(C
D Y ~} ],Z xi ZzgzZ +_e t C xc
} ],
Z^ yZ D Y M ~} ],
Zx
/
g **
Z xi Z gxi Z Dt C
4Z } ],Z kZgzZ^
gzZkzzmw]hng Z ] G
5G3E
xi Z z6,
Ih
+]
. ~g ZtuX CY 6,Z qz Z}
.
X b sZgzZxi ZD Z sZxi Zy0*
sZxi ZD sZ Z zyxi Z
gKgzZ hxsZ e
$g/
/Z D C7t r
# & *
* Z f
V Vkg 0*
(gzZ] !*
NZ ~g/(~* y0*
YM%Z\g- ! f
~i /t |? g iVY) ( ? g Y f(,VY ~gz
( C
!*
g ],
Z Vo) (
) !*
Vzg Z Z ~g EZ @gZ
343 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

Z g Y CzJ
-b) RVOgZ Z Z z )
[negative] tZ [hot issue] qx
/
/" _
.} ) (
;g| (,W,Z NGO {0
+
i6,[One Point Agenda] x Z
/z6,Cq
-gzZ D
: Zg Ztu6,x **
e
$g/ Z g uF,
( VZ
(
kZ [Public] g/ { LZ [ Z [Capitalist Imperialism] ~g EZ
Sq [Autonomus being]~g U p y
KZ [Republic]
c*
g } ],
Z
X ;gpVz L 1}[Dictatorship of people]g/
yy Zg { c*
i M%Z ~ \zg- ! f xk
B ~uz
60 g eJ
-; R~ ZkZp f
ez~ ]!*
NZ [Voters]
v) OZ C ],M C M *`
Z
C ug e 7 M J
-} 90
k~ Zyy Zg Zzq
-~! NZ~6',
gzZCg yi
+
Z w6,} zg **
6',~ V AzZ ~, Z X 0Z ]
ZZyZr
# & **
X J
-uu **
Zyy Zg~CgzZ c*
7 M y**
:~eg z
[1] M. Franklin, "The Dynamics of Electoral Participation, in
Campaign Democracies", [et. all, ed. Le Dac p.], London:
Verso, 2004.
[2] P. Morris, Democratic Phoenix, London: C.U.P, 2001.
[3] R. Dalton, Parties Without Partisans, Oxford: O.U.P, 2000.
[4] P. Mair, "Aggregate Mass Electoral Behaviour in Western
Europe", in Contemporary European Politics, [ed., L. Keen] ,
London: Croon Helm, 2002, pp. 40-71.

ZWZg Z Vo) (~*`


yi
+6',Cg7 OZ} zg**
sWZg Z Vo) (~ Z
~ ] !*
NZ Y 2000 k ~
20 J
-, bRgVo) (~Z
X 1z Z&
Vo) ( V 20~ OZ X hgVg 0*
( v { c*
i
[ g YY y* Mair ~ eg z ZZ yZ g (Z e
X
~Contemporary European Politics
344 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

:
zqZV1:$
eg/gzZt ~ C

{z H+za# [fp~}g !*
e
$g/gzZ t ~
C
B
_ V1 yZ r
# & **
B7Zgz Vkz V igzZK gZZ yZ
:N Yg ZS
n i Z e
$o z)e
$g/
[1] Peter Singe , The Limits of Democracy.
[2] Vali Reza Nasr , The Rise of Muslim Democracy, Journal of
Democracy, Volume 16, Number 2, April 2005, pp.13-27.
[3] Robert A. Dahl, Democracy and its Critics, New Haven &
London: Yale University Press, 1989 .
[4] Richard Rorty, The Priority of Democracy to Philosophy:
Objectivity, Relativism, and Truth, Philosophical papers,
Volume 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
[5] Michael J. Sandel [ed.], Liberalism and its Critics, Basil
Blackwell, 1984.
[6] Michel Mann:The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining
Ethnic Cleansing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2005.
[7] John Gray, Post-Liberalism: Studies in Political Thought.
Routledge, 1993.
[8] Robert A. Dahl, Chapt 8, ''Dilemmas of Pluralist Democracy:
The public good of which public?'' in Individual Liberty and
Democratic Decision- Making [ed. Peter Koslowski], Tubingen,
1987.
[9] Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: the Birth of the
Prison, New York: Random House, 1975.
[10] Herbert Marcuse, One Dimensional Man: Studies in the
Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society, Boston: Beacon Press
1991.
[11] Fareed Zakaria, The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy

345 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f
at Home and Abroad, W.W. Norton & Company, 2003, p. 177.
[12] Hannah Arendt, "What Is Authority?" in Between Past and
Fiture. New York: Penguine, 1968.
[13] Hannah Arendt, Chapt. 12, "The Revolutionary Tradition
and its Lost Treasure," in Liberalism and its Critics, [ed., Michael
J. Sandel], Basil Blackwell, 1984, pp.239-263.
[14] Roxanne L. Euben, Enemy in the Mirror: Islamic
Fundamentalism and the Limits of Modern Rationalism.
Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999.
[15] James Good and Irving Velody[ed.], The Politics of
Postmodernity,. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press ,
1998.
[16] Michael Walzer, Sphers of Justice: A Defense of Pluralism
and Equality, Basic Books, reprint [1990] [first published in
1983].
[17] Jrgen, Habermas, The Philosophical Discourse of
Modernity, [Tr. by Frederick Lawrence], Cambridge: The MIT
Press, 1987.
[18 ] J. Rawls: Law of the People: "The Idea of Public Reason
Revisited." Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University
Press, 1999.
[19] J. Rawls: Political Liberalism: The John Dewey Essays in
Philosophy, 4. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993.
[20] J. Rawls: A Theory of Justice, Cambridge: Belknep Press,
Harvard University Press, 1971.

5!w&
4G
yZ B{~
.Zgm{ Abstract t
KZgZz],H
5E
+Zg e
X 7Value neutral~w

[21]Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory,


London: Gerald Duckworth and Co. Ltd., 1981.

346 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f
[22] M. Sandel., Liberalism and the Limits of Justice,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982.
[23] Will Kymlicka, Liberalism, Community and Culture,
Oxford: Clarendon paperbacks, 1989.
[24] Joseph Raz, The Morality of Freedom, Oxford: Clarendon
Paperback, 1986.
[25] Michael Walzer, "Philosophy and Democracy" in Political
Theory, 9/3 1981, pp. 379-99.
[25]Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self: The Making of the
Modern Identity, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1989, p. 89.
Which (Good) defined the Right 89

S t r u c t u r a l i s m : ce
8{ ^
,Y ] !*
kZ r
# & **
Existentialism Nihilism Phenomenology Romanticism
g/ g Z : h
+]
. Critical Theory Marxism Hermeneutics
yZ c*
? w@*H V- zg s$
+ e
$g/gzZK A
$%]Z W,Z H6,
V V ~ * ? H Z Zg Z H~ ${ c*
igzZ~
/c ~g/ g Z
(
;
X
E
G
.
G
` ? VY h
+ { c*
i
g gzZ +
M - 0
+
g V;z tg/
The Dark side of the Democracy [ } Zz
;gEA+F
G
F

.
y
KZ hz [g Z q
-Z c*
M: i g/ !
-~ * Z
# CVZ {6, i Zg kZ
V; y
KZh
+]
. Zz x O+F,
+ g @*
$
K uh ~gz ~g/ kZ
~g/N
_[ kZr
# & *
* Z f [!*
+F,
+ g @*
$
$g/h
e
+]
.
~g/h
+]
.N Ct r
# & *
* Z f X n Zz {n +
M
KZ ~
/c
q gzZ ~ k
B yZyaq o LZ WZk
,
iz gzZgV2c*
g
7~ k
B yZy]WZk
,
izgzZg~g/J
- ` M ?~y!*
yYaz

7~ l M ]adZgzZ c*
~z q LyZ0
+{ayZX
LZaVzuugzZ q ] c*
LZ {
!*
x g @*
*p

~k
B kZgzZ H q }i KZ} F,
Z~]yZyx ~V; LZ_6,
zmvZ -[ $
gg Dy!*
yY vyZ0

+{kZQ {
!*

347 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
$e
$g/gzZr
# & **
Z f

%~ k
B yZyWZk
,
iz ~g/ X D
] #
Z~ k
B yZy
G
I
$
4
h
>XGE
g zmvZ -vZ wg e
$g/ V w )
,, Z @*
Y 7VY
Xtzg
o**
$.b
e

348 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

[!*
VZg
H
` Z'
gzZV5[
9gzZ =X e6,
C=st
~}0
+ZgzZ zgwt
)g f y
KZ6, T B6, Z {z {
/Z =X 7e ~
w2Z =!*
9 D Y 6,w2T %zm
CZ C
9 (
=H : eiYz=
/ZX 7
g Cgs
=p: eiY=
/Z =: e iY=c*
? : e iY
=g0
+ZkZ: eiY=
/Zv p !*
? H]gziY=Q
=Zgz ]2wt ? ]gzHp
p6, Z : ep{z
/Z
_
}y s %Z
/Z~gZ 0 ] 2Q 7{],
Z ={z $
7

4 Z {zc*
=?
X Zgz = ] G
5G3E
=Ixzn!*
]x m
CZ V _Z VyZq
-
7=X D category mistakei Z0
+Zzu=

Zz q )Z
/
ut Cx Z
# =a {<
L z yW
Z$

gzZ q )Zi]%Z ~ Zz Za wEZ=X Cg~]g
tnp @*
.
)g f=C
/.
~yW
gzZ!*
bTX g/
X=g f q
-Z g Z y!*
i bTaz=g f q
-ZV= ~` u
J"
)g f=? yZZkZQ **
yZZ6,yW
a.
5E
!*
zyW

,@*
kZ Zgz =yZZ ,@*
yZZ =X =Q yZZ y
X C=Zgz 7=s { zgK=y
KZgc*
q X 7
E
G
=Zgz gzZ **
=s
DZuq
- }X ; 0$ Zz **
349 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

a Z B
bg 7 z { z 7]o] !*
kZ **
Zgz = zgzZ
"gzZ}@x7)g f =yW
X @*
7bZi t wZ
[ yW
t c*

zmvZ -[
g 5)g f 7)g f

Zg { Z',
~}g!*
yW
\vZ [vZt Ht vZ
d yZZ kZ c*
-I
$ g f/ ]mZ t p YY H"
X =0G
$U*
b [>XE
C7
g =? @*
7yZZ ? s C ? yZZ}g =
7w gy =X Sg7Wg g=%qJc*
$Z@p
e
z yW
X x **
yZZa Z p" [?%? }
gzZI Y={ z}gkZ }wJ[ 2ZgzZ /Z c*
g Z
kZI ZgzZ
GL3J: ep
p6,=Z h]]
67={z}: wJyZZ= yZZ G
Z = {>g Z
Z e
$uZz = yZZi wEZ=X
E
$

{>G
L . ~ *: {>v{z y#
aZX {>
qgzZ ^
^ O n _jm r% ] o] m$ ^ m m: xz
+ 43 42:68 F a r% ] o] m ] ^ $ ` a i a ^e]
x **
Zg Ww x **
)@*
]= Z gzZ',D
+ Z ZgzZk~
bzg~C
T qzg 7
/
u[gzZ d!tX 7
Z6, * e
$$
+Z)g f Tg Z ~ wZziz LZ **
- X
~~ g Z
DZ D * kZ sg y
W
/
uD |~ y**
=q
-ZX
Hg ZS
n wZ|g y
W,! fW,Zk
,
iTg Z H Z Zg Z
] !*
.=._xY @*
_
YZ
_7q
-Z DwEZvZ
X x{g Z=v p !*
Reason is the slave of Passion : x
Sg t
g kZ A
$ CYV6,
g L
/Z=
c*
[ kZp= p=: e &
g kZY
X
4
-G
?k Vzg Zz!gzZ P Z',Z ]| 6 g Z wJ6,
CC!*
.
_
-P 4X
G
7N M
h w1 "
$t
/Zt ? Z',Z]|{z Zy~ yW

jZ Z\ !*
}g t1{zx Z1? DVY] yZ ?M
h
~[Q $
p p=
/Z Le **
U
: ep
p6,p @*
C
!*
: e wZ*Oh!X [{z iu
350 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

{z7x ZzX |Z V ~y
KZ
K ` uy
=s
C
/ZX @*
x: eZ
# r$
+
9C

X qgzZpt x **
g Z = $
g ZS
n yZZ L=Z~I=
t wZp yZZ 6,? gzZ = [Believe in Reason] H.
$
]okZ1 s Wtt ? ._.
$ ? ? HyZZ6,=p
LZgzZLZtF,
{ yZZ6,=C 7? yZZC
? H
-6,\WLZpy
KZ Z k0*
y
KZ =~
. DY yZZ6,\W
T CY kZ] VYX}: ] }uz }] KZ}
{gC
ZLZ y
KZ H.
$a Z k0*
y
KZ sDgzZ @*
Dk0*

,@*
=yZZ a Z ~ V' gzZ AZ Zzg X } g Z authority
X [Source of knowledge] D~
. =~ [f ,@*
yZZ =7
$ g f =~ xsZ
$
7=X g ZizZgzZg D0G
\ W
/ZaZ C~
.Z }~` uLZ=X $
}x Zx WgzZgza
I \ W
/Z p '[\ W} kZ V } 9~ ` u e
$h
+]
.
$
7Zgz Vkz V i='[wqZZ
+ <
N YW~ ` u
z y i=X Sg [Subjective] {z $
7 [Objective] zc=
7[2 ZgzZ /Z D =s $
7x Zz6,Zgz kZ1 $
VZ yk
t D Za
kZje
$Z@ yZ]
.z ]!*
.~ kZ X
_
gzZzg~} ],Zsy
KZ W,O Tg Z kZZ [f
\vZ D a! x b #e
$Z@ ]gzZ =
/ZX c*
z
=gzZp!*
]yZ D Y: p=LP W]|**
Y#
k0*
No
E
{!

!*
ge
$Z@ Z
# 1]z ={2z Zgz g { k
HgzZ{z { r ZC

$ g f=z]~
=iu OZ6,kZgzZ gD0G
z =J/] ]+Z[gvZ P W]|gzZ Wx /sm7~
q k] ] ^Fm5 ^ :t
&n u ] ^ $r]
^ q ^ ^ _6 n $ ] ^ $ ^ O n # ] ^ j r$ ] F ^e i ^j
oF] ^j $ ' j ] o f e ] _f ] ^ n ^^ ^$
y- 37@*
35:2n u$ ] h]$ j$] $] n h^j kF e$ ! o5 $ j O n u
351 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

Xay
KZ q
-Z gzZ 0
+
i H7w+ Z [
yZ C
!*
k,
KZ f ] **
, Z V V ~ y M

aZ~IZgzZ~ yZZyZZ I Z F,
z
E

: ;Zp]gm 5kM 6,yZ } ] { Z ({ Zph ]]**


yZ
X 7 Ze
$h
+]
.
**
ib)} (,} (, b [{ztX +I e
$h
+]
.
VAd fh
+]
.qX C3
, ^6,xx=zp T e
+G
B
{
5
~De
$Z@ Zg] DLG ] Zt w]Z6 $C

kZD {zgzZW#WnZ Z D7ag ZgzZ Z


xqX @*
**
g Zz nZ Z [ b: 6,g Z z ]x
{ yZgzZg 2szc y M 7{zi [ Z ]Z
gX 7YB; Zg+ gzZ Dg (ZY fh

+]
.i M
~[ Z] Zx 6 0*
b[ Z wZC
c*

zmvZ -[ $
Ip] 7  B {z
p b [ Z gzZ xgg
z!
z! a [Z wZC

VZ"dD @*
H c*
}Y 7
I
-dz { M
L LkZ g
Y xyZx Z
/
z6,~z Kx gzZ I Y>XE
:}jF
3 }
0
+Zg
} c*
}p] 6,gZz 7x[ Z wZ+
/Z 1
I (Z~ p ZvZ g&0ZvZ]|X } Y \vZ } Y 7~
t \ M x yZ gzZ Y7 Xq
-Z Z0
]| q
-Z D
\ M { b V)T 5(+Zq
-Z=a{7X
Y 7\ M
/Z H{ kZ } Y7~ b Y kZ 5 T
c*
D kZ \vZ& Y {z Z c*

?Y {z Z c*

Y yZkZQ
DX c*
2A Y Z ^j$ ^ $] ^ :5
X { i Z0
+Z ~ b
VZ
/
:c*

\ M ~[ ZM ~X i7Z:@*
h Z
xZ
{7b):e~c*
C V,Z e
$Zzg lZ}
.0{X } Y7~p]
x ZXb \ M ]!*
Z0*
sY7 yZgzZ c*
M k0*
x Z t Za
352 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

x ZX @*
YV(
h{z}t:p] Z
# Yi ZgkZ

V6 L Zce e
$Zzg '
C
0h+m,0vZ yZ e
$Zzg

# yZgzZ B { C {z V : 1gzZ Z +Zq
Z
-Z~B; yZ @*
2 p]
$Zzg 9 Y Zg1Z ]|X , p] Y7{z& Y h7 ] !*
e
+Z
}o Z x Za ZX D I } Y 7~ p] c*

V,Z
v ZY
Z[|ZgzZwj z%} oYg_ Z~
/
akZgzZ #

X 3 Zg } i Zzght
8t
A & p]
!
g
C KkZ V,Z e
q
-Z~ ~tLE
$Zzg b! Z0Z
z ZpyZ *
@Y Y7 ~}g !*
} : c*
$u yZ c*
g
0*
~/
}uz {z *
@Y Y7X vp !*
gzZ C Z Zuz C
_
V 0*
kZQ Rb bkZX k0*
}uz {zgzZ k0*

C1
X HwZkZ% T @*
Y
e
$Zzg c*
+c*
;gwZD%aWsb
/Z 2
E

kZ O[ Z
Zg { Z',b, Z { O DLZ c*
gzZ#$
?g Zz nZ Z c*
M g Z \ M ?**
c*
b \ M Y Y7
gzZ n2
/Z zwZ kZgzZJ[Z M wZ b
/Z ?I c*
Dw
E
4
&
] Z}g gzZjg Zz nZ Z6,
CVZ @*
ce **
g6,G
0GxE"**
7yZwVzha! Z~y M HwZ **
-Z }Xj}[ Z
q
y M
\ MYY7 **
, Z ? y M
~
. ZY } 7Zw ~Z
? 1| 7,y M
x \ M HY1 yJZ kZ| 7,] c*
MP?M
h~!
gzZ ? H_ ? 7,
wZx Z ~
.Z y M
? 1qD
Z ! kZ ? 7, g
$ q ZgzZy~zg ZgzZ ~ m,Z !
\ M yZZ YY7 Q X Y b 7 {)z yZ
/ qg pgzZ wZ
wZ kZQ b`
z6,~
. kZ ?7<
L y M
~
. Z Hq )g f
Z @*
7~
. Zuz ZkZgzZ y M
~
. 2Z z ] Z c
H ?
H**
6,~
. y M YY7 kZ Y Wg6,q
-Z
zmvZ-vZwg"tc*
~"vZp] vZxy M

G
4G3.Z> Zs Z C1
X 280-279],1 EG

353 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

yM
c*
xlyZZ6,wg ?6,y M
c*
yZZ6,vZwg ?? )g f
-vZwg
/Z ?zmvZ-vZwg c*
\vZ c*
@*
z*kZ ?6,
=g &
+vZ x c*
?Vz c*
?vZ x c*
vZ wg y~ s %Z c*
zmv Z
#
Z ~g7 p7`g~y M
N Yab 7] Zx {zkZ ?vZwg
X {)z{)zY ,Vzizg~x c*
Z]g { i i yZ f Z } q ) Z6,
X
+W]Z ZkZ Zgz M6, q
$
-Z ~$
+e
$.bq
-Z
? H kZ ?**
c*
Zz c*
b\ M Y7 w~ [ Z ~
T e **
Wc*
T e **
c*
T e **
C= c*
? T e 7 \ M V,Z
**
~ kZ ![ Z wZb
/Z c*

VLe 7 kZ ?
\ M H Ct Z 6,xsZ nZ Z \ M ce Da nZ Z V
LZgzZ
) Z 0E
!_
.agzZ ~gzDanZ ZY ? xE
i7 wZP V Zz xE ~
s Z ZgzZ uZg Z 6
G
E
$ zg Z \ M YZ V,Z e}:[ Z
4G
;gw1zg Z~C
V Y S5G
gzZ, ] !*
? n
pg]g '~zg Z ?
/Z V} Yzg Z {~, zV
G
'
Z q
-Za Dg Z y!*
igzZ @*
Z D y!*
iY [gz]Z Z}g +
t
',ik
,
i~p Zzg Z MZ~zg Z} =g f
:z| 7,
9c*
z ',
ik
,
i c*
Z ! V; ?M
hC
_
N
_
L
_
M
E
E
E
z } F, a Z F, g e
9N
9
9M
z8} F,EF1 4 ELFw
HEFB Z
O&Gt
E
{zz Z Z `g #9 iYZ e: Z Z E
',ik
,
i{z
X
Hwh
+ ZgzZ ZL
kZ :g 6,
kZ
, ZWgzZ m D: Yzg Z: Y sZxE: d
W
\ M b Y]!*
H ?XxZd Zz xE
D
q
-ZC
/ Ct
p ZZYZ V,Z Vz[Z 9vZY
KZBb 7gzZ
~k
,
pq
-Z~G
g V7 i Zz M Xp Z, ZgzZ ~~i Zz M
%NE
%LE
%M} Z
w{gzZ w{ l gzZ l gzZ !*
gzZi !* ? M
h C t
E
\
` M {gzZ {,gzZS?OgzZHgzZd X=&NgzZ$gzZ',Z wgzZ %gzZ wY
*M G
.F
.F
.*MgzZg NgzZg MgzZgzZx **
G
x ZgzZx Zx !*
gzZx !*
x gzZ x M **
Y MgzZ **
M
G
L* E
354 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

G
:L gzZF
:NF
:MYLgzZYNYMg gzZg G
.*MgzZgzZ G
.cMgzZ G
.McG
.cLcgzZ
gzZaNgzZaL aMF
C
gzZ%xgzZ xg w!*
gzZ w!*
B 7',
ik
,
i gzZ w**
g !*
gzZg !*
{ gzZ {
#
N
#
#
M
$
M
$
L
L
E
E
E
E
E
E
N

0gzZ E gzZ [ #
z#
w w wZ egzZ wZYe w;Y gzZ wq
(N
(

E G
4
O
4E
4E
&
&M EG
&L EE
E
G
8
E
L
gzZgiO gzZ iLgzZgzZ G EG
gzZ ELE
gzZ EN ELgzZ
N N
M MY
N
NgzZ y VgzZ V 8E
Ng ]
g @*
gzZg @*
//xx L NgzZy 8E
&
&
"gzZ
GG
"yigzZg gzZg W M gzZ N gM zZ CLgzZ CM
M3E
GG3O!MgzZX
M GG3LE
Y
Y
E E
$L' &LgzZ &M
G^M
"NgzZ@ EgNzZ EL b
5G
E
gzZTg NgzZ MgzZ|
# @*
E
E E G^NgzZ
G
G
9<XE
N
O
O
!
!N
gzZ 6 gzZ !gN zZ ix YgzZx Y gzZ y EgN zZ ELgzZ y@*
&M G
&gN zZ G
&L G
&M gMzZ LNwN*
&M OE
& E
&L .
.
$gzZ ^ OE
gzZ wN*
M MgzZ
gzZ E
M
H
I
I
(
N
N
M
!
!
M
L

5 YgzZ k
5 G
7NgzZ E
7M gzZ .
,
gzZ k
,gzZ LxgzZx E
gzZ G
$zZgzZ^zZ
I
"
M
E
5
c
.
L
H
N
H
H
M
$Z egzZ ^ Z e ^ !*
.
$!*
G [ ZgzZ [Rw w
G gzZ LgzZ .
I
N
4F
7MgzZ ugzZ xfgzZ
]

sugzZ sgzZ n gzZ] ]gzZ [ QgzZ Z EG


8M iN GI
$ gzZ n
& gzZ G
&M $MgzZ $No $gzZ I iE
@gzZ EG4h GI
gzZ iL OG
E
G
G
gzZ gzZygzZ u{gzZ $gM zZ $L O&LgzZ &N Y :gzZ 7gzZ
9M
9N
$MZgzZ=FgzZ~gzZq
$gzZ E
<XFgzZ <XF W,ZgzZ)aMgzZwMggzZg"
(
\L \N
E
gzZ HL gzZ7gzZ F,
Q gzZ
] ZP|**
n
pg !*
Lz
WKZ
e
$Z@ ZQ g7]gzbZz
kZ ~Zz~
{z Y 7Y M
h 0%Z M
h 07**
?Z7DgZ yZ "a
zt
/Zi~* ,DIZb 7gzZ Bb 7 Zz+ Y
X p=a}IQ ^xEakZ tzf
:p& Y (Z Z}
.H HwZ n2gzZ**
-Z bZ 4
q
m o o ] ]y
Z}
.A
$~
/ZA
$~V;[ Z wZ
/Z ?n VZ
? Z}
.Y7?V; kZ ? Z}
.?H Y7 b **
ui
+ ?Y7?)g f xsZ + kZ ?**
)g f gzZ ?**
T )g f
gzZ ? VYgzZ ? Y7 V; kZ ? xsZ
] z ] Z f Ct
/Z Y7 V,ZV } ?
G
'
} Y 7~ kZ ? H +}g +zuz',
+~ ~0
D
+
z Z}
.
355 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

7Z}
.~ HngzZ HZg kZM zizgPX *
*wZQyYzuyZ
7Z}
.?Z
# c*
[Z xi o\G,
gzZ awZ }
G
'
X YY c*
7[ Z wZ Z c*
M 7a ligz 6f +gzZ w6f wZ Zg +
g Z Z}
.C
/ vX D Ya{)g f 6fgzZ y wZ nkZ
Hg (Ztzg O}Izc V, ZX D7
GZ}
.ZD
~gz **
M 7bzg+F,
dZt Z ObB Z
Z, Zce **
Y
y~yZu c: ~gz**
g Zg0
+ZyZ
{Z
+ ~ wz gzZ ~i !*
u ? V, Z X Y c*
sp~ |
# ggz
s +N Y| (, M Z ~LZ {z e yvuZu 7
v { zt ce g: VZ6 a ;@*
gzZ ~g Z{ V, Z ,yZ
]gz7ZX D bvg 7g Zb
] gz . 6,w i Zzg yZ gzZ g 7 r gzZ f yZ
D Z
z ] Zg L Z { gzZ x Z Z We
$. Z
Z , ZX
c*
Z}
.gzZ @*
Yx3,
I w Vz(,} (, V~ l{ Zz kZY J
-y*G
: @*
YW
1 0
+
i
HW c*Z}

. V-
Z { c*
i
tzgt O}Iz c Vg Zi" +gzZ +J

7w b z b
c*
**
[z [% c*
*
*6,]!*
q
7 kZ OfkZgzZ [Z
? X 7b <z W,O1 Y [gzZ l{
?: Zoce 6g
kZXce **
s@Z $
+ **
Za qJ0E
!_
.~7b
Y Z z g
$u x Z X ]gzgzZ Aj
x Za
wZ ZRgzZ g
$ q Z ~ i sI Z ~ T
;@*
[ gZ
/ !gzZ #
}
.
!
!:e \ M XK [ Z1Z + 4 kZgzZb @*
zz/
i sf,X [
t }z g
$u~ xsZX {x VE]VY
Z P kZ Z
# g z!*
kZX
kZz G @*
kZ
] %Z {Za gzZ ,6,}kZv @*H{ Zg Z ~VgzZVzVzuz
356 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

: (Z \ M ! >ZZ
c*

gzZ # w kZ \ M
N Y
~yZv(C
gzZ _ V]c*
Zzgz g
$ q ZgzZ'!*
J
-VX ,
Za ] %Zh
+'
x ZZ kZ [ ZgzZ [ zg s %Z p T ` CZ
g , hg\ MZ6,
Z 1g (ZaLZV,ZakZN Y
X =gzZvZ\ MvZ1Z :t
7x ZZ 6,[kZ~qg%g;ZY
xZ
pzvD~ zpCZgzZg
$ q Z hZ
KZ V,Z~T
\ M z!*
kZp X t Z Y f gzZI Z6,T c*

Zg KZ~}ogzZWbZ H7Zg)g f
c*
g6,R4c*
g
X 7]gz
}g !*
kZ}g Dx ZwZ
b L L Y7 q
-Zbq
-Z 5
]( kZ Iog Da Zz Z Z e ? : H \ M ~
ce **
Cs
# Z!*\ M { ZegzZwZ \ M L L:c*
[Z r
# gzZ
c*
M ?| 7,yR c*
J 7,{z c*
M ?HC
!*
kZ c*
Hg D~zu~: { kZ c*
M
[ g Z kZ c*
Hi t kZ c*
M ? !*
**
c*
!*
{z c*
M ? Zi M c*
x {z
c*
Z (,{ z
HHg D g Z0
+YT c*
M ?Hg D g Z0
+YgzZ c*
}0
+
6, kZ c*
M ? [
kZ c*
/ LZ kZ c*
M ?H~]Zg c*
Hg D~y kZ c*
M ? N*
g
a} /x ZwZ kZ c*
MgzZ ?HWc*
Hg D kZ c*
M ?;g|6,[ g Z
[ Z w ZkZ Y : s
# z gZx y ZJ
-Z
# ? J0
+!*
ae c*
J0
+!*
, qz ] Z bx ZY fO[ Z wZC
X 7 eb
gzZ !*
i[l
KZ Y Zz6y ZgzZN Yxz ] Z`
w ZY x
c*
7, ya6,gzZ [ Z ]Z X T e *
* "
$U*
I YY f
:
Y fL L~x Z
/z6,[ALIM on Line] U ^ t
~"0
+!*
, c*
7,: ~B; kZ, Y:B; { y KZH {z CC
X iu N*gzZV 1 IVzoV>k}g Zz~q)w q
g ~y M
7w xg D VZ]ZgzZ V56,Vz
C[
Zz wZ6,g1 DW,O% ZzG
g ]Z, Z
V6,g ZZ kZy M
gzZWg } CY Zz W
$**
gzZV
$
357 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

[ Z yZ X z (F, **
3Vzuz i Z :
/ZgzZ **
3
# ] : pV LeZ}
.
/Z t[ZZZ~Vs}uz

$ u n e n f] j ] ^ ^ gj
n ] v $ n # ] $ ] ]?^ m$]
~*p Z}
.XX "MvZ 181:3 mv] h] ]

? ~ Z

Z}
.H ?VYg ZZ a **
3yZ e g
}%kZ
H w gzZ
H%g Y @*
ZT e **
3gZ%g bkZ
g }OgzZ %f y
KZ&
Z F,
wZ[ V,Za ZpkZ Y c*
3: VY
skZ~ HTg Z ! ]!*
~(,t x Zw{z}g p Z}
.&gzZ w'{z}
O]
. *
@Y skZ q
-Z ]!*
: Zt p Y ?=O]
.V Y
t wZZ % H=~7t wZZ X Le **
Y Z}
. kZ
{z e {z? H g kZ ? HY AkZ ? H kZ ? H% Z}
.
g c*
}:t6,g[ g \vZ=
/Z N YO Z Y {zO]
.

:
W
X
g " =% Z g X 67={ z }g Z ~zc :WXZ
: et ? : e gzZ iYp
p6,=c*
: e =t wZ~
CX
*X JZ Zt ? @*M * Yg {C
!*
c*

_ =g0
+Z
@*
Y Y6,e z wZgzZg gC
X @*
WC
!*
: e ~ V'{,
@*
w C=~d
$C
: Z c*
- c*
Zkzc*
e
$Zzg c*
: etgzZ
wgzZ =X @*
Y 36,gzZ Y6,e gzZ Z D 7: e pwgzZ =1
@*
C
!*
yZ 7g0
+Z yZ: e iYp
p6, yZ 7wZgzZg hG
!Z &
+

4 Z gzZ ] *ZZ ] G
5G3E
5. <
c*
$kZ : e t X
d
sZ X
_ ] G
G
J

45 gzZ yW
IZ !3 I Z `g Zpd
$
wgzZ={z t t~
C EG
>g yW
I Z ~q6,
CkZgzZ
Zz hU e ]q Z
~g7 1gtgzZ 1
pg] Z.@~zg {x ZLZuZ
g t ~
C76,{x Z * e: xt Z X 5 {x Z *
{uZz CgzZhX 5 U6,[Human Right Declaration]
/zg ] Z {x Z DgkZX g sgzZ sm,
z*
] !*
t? yq=twZZX CC g @*
w&X @*
Yw**

$ g f z Yg { c*
*Tg Z } [external knowledge] D0G
C =
358 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

}Q AZ c*
}
KZ = q=Tg Z X HtwzZ y
zc Zgz ykz y igzZ ]
}
.] Zp d
$ g @*
/Z = et?

= }y& ] !*
kZp 0*
hgzZ
Z{z }x 6,g
kZ c*
=y
KZ=zckZ
/Z {z 10*
hgzZ
ZT
z=p: eiYp
p6,kZgzZ Y7zcQ=t
Hc*
4
)g f "gzZ }@x= [ I ZgzZl W V Z V
t snZ Z yZ1 wgvZ\ M 1yTzmvZ -[ $
g
VYwz4,kZ6,zmvZ -[ $
g Z: wi **
VY6,V M } (,zl y M

YVLZ bT TbkZzmvZ - [ $
g[ IZ ?Z
: wJ= yZp Tbd
W LZg ~wzZ G
LZ {zp C~ ] <
d
$ g @*
=X gxz{z H
C
D` u @*
x[C
=kZ ~ D` ukZgzZ C._ ` u

/Z~M%Zz\g- X @*
0*
gZ

~D` u}uz [z Y w$
+
wt aV;z YW~ Vz%~ k]x **
Z',c*
k]" ]g
> 7 ]Zz)gzZ ~ Zi W KZ =[fY = ] !*

V' Zzg c*
xsZ@',
kZX [ ~ Zi Wz] Zz) Z C
kZ }Ig Z h#
5z gzZ Zgz
f {z YW~ k]kZ ]g~
Y }7e
$bzg kZ W V'yZ C
ggzZg 7g G
!Z &
+g]Zz)gzZ ~ Zi W~ V'IgzZ Vz Zzg yZ
$ g f Yg {kZ Z - gzZ:Z] c*
tzgt ~ zg ` ugzZD0G
Zzg ]g @*
c*
Zkz
kZ ~ Zi Wy
KZX YY H7wJ& tzg [){ Z s % Z}
.
} ~ Zi W } ~ V'yZ }
) Z Z}
.{z ~ ] !*
KZt ?J
-V V, ?Y zH Z X 7~ Zi Wg @*
Z
zu ~ Zi WV qz,uu] Z Z
# C,~
.Z wZ
{ C" VZ" Z Y~g ygzZYem{q
-Z { z Y
,@*
kZ ghwZ {zX Y H7wJ6,ghgwZ
~ ~ Zi Wg]~ D` ugzZ [fX Y ggzZ wJ~ zg kZ
k0*
TX 6,bZ
b u{ c*
i { c*
ig Z T oz Z
359 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

gzZ] ! fy
KZ Yq]~ { c*
i {zY Zi W{ c*
i {ztu{ c*
i
Z xg DZ~VxgzZkZg Y
6,]q
-Z~
D 7yZ0
+{ D7b 1 D sz^~ wqZ ]g%{ V
7Z~ V
KZ ,q
t n
pg7B\!*
V gzZ zZ D Za 7a
g } Za^
/Z]gX CZ~ V- g Z)f gzZ t
Z et X **
uF,
s

# ( g ZzWi h
Z1 } 7,**

Z',{ i

_ 46,]=z wgyZ g ] =gzZ w~ [f
|7 ] =gzZ w~ Vz I gzZ V'Zzg @', kZ
4Z @*
[Reality]
t CW', |]ZggzZ] G
5G3E
[g ] z
) Z 0
+
i~ V'yZ D {],
Z wgzZ = ] Zg
!

J
E
**
Za a 0*
zZ #
}
.\ !*
V X YY 04) ]qzg Z ]g
7~ !*
',
gzZ
h w qZ #

Wg Zi Wa]g
Zzlgz6,V
!

Zw E
0J4) gzZx ZggzZ qzgq
-Z ~g Z)f )q
-Z9
q
-Z
Zz{z ]ZgwgzZ V'I ZzggzZ[ft X Zg f
4Z
X CW',
] G
5G3E
**
~
{ c*
i q
-Z % wgz =g g @*
zd
$sZ
7
g **
(Z ~ =gz wg \g- gzZM%Z gzZ |p x ^
,Y
g
KZ t Y M
h ~
% % ]g]g~ [fX
[ H u m a n ] y
KZ Vz [ H u m a n R i g h t D e c l a r a t i o n ]
[Right of Association] q
-Z gkZgzZ [Equal]',
Z',
[Free] Zi M
V-
V}~ VpZ [fZ Yg m
Hgy
KZ [non tolerant] g Z Zzg) {z : kZ
Hc*
} D
pg] !*
p
V Zg e [f 7]i YZ V-
g e |X @*
Y
s **
iY x Zw~ V'I X w'~ [f !*
**
i @*
7nZ Z 6,
t=zwZ G
!Ozg@',
g Z}
.gzZ x s e
$+
M
KZ
~
gzZ 7Zw6,: b ~V'IgzZ Zzg Y~ Zw Zi
yZ {~
c*
Zg Z.{z { Zp$
Y ~ 7]i YZ **
ip CY Z7U
q ]i YZ **

i ]i YZ ~
._=z wgV'
360 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

Zi } **
i U
/Z ]i YZ **
i !*
~ ! fvgzZM%ZX 7~
*.
~
)lt X `g)lZ
#
z kZ sZzgg s
[ g Z x`
s g Z}
.~ V'I A 7Zw V Zg

/Z
kZ
c*
g~ [fp Y7s y
KZ Zw Z}
.x`
.
**
{L { k
H
x`
It~Vz ZzgzIZ
# nCZ f Z
Zzt7&
~l
]WZg **
<Z gzZ e
$?E
+
t X s g Z}
.gzZ
kZ z!*
e:~KZC

/Z ~ [f ~ kZp
c*
g Z
]gx[marital rape]x`
kZgzZ @*
Yx`
Z ) Z
$[ft7x`
d
**
i !*
p $
Y~ Zw{w 0*
C

~g Z Zzg [ft X ZZgq
-Z y WZzh
egVz ~ Zi W~ z g @*
{z Zg7 2 LZs g kZ ~KZC
[tolerance]
[separate entities] z Zz ~gzZC
Y ~g Z ZzgV;z x
~ [Freedom] ~ Zi W}uz Z [self autonomus] g Up t
x [Real Value & Truth] hgzZgZ ~ Zi W~ [fY x`
Z
g ~ Zi W Z CY C',gzZ 8 **
6,Y 6,g q
-Z Z [Values] g ZZ
gZ~ d
$sZX x`
~[f**
w 0*
[Value of Freedom]
kZgzZckZ g Z}
.X [Will of the God] g Z}
.[Real Value]

.
L CC [Epistemology] ] G
<
5 sZ t ? e w
@*
<
L kZ #
Z q )ZgzZ #
ZgzZ vJ
-#
Z)g f[

g
kZgzZ gt Z}
.~ Zi WKZy
KZ~V'IgzZd
$sZ Z
D Y<
L zyW
` ugzZ: eg [ZX
8{ Zg Z CZ~0
+
zZ}
. Zg Zg ZS
n
Y ~ ZwgzZ e
$
$Z@ \WV;z V;z x V V s [Value] gkZ
\ vZ V ,@*
% Z}
.]Zp\W _ \WX
Z}
.gzZ [Human]y
KZ Z}
.Z
KZ?E
+
gt ~[fX +
M
KZs
n a
h D [external authority] )gf Yg { gzZ Y g ZS
W h a t i s y*+ F
, Z .
$ X }g=g f g gzZ zg e
$Z@
X @*
,: w) ZkZ Enlightenment?
w] 7n
i 6,a w]._ =z wgsZ
361 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

V
/Z n
caa ~[fp $
Y~ Zwa6,"7,: i
} ZwC
]g{ W6, ~xs ZX M
hY{zC: wjZa \ !*
C
X V ~ H 6,sZ kZ \W
/Z ~ [fX Y
\ W
/ZX 7x`
~[f**
Za ~ z gzZ yjy]zu
Zw\W~x`
Z~~ Zi W}uz a"7,i 6,a LZ
t ~ Zi WtgzZ YBx**
e KZ \ W
/Z
1 VZB; t \W6,a
/ZX Y tx Z ~ Zi W\ W
z yW

IZ}g ~a kZ BVt X V Vps\W


[Principle] wZ [Truth]h [Standard]g p w gzZ = B yY
gzZ K [good] [Value] g [Parameter] : e [Paradigm] ` u
gt
KZ ~
Cg kZ~[fD Y6,6,g gzZ t 7yZ
Z&yZ zmvZ -*wg <
L zyW
~ xsZ gzZ gZ ~ |
4Z
VgzZ DW',=z wg nZ& D Zg f xEgzZ ] G
5G3E
X Z!*
}uzq
-Z j }
W Enlightened}yg e Ie
$h
+]
. xi Zyg e e
$h
+]
.
$ g f Yg { {z
C
C
!*
LZ &D=g f=gzZ LZ @*
7z6,D0G
$ gf
y
KZIe
$h
+]
.t Vg U*
W]g @*
c*
: Ze
$Zzgkz {z { Zp @*
g Z D0G
6 gzZ * 5q
-Z Z, Z g @*
g Z Cz m{ e
$h
+]
.aZX ] m{
gzZ d
$g @*
} * ~,, y
KZ
[Self Autonomus Human Being] y
KZ X
rg 7 z ~ <

Za ~ ~,, Z [Modernity] e
$h
+]
.gzZ [Modern Man] h
+]
.
:~p Z.
$X
Enlightenment is man's emergence from his self imposed
immaturity. Immaturity is the inability to use one's
understanding without guidance from another. This
immaturity is self imposed lack of understanding.

y
KZ*u Dg Z )g f Yg {C
D .
$~ ]g kZ
yZ]
.z f = g0
+Zy
KZ 7C
!*
DU e c*
g Z
yzg0
+Z
362 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

X {)z{)zKkZjgzZ
z =Dh
+]
.Hermeneutics -DyZ]
.z =] Z +
/gzZ D Zz zmvZ -wg<
L {z D7igzZz z
} D 0*
gzZ q ) Z F,Z #
ZgzZ
Wz s Z )g fx Z
Y
K{g(~uzgzZ~e
$W,z12Y
K{gq
-Zf(z _Z!~Y
K{g
kZ {z
/ZgzZ z q
-ZC
c*
!
/Z f(~ e
$W,z 176
XVq
-~q
-Z
{ zV{ c*
i
z
/Z A kZ !
/Z f~e
$W~y
WY
K{gZ
#
X A k
H~ ]g%VVz
/ZgzZ A zyZ V
z (~uzZ
# z (~ ]c*
WVz yZ
Z(Y 7ng |g p @*
Wng C
~ kZ
HHf
OZ(X f V(~uzgzZ f V
X Wxi ng ~] c*
WVz:gzM
ha7 Z%
wZ Zx Z/? Z% q
-V Z(gzZ
B +
$Y zmvZ -[
g =z t x Z/X #
Z q )ZgzZ
yW
{ z
Z
+ ~g Z)ft 6,zmvZ -[
g yW
r
# Y
n ] ] e% ] kFn f ^e:,
^ ^$ n f j ]
gz!*
=
$

ZvZ wg<
L _g ZzDkZx Z/ 44:16 jm $ n ]
]|O X g @*
v F,
Z #
ZJ
-S #
Z gzZ q )Z DgzZ
E

V Z% XX] ZZ ~z% ) \vZg&0Z]|gzZmz! Z0


] L L]P
m
z! Z0]| H]Z| X q
-
yW
k0*
}g gzZ 7{ F,
Z ] P
{ f
]Pt @*
X ]
g]P
{z%Z YY7yW
p Z]P
f
akZ 6,
{ F,Z ]Pt
X Cx
p
/Z
Hc*
Cz q
-V Z ~ e
$WkZg ZzL L
Xxq ) !*
{tp 7g{t~e
$WkZ *yW

~uzgzZ Z% Z(X 7ng ~ x Z *yW

)(t
/Z V; 7ng ~kZgzZ Z%{zZ(
363 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

X Wxi ng Z%CvZ
f
{0
+
i\ *
!p
/Z: zZsT {z! *
*t!
\ !*
Wxi kZ Y 1kZ
/ZX 7^
,Y **
6,f
gzZ
~\ !*
s q ) Z]!*
tqAzc*
~

+
] ] o ] kq]ZZ: ~ G3B Zs Z M7zq )!*
V
!XX^] ^] k ]a o h] e] $m
yzZ **
7+Z W
] c*
Wt 7? kZ
jgzZ{y#
Z 1gzZ q )Z #
Zz F,
Z @*
s@*
/
WZ (, HZz t { Zp C7tx#
Z, Z x q
kZ $
Y76,
CgzZyZ]
.z=sy M
ZX: VY
7 ea sZ
8 =zD! f~ eh
+]
. e
bg
kZ d
$z g @*
m{ q
-Z yx 0 kZgzZ s ZY
gzZ F,Z e
$Zzgy/Cc*
M F,

yZgzZ zmvZ -[ $
g] Z f
.

/
V wZz =D: h
C
+]
.Z v)g fq )Z
m{ q
-Z D tzg : !) **
DF, HermenuticX 7
4Z
z =D: { XZ[f%YkZ d
$z g @*
m{gzZ] G
5G3E
zg yZX Z **
's ZD ZzgsZ~g 2
~y
M[ x **
Z ~ y*+F,
Z bL L[ KZ {
gp
pgpt
t ~Hermeneutic z =! fgzZDs Z
yZ {f Zg7DsZ Z:Zz Z ,xE! fgzZxEz { zY
X w+ Z*
! g
]Z~w
Hqi t wZQ w+ Z ~0
+
z Z}
.C
6,Vz
C[
/Z
i ZB| 7,i
D YJZ
J
-
z kZ7VY~ VY
| 7,i Y| (, M
z i {z H ;g| 7,7i [Z X Y c*
w$
+
z
zo z] Z }z~wqC
{z z\ vZ&?
~x ZwZ YVZwZ{z ? Y] q}uz qX q7Zz
ngzZg s 7VY} gzZ}C
VY} )C
bZ w
g \ vZ Z}
.tt ]!*
p M 7
364 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

LZ y M D
\vZ }7u ] Z Z [ c*
3
\vZ ~}g !*
Vzq Z]!*
~ ] c*
M gzZ 47:51 c*
B;
z ~ \ vZ H} VZ wZt n2[Z N V; LZ

kZ ] ~g7 ?c*
VY pB; LZ y M kZ B; kZ
rg
?c*
7VYatkZ 6,}g
Z
]gz|q
-g !*
gzZ **
Z e
$. [ Z V Z]{, Z
~z K:
L T ~`
~ V5dnkZ yZ ~q)
gzZ Tg DW6,] : Z " q
-Z Y x V i u N*
V Z , ZD Za ` Z'
VA[~yZx$ZV~fV Z
+Z~g !*
m,
gy ~eyW
XX YY H[Z V V{
\vZ6,x ; yW
Y7 X wV{q
-Z {o +ZgzZ 1 Z
{ C
zc*
[ Z ) { qC
Z}
.?7c*
o ^
[ Z Q| ) ?7c*
yW
Y7 X
wZ V y X z[ Z wZ}Le 7
7gzZ~ X
gzZ y X 4Z ~ Y Z yW
V @*
t~ YZ X z~ V**
c*
V; [ Z
HyW
X c*
[ Z ) @*
W7xi t kZ 7X Z tyW
Q
\vZ @*
"
$U*
e
$WkZ @*
Zg eLZ?vZ # ] vm
/Z : )B Z f ]C

y l] ] HyW
Q
Z'
]gzZ4Z~Z}
.H
H t4Z yW
~ Y Z
e yW
X } g !*
g X ~}o!3 ?
E
E
G

7
G3 c*
Y7 kZ X c*
Z !3 b ? q
-Z s~
$. X yW
e
c*
[ Z ?7,Hy~ zZ F,
w Z Z
Y J 7,H~ ypg
HwZ k', Z
/Z tyW
Y7
X 1VZB; e
$!3kZ
Hb?
z!"

$U*
+)g fygzZ=#
}
.7BVgzZz +Z
K zq
-Z kZgzZ Z 4Z ~ y Zq
-Z q
-Z }
kZgzZzw$
+t gzZb:Zzz kZ b}zq
-Z Z Z
kZ Y [q
-Zsp Zz} Y [ q
-Z~$
+
kZgzZ zg} i Zz M Z YC
!*
y { z K4
365 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

]e
$. g Zh
+y

Y {z w\ M b b q
-Z
-Zt c*
q
[Z g Zh
+y
Y [ q
-Z [ Z ?b ] !*
Y7
?wZ H 7 kZa kZ a~$
+ zq
-Z ~ Y [
7gHnZ
/F
1g Zh
+y

N
Z e
$b zq
-Z G
Zz?M
h\ Mb kZV[: Zz\ M ~zq
-Z
! Zq xkZp C7,b Z ! ZqgzZ$;f g Zh
+y

gzZ 6,
N
,gZZ\ M
/Z M
h 7~j Z M
hg66,ZV\ M
x ? V, [ Z kZ ?\ M ~ ?\ M ~ r
# Z
:Yqzx q^wD Z)gzZ Y

C"g @:
} [Z V ygzZ? [ Di @ ] , Z
X CY
gz'
{#q
-Z
/Z M
h"
$U*
t \ M6,g[ wZ CMc*
g bZ
J M ~ y J egz'
geXB ~y 0*
{#tgz'
z M
h ~y k
]]gz'
g ZD
A~] ] gz'
A~] 14gz'
!~ y Zgz'

{# (Z 6,
g x[g CMc*
g? Y0 ~ ] {# nHp~

x [ '!*
Z X 7 ) )g f g z ZZ sp Y0gz
Z fpX CY .
**
~ 0
+
i iA
$N Y ~"
$U*
Vh CMc*
ggzZ
}g e @c*
~
/cxsZ wV{q
-Z~#w+ Z [ r
# & **
oi m n o n^ 1 p k+ 6n c^ ] : ~~\ Zz
6na 1ia ]u ni ] 1 ] n6na ]^q oe c 1a n:
q ]<e ^^ 7^q ]`F 6na 1ia ]u 4^ 6n ce pe 1^+ fq
1 n^ ] (1a q ^:2 ^jf 6n 1e^ 1 ]^^ 7 ] 1a
q 1a o^e ^:2 m] ]^i m 2 ^2] ^m h]q
6na l^nu 6n 1e^ 17 ^] ^ 6n ] 1a ]`e ^,+ o]n
1 sq U k ] ^n 1a ^jm ^ o^e 1 U o 1nrn h]
6n o^e cn 72 J o^ 1+ 7a ^ni 1n 1 1` m ^q 1^
1+ 6n` U e 6n` 1^q p ] r ]`F 1i ]u
366 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

fr ] m] 1 ] 7n 1^q p ] o+ r
C1
r
# & **
Z f p oj2 6n` _ m oe 6n ] ]`F ^n
gzZ ykZsp CY^LL 7y[~xsZ 1tp
X 7=**
c*
g+6,
X ZI q
-Z~e~ F,
',gzZ Z ? [ q
-Z
H kZX C ZzgzZ y;', y)F,
? [ t
0 Z c*
?V7 m Vz Yc*
LVz^ N*
gq
-ZgzZ0 Z
X ',
Z', Vz 7 kZ ? { c*
i yZ zz z =
X 7q? xz[sQ :c*

gzZz6,WZ 5Z
# ZX Hi M ? [zx+Z

X H Za ZgzZ v M= V4 kZ~ kZ z{>x M


[Physical b)As g
C?6,
[Pure reason]=s+Z
kZ B
bg
A & t~Domain]
[Partial rationality] =~zb
7= [Standard of Good & Truth] g s gzZ /Z Z c*
Z
g<Z { z=+4X $

7gJ
-|b
=X $

:
X
kz Z kz: e {z @*M C
!*
_7 =: e p

p6,T ={zt
gzZwJe
$x y
KZt : e gzZ 7c*
y
KZ C
#

] hU $ ] $ $ ] V @*
Cy M
}kCp~q nZz
) Z |
] m$] # ] hU $ ] $ $ ] 22:8 m m$] f ] % % ]
u ] q m F ] vm ^$ ]q^ n $] ! k^ a $ ] 55:8 + m
9:39 h^f ] ] ] $ jm ^$] m m$] m m$] pjm a e
n ] # ] ] ] ! m$] h^f ] o^m5 # ] ]i$^ ]m ^e] ` # ] $ ]
+F,
+q
$
- 4,
Z}
. Zzh
e:x = [ ]
] c*
M yZ 10:65 ]
wJ Zz = t+F,
+ Zz g Z /Z v fz}gzZg Y
$
=r
# { z}: wJ/ZgzZ [ 2Z y M Z qJ=g D

:WXZkzZ
# =Xce **
g eZvZgzZ=E
L 8v Zz yZZ7
X*uZ D C M ~}%iyZZ {zSg7=s{z CwJ
wzZ T e(Z=Y7 Iq
-Z {Z tZgq
-Z

X 62& **
Z fh! {g e@c*
~
/c :xsZL L& **
Z f C1

367 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

/ZX vZ Z WZ t c*
[ Z } Y 7~ ?yZZy
MgzZ u
YZ Y7 wZ Zuz X yZZy
M gzZ uwzZ ZX Y

Hug WZ
c*

V,ZX O V,Z ?**


i c*
{k
HZ (,{ c*
i x ZwV\vZ O C
Vyz=X ~gzg ea**
ip
wJ' zaO \vZ
?i c*
Z (,{ izgVZ}
.CY7QgzZ ?gq{Z
+Va\ M
i p C ,Vzizg
) Z
]gc*

V,Zi ?I
X 7e**
xyZgzZgZI6,
C=s Zx7
z ZZ CgzpkZ b [ yZ W Vg { k
]|
]| yZVg {D Ck
]|X {g8
- {z c*
[ Z
7

M t{zX '~','!*
: ~0
+
zZ}
.L Z
# c*
V M V,Z 7
&Z

#
$

vZ y ] v] ]
4Vz \ vZng a ~ely

~
MM
j ^ % U r : {g
Zs*e
$ M kZ~[ ZX c*
7
ZgzZ H

HOkZ 6t!$
+kZ {Z
+Z7{g 0*
X ] e vm $]
t0g DY qx ZwZX ,kZrz~?gzZ}g Y (z
~}g !*
zigzZX b ly

~$
+Hg D~x ZwZ
qly

/Z

%q
-Z Y Z 5\ ^ ] ^u ] ^u ] % e^ : ~y M

sV Zz]gq
-ZgzZsV Zz

7
M
] 5 #
Z gzZ aZ **
~ ]5 } gzZ zi ly

7
M
aZ **
: V;z H ?Ysp~ t Zz Zs %Z ~ m,
gVp T~
! 9V;V,Z ? Y
Z {zg {egzZ H
W >ZZ V,Z t nZ Z Zuz
V,Z ?y Vz ? ~ <
L zy M

/Z ~ vZ f +
Z
izgiu * x" w ZgzZ ~ ~ ! V;
/ Z]|\ M W zmvZ -vZwgz/0
: G
XX n # ] o # ] v n x^ ^ ]ZZ
-dyZ
\ M X ,: k
B B y wg Z}
.\ M
/Z V E
G
'
z SZ ! Z
:c*

Z
]|
c*
} [ Z ]!*
kZ ~g +~ H k
0Z
368 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

-dyZ
! V;V E
G
E
Y
'
4rz 1L E
58E;g [Z
: ~{p Hwy V,Z It Zg +~ }g !*
EG
LZ Z bVg~uz ~{V KZ ?HX Hq w :gzZ
z ?[ Z X Y xsZ gzZ zvZ [g Z V;
/Z ? w'a
X yyxgVZe
z ~
yZ bkZ ! V; {z ?
H kZ H H~7q
G

E
G>Z xZ a ,X {g !*
b sgzZ M :ZzB}g Yg {g ZD

z hZ
# pg~ ~ m,3,
p5#LZgzZ ~
/]g z OYg {X YY H_
GE
zgzZ[ Z
gzZ { M6,hwJZ ~ yZ W yZB
oZ X q z ] kZ V,Z

Hc*
| 7,y M
Z Z
#
V{Z
# X wJ]t V,ZBwA ~ ] Wi
G
I
h4$gzZg Zi" + + " Jq YY Hsp 3,
gzZ z ]
X YY$
+V
E

E
{z Z c*
uF,I~g Z Y f G Zz tX q)
& **
X Tg g
g x ZgzZ D [ Z ZC

{z lab & Z #
Z)g fD}g ZBmZ e
$.r
#
1wJp6,g: Zg g V,Z& D Y $ ~g Z)f ~(,kZ p] M
h
X gwg6T
$ra#
Z ~g Z)f +Zq
-Z
# ] :e
$ M -g }M
hnZ Znn Zz] Z Z
$ u n e q] ] q $ ^q] ] ] q
gzZd
W\vZ~ 72:16 m # ] k e + m ^f ^f] kfFn _$ ]
f VZVY f VZgzZ ?H7VYf VZgzZe ? HVYf V7

q\ M Z
# v!*
f @*
kCi q
Z@qt ?H7VY
E
G
4Z m{gzZ0$ m{b zZi m{q
n
p6,)g f] G
5G3E
-ZVzq ~ zg
gzZ -! x gzZ @*
Zz[g ] ZgzZ] Z XZ] ] nZ
~->g\vZ Ytn2X LgK? M
f 8
$ ^ $ ]f % # ] h : zg h e}i h N t
jm ] q $ ]& m ^u ^ ^$ F $ $ o oF m
369 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

m e] u] n q$ % # ] h m %] e # v]
^m$ pjm n e l^m % q m ^m] F oF ' $ o oF
&
/G
b^ h N Vzg ZD
~* G
p 7675:16 n j% ] oF ^e
x lZzq Z Z Vz],{ f]*n~kZ Y: N*
Vzh N
/Z
YVZ nZ Zt{zX}: [ Z Vr
# & **
C
?Yc*
VZ;
{zgzZg Z6,yZ ? @*
KZa gzZ} h kZ D
\vZ ~ -{g
G
'
gzZ} hgyzd
$h
+]
.~qp 8:16Fzg0
+
i ~g +
~gZ6,
} hgzZ+ f~VZ*g7 *]
M i
6,
c*
} hZ, bkZx Z Z x sZL L\ M HB7].

gzZ]zH q)Y 4

g nZZtC
/?N Y
gzZ D M 7
M i *]ZzgzZ} ht yZ ZaVc*
gZ
itY M ZZ f -h
+]
.b ] ~gZ6, c*

{
[~:6',
g]t1 s i
q
Z { pgzZ * ~g7 CY!Z ~p
awL ZS
@*
Cy M
CY} M qWtYBi Z Zzx ZZS
G
'
Zx
Z
# gzZal
Z ?Z
# w)a}g +~Vzg Y
E
aw)gzZwkZVzg Y~w) 0Eiqp6:16D:Zz
!*
0
+
iiZ~0
+
iih
+]
.M
h{g7Bq
-Zg YgzZ* 7(
z kZgzZ gg Y Zl
: E: ~ ]!*
~ Vz: g 7
p@*
7f w) z~kZ~]c*
6]1)Z?Ayw)
a +- Zz g ~ Vy Y Z%Z kZ gzZ #
Z ~g7 6, y!*

kZ {zDgZ
/
zbTByZgzZD VZbTw)Vzg Y
XK? kZf 1 ?Ce
$M
H Vz7z sfp b} 7 .]| @*
Cy M

^ q ] m U ] ?oe kFn e kmF! i oF ^n i! :


H
% o ]
o m ] 101:LZuZg ] v oF mF
fn q
^ ] ^ ` $] oF] kmF! i o ? n n e t i
12:Z g n F
37 0 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

y
Z 7ts{V[Z l{~}g!*
Vz7]y M

Vz7y
xZzy ;c*
sYY~/~Vz7]
z~[zlgzZ kZe

$ M '"
/zYkZ'"t
?
Hc*
3H~Vz7yZZ7VYfyZH}7]7*
*
QZ =t Q7=yZZz +6,
C=stZz
=yZZZ DkC~p~ h
e0*
|)gf=
] M Zz &
+
e Zz 0*
|{z=gf Ws= CY
gzZ=Dlg X 7z[p! Mt! M q
-Z ~ [Instruments]
p Zy M
1yTvZ
M ZgzZzmvZ -vZwg)g f] M]
M {z bZ TbVLZ[

$
g]Z f [ I ZgzZlW~
yZ c*
g ZyZpZz Z vZ
M OkYZ
kZ Xg 2~ -6, WS Zp { z H 7{ .Z
V D M Z
# 9a kZ az % J e~
yZZB VZ
yZ .6,w i ZzgyZD# Z yZs$
+[
z~J
gq
-Z L L~p Zy M
VY Tg ~zzK
-%$
+* w

L
X C Vz9 b { a { w q
-Z kZ Z D 7w
[

g V,Z H7t vZyZZ yZ1 W yZZC
/ oo
1 t H
g Z yW
aZ 7& \ W wpH7g Z
vm $ ] ^ m%^m5 :D 7yZZ w
m$] ] o ^m m$]
# h # ] ^ m$] e + i ] ^e ^$ ! ]? ^

] ]aF jn i ] ] m ] e ] m i^m m!
5 ] ^n # ]
i jj # ] %m ] u^ i + i $
m$]
41:5 n h] F ] o $ p ^n % ] o e _m% ] # ] m

vZ -vZ wg {z~p Zy M
D M yZZ[ I Z @*
6,b [yZZ
/Z
\ M6,g[{z TV LZ bT TbkZ zm
[kZ x KZgzZgzZ ZpyZ @*
7t Zw yZp 5
xz J
-y
M {z z!*
[Z: { M6,sp~? ?
~q g w T c*
Zz y M
a Z X !*
',Vz ]y
Mz *gzZg
371 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

f ] $] ?^m] e # ^e : vZ6,kZ 1wJ


h] # ] g n ] ^e | $ F ^m ^ e ' _
kZp@*
Yw kZ
7y M
~Vz6,
~61ZX 106:16 n
?Z F,
Z7 VY6,
V M} (,zkZy M t @*M} h M
~ 67 @*
59 e
$ M?k V- { ] kZgzZZ',
Z ]|~Y m
CZ >g
X
4
-G
] ~gqg gzZ c*
{ m,g { m,gVGx P Z',
Z ]|Z
# c*
M ,
-Z
q
Hc*
CZ H tB Vzq}g nZg **
} (, a
]|wZgzZ
HH~ VZ H> Z',VG Z',Z yZ
X
P-4Z',Z
HY7t G
}g 62:Y m
CZ g n Fe ^ m5 ^j ^Fe ]F k k] ]?^ :
_m ] ^ ] ]F n f e ^ ?H?x tBVzq
X Vs 1t
/Zzx "
$} (,
yZ L Lc*

\ M 63:Y m
CZ g
j] $] ]?^ ] o5 ] ]? q :g6,? [kZg
oF ] $ $ V G~: MgzZ 64:Y m
CZ # ]
Y?gzZ 1 u{qQ 65:Y m
CZ _m ? . 5 ^ k
X
P-4Z',Z ]|6,kZ 7s1t
: 7 VG, Z VYhgvZ ?Q G
: t6,gp t6,g[g ? yv: } {Z
+ "
[VY m
CZakZ Q7=yZZ ,:B =J
-Z
# Z gzZX
=p CY [ M = Z **
VX Dh
g Z
ggzZ]tlW 3 Zg+F,
s *, J
-
yZ ? VY; ]tt t nZ Z yZ p 9 {z 7
Z F,
Z: VY6, ~ V M } (,
VzVz y M t L
L t snZ Z
`wz4,]tgzZy M
{z 31e
$ M sy

Z Dvtg[g} H
X C7 ZpWg ZgpT e6,n q lgzZ
[g t C5 ZgkZ^ I VZ KZ /yZgzZY m
CZ
$Z@ x Z/gzZ [
e
$
g \vZ C { c*
igkZ t k
=g f % $
+
:D

o i ^ ] ] !fvm fvi ] _j ^
{zpn
pgyZ ? 119:yZ/wZ g i j ] kmFF ] ^$n$ e f ]
37 2 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

gzZg} Z \vZ=rZg [
$
g n
pg7 ?
n ] n F] ^$ ] ^q o% f$] ^ m%^m5 : M 7Boo
73:/pZ g n ] e $ q F^

A 3yZ C
/wgzZ {fZg6,g Zx KZ [
$
g
q
/wt zmvZ - [ $
g \vZ [ @*
"g~ s
yZ \ M H N: yZZg t
/Z wi **
$ M y M
e
gzZ @: ~iwgzZ

H L L:F, n + ] m ] ^e L L:,}yYKZ~
g X
W 7 Zz yZZ vt g uh ~ kZ LZ \ M
}6,wqVyZ L L 3:Z l]u n gi 1:Y ZZ
b & Z yZ s{z 6: Y E
5kZ _ 7`
Z 6,VKZ {z:F,
X $}: yY \ M
tgzZ D [@*
" a ! x ~zy
Z yZ
~4 ]y
M w
vZ#
izg]ogzZq
-Z kZ Cg #
Z KZVz9X Z mZ
4
\vZJ
-115 109e
$ M Zy~{Z
+ {g?k{ z WPgG]| \
4
gG} Z L LY7 c*
]**
Zt kZ A }]| k
H] Z {z LZ
n~[ Z {z? Z}
.V ~gzZ=ZZ}
. V ?H ! *%0Z
] !*
+Z ~
/Z : h=T H]!*
{z :x ZtvZy4,
vZ c*
\ M T : ZkZ yZ ~ @*
Dgz\ M C
G
'
+
y Z ~ J
-Z
# yZyZJ
-
zkZ~[g Zg gzZ [g Z c*
z
yZ6,Vzq ~g \ MgzZ yZ6,yZ\ M 1 : Zz= \ M Z
# yxg
tgzZD)g f\vZy#
y?gzZyVu#
Z KZX
4
g

w iZ { z WP G]|uZ { k
HC
V \vZ z!*
+ Y
[g { g !*
z!*
yZ u #
Z \ M svZ {g 0*
{g 0*

&
G

$^ i ] ^f $^ e i ] : /G p ZiZ~]+Z
m ] k]
\ M ,s
/ZgzZ}\ M {z, ZwZ\ M
/Z[ ZvZ} Z L L n v]
4G
g
Vz
/[g J}g zig Mt ]|lX 118:5 **
Zz

:
X
gzZ D ~ Z g !*
B ] !*
.4Z ~ }g !*
_
V { z Cg
/
XD
:
ZvZ6,
}i zg
yZZ ] Zzg kZ Wg Z
# Z yZgzZ9
37 3 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

-d W}o} ZpX D M yZZ {z


)
,iu N*
g E
5.G
7] + Z} { Zz { ZzgzZ V1@*
g (Z [|Z z i Z0
+Z
7tzgZ
8x gzg baZg+
$Y +g X C
1:%Z ,d
$
vZ7akZVG' lg
7 akZb z ~}g !*
b +h
+]
.
tg gzZ~t~Ie
$h
+]
.N M d
$
xsZg )g fkZ
X D wy M
bgZ}g a
:|kZgzZw+ Z VzIe
$h
+]
. .]Z7
* H Y h
+gzZY LZVz
/z Y .]|
} ]ig I] Vz
/z Y V ?K }g Z Z Zz 3 ] z Y ~
X @*
Yc*
x Z9
V+ 3} 7gzZ @*
YH7h z YyZ
\
W

/Z%h z Y P ]| r
# & **
Zf C

ce
8y)g fkZ * ~g7 gzZ ce
)
Z h~ *
X T e **
4Z ~ xsZ ],Z g q)g f b {z Z
*
@Y c*
D._ ikZC
t w+ Zx q
-Z Vqb
T
Hc*
Dz Y Z Z gzi z Y ~^~ i WP\]|VY
7t Zz?gzi t HyZ zZ}
.} LZ V,Z
6,.]|x kZgzZ y
~ } Vz
/z Y Z
# WP\]| M
hC
x ~g7 Z yZgzZ ?HVY yZ yZZ y
yZ
/z Y s ? 7VY yZZ
\
W
yZZ 6,h 3 P ]|gzZ ?g VY6,y
<

\
} 7c*
~ z Y ! Z Vz
/z Y ? { M VY6,O WP ]|O
y M
A } 7gzZ c*

Hc*
{7 gzZY h
+s .]| ?
KyZ\vZ ._
kFn e kmF! i oF ^n i! :XV*
% o ] ^ q ] m U ] ?oe
X 101:17 ] v oF mF
X
gzZ h
+~
]Z7x {z H ?Z W,
Z H6,y
x ]Z7c*
VE
K]t wZ
S7,~s ZZ >g,]Z7yZ w+Zi!*
tC
? 0 z Y
\
W
~ x C
* ]HgzZ z Y 7m{ x P ]|z YX $
Y
374 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

Vz
/z Y~\g- M%ZX D Y {isp z Y vV1gZ* ` MgzZX
]yZ`W
/
z YX @*
YHtq V6&)ZgzZ @*
Y Z
&E
B
g
J
-4Ft VVzgZD
~ Zi W0* T
/
z Ygq
-ZM%ZD 3
+E
A
X ;gZ9~c?%k]x
/
] Fz!*
)EZ`~~uh
+gzZ c*
T
$a
:y7zw:nZ Zg6,
Ym
CZ
Z Wzg @*M k0*
x KZ9Z
# @*
C y M

oi] : g Z
y7zw9c*
~
/z YDkZz YxkZw
^ a e e ] ] i] r ] u^ ] ^ $] $ ` f m$]
&c*
M 7(Zwg k0*
V yZ ; g @*
4- :F, 53@*
52:51
? 1M6,kZ~ : M
yZ HX y7 c*
wt :t V,Z
vZ~ [ Z} 7 +
$Y zmvZ -gX vu
t 7
n ^$ :c*
] ]? m$] ^ mm^e ^ o ^f jF

\
Htg A
$ g @*
Z[
/Z :F, 7:6 n f% v $] UF
\
y
gzZ WP ]|]c*
M 9V;z f z YgzZHVV~] c*
M M
X
G-!
C akZ0 x
DZ Z~
/z Ym"Z y
x Zit+ E
@*
M 7 a kZ ]gz ? skZX
HH! ZgzZ!Zi Z kZ
\
W
gz LZ V,Z bTg6,5 Zg P ]|n Y H{ M 6,]!*
kZV

x KZqz Y L +F,
dZ1z Dx kZa x KZ ~
dZ kZ ~ bD [f LZ ?bZ !*
~
L~ *0#
Z n: x t ?
/Z M
h } ZqbD+F,
Cy M
#
Z {z ?tX gglkZwZzigzZ Y7`z
D` uLZ ] KZ~LZY m
CZ @*
Zz T e **
s 5 Zg
WP\x aZ 7]l ` u D` ug ._
q w~ Y (z b
gzZ z
/Z% y!*
?
Hc*
7t
x
Z c*
uF,
x > [ ?
Hc*
yZ z kZ
] q] $ ^i n e e ^ !$ f i ] n ] oF oF] n u ] :z> [
+ ` Zci 87:10 n ] e F$ ] ]n ] $ f i n e

q g
/ZgzZ ? $
{g !*
#
Z g: !*
y2+Z
# y2
37 5 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

Z}
.V }lZ
V] KZ #
Z X wq LZu Z 6g~
vZ#
Z } HgzZ :x#
Z {z}uF,
] gzZ @*
Y1x **
0#
ZX Chz| m
H ~~g * a x Z CY
] \vZgzZZ] kZ akZ4 LZuZ wq
,^g$
+g #
Zt
) !*
8{
) Z z ] 1 ~g z ~g Y ~C

X g 3
\
W
gzZwg9C
57[
/
z Y P ]|s @*
x y M

P
k] $] ]? ^ :c*
g Z

/
z Yx yZ ]| gwq]
gB
I
k] $] ]? ^ :
Hc*
x ZZ E
PG3^]| 153:26 mv$ ]
^ ] fi$] :el
~
/z Y~ iy
]|X 185:26 mv$ ]
m ] n _nF$ ] $ F Fn ^ Fn
oF n _nF$ ] ] ji
u] F m ^ l ^ l ^ e^f e n ] o ] v] ^$]
q ] n e e m ^ ^ $ jn i j v ^$] ? m oj#u
] m % m ^ $ jm # ] ^ e $] u] e me ^
] ^ ] ?e ] ^ f F ] o ^ Fj]
yZgzZ .]|f
e~
Zz Y~}uzv 102:2 m

~] c*
M sf `g~y M
,kZ g
/~\~g HgzZ ~
/z Yx
63:20 69 63 58:20 81807977:10 7670:10 110:5 116:7X y
66 63:20 40 35:26 70 57:20 36:28 13:27 4946 41 40 38 37:26 7371
132:7 53 46 41 37:26 39:5149: 24:40 120 113112 109:7
D
\vZ y7gzZwzmvZ -[ $
glg
{zA
$'"m
~kZ} h ;y {zgzZ,w{ i Zzg y M6,yQ
/Z !
} Z
^e^e n ^vj :
Hc*
z Y6, ;gV\ M ~g
v$ v e ^ ^e] l ^$] ]?^ q m n ] % $ ]
:g Y ?T M {iHq
-Z t ~ : M t 15 14:15
n ] jm ] ? e jm ^e ] v
] # ] m ] p5 r ]
M {iHq
-Z v ?t 47:17 ] v$ q $] fj$i
q $] fj$i ] # ] ^ ^` ^m$ $q i ] n ] o5 m ] :
376 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

G
'
vgzZ g @*
Z [ ~ 6,
zZ}g +
/Z ! 9
} Z 8:25 ] v$
t } {z Hg Z hV2A
$f
eN g V; LZZ
n ^$ : z Y
?] m$] ^ mm^e ^ o ^fjF
{g !*
z ?%\ M !
} Z
/Z[Z 7:6 n f% v $] UF ]
lFF$ ] p$] : ~
/
z Yt0Zw1Ug +
G Y VZ
k u] m%] f n ] o ^ $ ^m$] j$ o ]
n f% v $] UF ] ]? m$] $ n l ] e $ f$ $]
V\ M ?HQ q
-Z 6 ?y
M t DVu~ : M gzZ 7:11
] m$] p r$] ]% ] e n : Y~}z YA
hZ
# t Vz
yZ 3:21 fi j] v] i^j] % e $] UF
kFn e ^jmF! n oFji ]] : z Yt c*
V,Z [2 Z eg c*
W
] ?$] UF ^ ] ^ . e! f m ^ ^$ $ m$ ] mm% q $] UF ^ ] ^

K 43:34 n f% v $] UF ] q ^$ v ] m$] ^ p j%
v $] UaF ] ]? ^ : z YtgzZD Z h Z~V*

kZgzZ z Yt c*
V,Z c*
Wk0*
yZ yWZ h{ zZ
# 1 15:37 n f%
30:43 F e ^$]$ v ]aF ] ^ % v] ` q ^$ :Dg Z +
kZ v
t @*
YWt yZ hgzZ CY ] c*
Ws s ~g Z
# yZ

v ] m] ^ kn e ^jmF! `n oji ]] : z Y t 0
VyZ1
HO0
+egzZ Wd
$
~{#
7:46 n f% v ]aF a q ^$
ke j]: z YZtgzZD Yh-BN
K{ Zptwq
06z 2 1:54 ' j% v ] m ] m% m! ] m$ ] ] $ ] ^$ ]
+
G 24:74X ;gW` yW
z Yq
-Z1 7t1gy
W {4
vF ]aF F] ^ ` % a q ] ]? f r :w t
D}uzq
-Z yW
gzZ]Zg z YVz lg 4:38 h]$
] m ] oF oi ] % oi ] ? ] ^ ^ % v] q ^$ :
6,kZ 48:28 F e ^$] ]?^ ] 6 i Fv ] ^ f oF oi ] e
X
/z Y
t +
G
Y m
CZ LZ x C
Z ;g~ x C
D ~
/z Y Zx ]c*
WyZ
377 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

]|snt
G ]tyZZ
+x ZZ ~
/z Y6,
yZag Z
x g x t Z 7,**
o ] ZZ 4Z [

g 7m{B WP\
yW
aZ "
$U*
yW
tzg]g @*
Z g Z Zx Z ZgzZ h+
G
F : 1M6,
` f m$] oiF]
kZ~:W
yZ H L L
53X 52:51 ^ a e e ] ] i] r ] u^ ] ^ $] $
C"
$U*
!*
|w+ ZkZ 0 WP\]|~zgmyZyW

X D
ikZz Y
Z ~ 7+ ] ._Dgz kZY  P ]|
4Z
~C
gzZ|{z
Hc*
wakZl
j ~] + 6,
C C G
5G3E
g~[ s* ~C
kZ Y { M | {Z |gzZnt

i] ^$ | $ ] o ] ^` n : Ym,
g {>gkZgzZ yT~$
+Zz i Z
k o ] h k^ m] $ % | $] ^ ^` n ^ k$ r$ jf u
kZ **
g
/
0*
Z{zX 44:27 n F] h # Fn k] o
-J#
AE
~x }g 7Z kZ { zgzZ l
jt
Hc*
C Z A
$aJ m
6,zZ F
0*

sD[ spgbZ kZ zqt gzZ


/
g Z |
Vzq yZ p CgzZ ~ ,q c*
C l
j
H0 |
i Z|kZ Z)g f+] P ]|gzZ CgzZ "Z |
3 (z Vzq = vZ} Z L
L
[
$
ga Zc*
Zz ~$
+Z z
X
X
4
4
-G
P Z',
~ ? P Z',Z ]| Z?k~z!gzZ G
Z ]|X ~ |{z 6
]| ~g (Z}]gzZ 0
+
i z! ~g (Z[g}]gzZ 0
+
i
X
4
-G
t`g[g Z gzZ ~ w$
+? V,Z s{g
Z z!P Z',
Z
#
F

] i! ] ?e o Fe] t$ u p] o] i ]L L: } 3w [f m
]
$ ^ Fe] ^ kn ] ou] ^] ^ kn m ovm p$] oe Fe] ^ ]
p m # ] p$] kf h] ^ e l^ ] $ ^e oi ^m # ]
} z!gzZ {0
+
i}% c*
37{ 7tV,Z 258:2 n # ] ]
;g~{ M]t kZvZ} ZD \vZ {z [ Z ~g
VZ * wEZ] kZ ZgzZ}t}OxgzZ}
X
P-4Z',
\ MZ
# [ Zz h6,Vzg Zux G
Z]| Y"
$U*
kZ @*
378 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

Vzg ZuyZgzb 7 kZgzZ c*


ghYh VGV Z}
.yZ
LZ {z]t Z',Z ]| @*
Cy M
? M
h w1t
/Zb 7 VG yZ
gzZ < +
M yZQ1 pZz ~ V LZgzZ s;
n f e ^ n Fe ^ m5 ^j ^Fe ]F k k] ]?^ : MY
j] $] ]?^ ] o5 ] ]? q _m ] ^ ] ]F
g \ M z!*
Zp[
$
gaZX 64@*
62:21 # ]
{7gzZ D} 7t
Ht b 7} 76, _g a
hg6,wq yZyZ Z N 7yZZt [ ZgzZ D 7yZZ
C] yZ w gzZ {7Z Y m
CZYX,{ npCgCgZ
{)z y
x V Y Zgz ykz y it gzZ gzZ ~$
+Z M @ ]t
~]gkZY H7 yZ VyZ Y m
CZ Zz Yk0*

4ZgzZ] G
5G3EZ xEyZgzZ VV' yZ ZgzZ Z ~ F,
',
w~b ~^
/Z%y!*
7t x KZ .]| C
, ]ig I] y
Q z g gzZg ZZ ] M RdV- ^zq
:zx Z i
) )!*
} # c*
yZ \ vZ @', kZ X
]n ] $ f i n e ] q] $ ^i n e e ^ !$ fi ] n ] oF oF] n u ]
yZ6,
B;yZ6,z Y.]|
/z Y 87:10 n ] e F$ ]
7yZZ6,
.]| c*
6,\E
VzgzZ
3 3.

\
W
T yZZgzgzZ)g f P ]|9{_kZ6,[gkZ
Zz |z Y LZ { z 1N V\ M KZ V,Z {C
b
gzZ
\
# WP ]|XD`g!*
Z
zgLZ[%V wz
)g ~C
kZp
[gTgzZ EgzZtt
HM yZ : [%
)ggzZ}HkZ
G
E
$ g}]s
4G
h e ^$ ! ]?^ mrF v$ ] o ] : /Zz S5G
\
W
/z YD yZZ6,[g P c*

yZV,Z Z 121 120:7 n F]


1 yR yZZ6,]{ 7yZZ6,Y $
+gzZ WP\]|
{@x{ZC
kZ !*
0gzZ 1kC~LZ V,Z { T
~ ~ yZ y
Z
# ]!*
kZ { i Z0
+Z
yZZ kZX 1
G
'
[% kZ {z ? M yZZ ?%]i YZ ~Vz Z cB; }g +
379 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

oF h n F] h e ^$ ! ]?^ :{ M6,yY~h{ ZggzZ :


m] o i $ ]F $ ] ! ] f e j ! ^ F
$ $ q ] mm] $ _ i ^ ] ] qj
^e kmF^Fe ^$ ! ] ?$] $ i ^ f ^e oF] $] ]?^ n q] $f
qk\ZX 126@*
121:7 n ^$ i $ ] f ^n ] e$ ^i q ^$

xzuq
- ZgzZ ]g Zw]z'yZZ y
yZ
/z Y +I e
$h
+]
.
z yZZ Vz
/z Yy
@',kZ [%gkZ [fa Z
g (Z" {zgzZ
H| (,yZZ VzwNt ]KZ @*
CyW
Zg
kZ {z Le
8x Z 6,]!*
T s[g LZ wq L L`Z
} Z 1 y Z I M t }g Z
# V*
K [g }g 7 Z
X Vg Z',V
}~ wq kZ VZ * gzZy 6,[g}g
{z { Zp Y7`zLZ : qyZZ ]gzZ z yZt 0#
ZJ
-Z
#
yZZz+~yW
yZy )N Y| (,
M [f~Y (zb
4Z

e ] ] :gZ

zf [g LZ yZy] G
5G3E
X Y(zb*[
Z :yZyCc*
yZyZ 8:73 n j f i n ] j$fi
e
$ bLu
Z Z x{ `z 7J
- Z b kZ #
ZJ
-Z
#
4ZKZY m
CZXg{
~V
Z

HLZ6,

C]*ZZ] G
5G3E
CY~]
c*#
Zx6,
CbZ
# X]igI]qYz
|
Zg`udxc*
Z
#
kZ @*
Yc*
yZZ6,
]!*
kZ\ M

7giYm
CZc*
&zG@*
/ZhPyZ b KZgzZ sZ
4Z KZgzZ `udLZ Y m
DgZ ygzZDgDC
Z] G
5G3E
CZX
X
4
-G
y M
P Z',
Z]|aZ +])gfD`uLZ sgzZ
Vz 7e:r~gzZ xsZ c*
Zza J
-#
Dy
4Z gzZ D `u
4Z ~g X Z] G
5G3E
5G3E
: yZZ 6,D `ugzZ ] G
:]zZ~gkZ}:wJ{
] 5 e ^$] ` ] ^ ] m$] n aFe ] ?o u ] k^
]e ] f] ] ] n e ^n e ]e e ^ # ] f i ^$

]
$ j n e n aFe ] $] ? u # ^e ] + i oj#u
# ]
380 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

n ] ^f ]
n ] ^$ i
n ^e$ o
4:Z n ]
:}u *
*:s ZZ & ~t]
CY wJ] {zgzZ D7 h]{t Wx ZY m
CZ
Z kZ + ] + j C Y m
CZ ` M Z
G
E
$ gzZ
4G
}t u **
e
$. }yZgzZ g ZG0*
**S5G
)$
+j}uz
:n&
b
/Z ]6,
Cb\ M x c*

Tt { 1
~$
+Zax gzZ #
Z kZ + gzZ x]g q~g7 \ M Z "
$U*
zG{z
X
HwJ.
**
6,g
z XZi *uF,
i Y m
CZa + ] t { Zuz 2
] Z] u ZgzZ #i (Z X **
g (Z
bh
+]
.sN] 7e Z~uz a Y~ ~
kZ V5{z
/Vz6,bTV5xsZz6,T
~ Vz
/ #gzZ [gJz
) !*
Tc*
0*
gZ
b DaZgzZ dZ +4~
E
G
kZ @*
A~g E
547ZgzZ -! [Dq bX Za ]guZ Z
D W * Yg{ ~tx gzZ Z kz @*
Wx ~ * ~ kZgzZ
_ * ~
AgzZ ! [: e t gzZ
HWg0
+Z * kZ [ Z @*
C
!*
* kZ hU e
u **
t 0bDAkZgzZy
KZ * kZgzZ * At: e~kZX
H
X 3 Zg+F,
d y M
Z
# t {z 7g V { Z 3
g~gV` Z'
yZ }{ i @*
yZZ V6,

Cb
Y

V **
P { i @*
: Zizga yZZ 0 i @*
Y `
CgO
V%$
+
_ ~ y M
BB}g J s$
+ bgzZ
] M D]xixi M ` M bTX,: wJ)kZx Z:gz
Z : Z
Z
+Z { C " gzZ ] ] ~ kZ g"
$U*
VZbZ
xi[ M c*
~] kZ bg8 akZ
/Zxixi[ M y[Z
gzZg ZZ b v e
$Z@ z zmvZ -vZ wg yZZ6,
',xi
xi[ M}"
$U*
]z ]!*
LZ VZb Z (,
H 6,]2
381 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

Tf h
+]
.ce buF,
wEZ kZ ; gu **
axi
G
E
$ wEZ xi xi [ M % x q
4G
uF,S5G
-Z y6,D` u b
C
-!
:E
XE
G
/Z 6,[Scientific Paradigm]
M F,
Gz=Y }
g
W xixi[ M J
-#
y~` u}o6,R] *ZZ
M F,
=z
~ q nZ 9tzgt }"
$U*
]**
vq
-Z wEZ 0*
kZ b { ZpX
z =kZ[ Z D Zzru6,} /z e yX ~b:
'Zru{{/z e%v Y ~~hkZ
t
/Zp }Z
+ C;gzZ A~ ? kZ
CY igq
-g !*
u C W,O z V !*
Y c*
Zru }, Q Y M
v D Y| (, } ]Z
6mgzZ @*
Y M t
~ Zzg yp T
+G
E
4
5 DX Y g ,uF,**
Zru
[ $
g~T<
L G
uz ~0#
Z [ Z 6, @*
gLzmvZ VZg !*
z !*
y e
$h
+]
.gzZ g 7 c*
L t Vt q
<
-Z ] ; z z kZ
tzz Z ~uz [~g z
/e
$ZzgtBBVZzgg " ~
&
: ~Z yC
C

H{ Vg )
, V Z y} (,
gzZV OC[Z
a yZ0
+{gzZ kZ gzZ yZZgzZ D TSg+Z vg)
,
d
$h
+]
.gzZ +Zx h
+]
.X @*
zg b `g
?N Y k0*
a{0
+
igkZv Z M V Z h1
+]
h
.X Tg 7 V Z ~ ~g Z * {g h1g Z * [ Z( Vg)
,
)[ @*
[ ~gL , Ug r z [gzZ y; f Z [% b
7._VZy **
6, @*
[ DZ`
~ kZ
~ w
g<
L F,
f ? Y ~uF,
wg <
L ~ G@*
b H
c*
N M w!*
6,u{ Zp D Zr~ q nZ <
L 9LZuX @*
7kC5
b [ 6,? {
CkZ xi ~
<
L q nZN Yw]Z rg a
KkZ ? `wH Yx[kZ
/ZwZtX 76,kZ
X ` YKy~,zb `wkZb x ~
kZ Y { Z Y J 7,y M
Z
# c*
y M

~igz s t
f V1@*
+ q 6, 7 M
] c*
M
/Z ~
382 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

*
@Y
/~}>y M
{z Ct kZqD& Zy M
X
% m n oFjm ]] ? f ] ]i ] m$] $ ] ] + i ] ? e ] ! :
]gzZ bzgDgzZD{z xz}> {> D 107:17 ]r$ ^
E
E
-G
-G
m$] % : t ZzeD7>XG
{ z:]
.gzZ$
+
/Z>XG
aZ xz
m$] ] % e ] ^] vm ^v] % ^a vm $ $ F j$] ] u
{ c*
i
Z}
.i Zz M T 5:62 n # ] ] p` m # ] # ] kmF^Fe ] e $
i ]
n o ] :I**
l l] ] ] $ ]
~Um Zzh/ZgzZ Z yW
19:31 n v]
51:74 l$ 50:74 j% u ` $^:D 7,
v g e
~*aXvlp{zt @*
C% {>IZgzZDIZy M
@',
kZ
DZ LZ]y
M x- 30:164~hyZ gzy ]y
MgzZ >
Hy #
X {>IZ DI Z X N C ~ }g !*
V ZzKD6,Y
n % i j m$] p m] m mm nF ] m $ $?qi Z Z
yW
akZX 27:16 m F] o ? % ] n ] p ] $ ] ] ]i ] m$] ^
D Y
/~}> D zg F
g ]c*
Wyg {z Z
# Ct y
DIZ~
5 ]:
$ | ^u $ ! m$ nf$] n # ] ] m$]
] % Fu$ ] kmF! n oFji ]] ^n f jq] ^m $ m U ] n e] m$
G-4
xz }>gG
Wz6,
aZ n: {>V;zD" 58:19 ^n& e$ ]r$
gzZ]
. {>sqgzZc_D D Y
/
~}>DDIZtX
U wgygzZ w^uyV, Z yW
X I Y7 {z:$
+
~s ZZ >g X c*

g Z
wh]]yt+F,
+
$
~] Z ~
^f n i] :
qkZ
Hc*
Cqu
qVzg Z+ *
? $]
^ e F ^ mF] ^ _6 n $ ] f i^ ^ ^ ^j mF! Fn i! p
ji ] & m n vi ] g] % % F f i$] ] o] ] ? $F
F & m
$ ] ^ ^j mF^Fe ] e$ m$] ] %
{>%Dc*
qD~* @*
CyW
aZX 167175:7 $ jm
{z @*
qi *u6,{ {> *gzZw n: {>y#
{z @*
7
st vZ {z Y t vZ) %
O ? Yt WZ
383 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

r% ] o] m$ ^ m mX : CYxz s
n _jm
F a r% ] o] m ] ^ $ ` a i a ^e] ^ 42:86
* qD]y
M ~*Z ZzD~*vt @*
Cy M
43:86
gzZ @*
g Z* D C ]gzZa + T |]y
M gzZ + Y
X B7DDkZ *I Z @*
]y
M
yM
Zz g "
$r
# & *
* ]gzg6,wZkZ
Z ? g H Vz yZ ? D O VY V1@*
O }>
**
7 Zj6,V Zjs **
g b s **
DsJ
-Vx 1gzZo

M F,
yZ 7**
~g HggzZg V/s**
z Y"
$
7e
$Zzg
t V1@*
6,]c*
M y M
L~ g @*
sZ **
PE
+
gzZ b & Z H,
kZ ] **
w+ Z kZ b!Zj kZ **

7gzZ *
* J 7,7,] c*
M y M
Q
>g#
OY y M
T i l W**
Z c*
V1@*

yxg]
i ^ ^ :D
Y zng Z{DA kZ~wZ

:F,
35:wZ g i j ^e h] ] ] mi $ $] kn f ]
& **
Z f
t V1@*
gzZ D O V' C Hi V yZ k0*
vZ
M
TZTV1@*
6,y M
]c*
M a wz Z ~ Vc: #LZ r
#
{gGX y6,W] Zz d
$sZ e
$Zzg {z c*
r z
pz e
$Zzg
M
~>zkgk
,
"
$_o~g @*
s Zw
x **
~g !*
',gzZ + X ZT L: O @*
L: 6,V Zj ] c*
M
9
B F
VBKZ & *
* Z f [ 7x **
gzZPx " Zg6g F )
,
~ w$
+e
$Zzgz d
$z g @*
!{gG 0#
Z)g fVC@*6,]c*
M M
~

t V1@*
gzZ~H"
${ z
HHBkZ7J
-k Z#
Z kZgzZ
VC@*
~ g @*
{z rc*

O V1@*
s~ 2~ n%
gzZP x " Zg u zwE +X CY0
@*M I ~ [|Z ZgzZ } M z 8
-g Z + V q)7x **

zgF
g ]c*
M vZZ
# {z c*
CtiIZ y M
X [[f
5D6{ D OV
t V1@*
D2~ g ` ] ]:D
vi ` j p ] oj#u ^m& ii$^ D Z h Z
384 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

` Z'
gzZV5[

o a e :g} 7,
t 9:44 f m$
~ v {zt 110:23
G
'
+
kZgzZvZ wgzZ ~g H yZ gwgzZ t Z
g ^$ ^$] $ n j^ : BwgkZgzZ] c*
M
D` Z'
3gzZg !*
',
X 65:9 ji j j mF! # ^e]
g y#
p
vm ^$ ] ] ! m$] n ^ :gz6,
]^ : { CvZz%y-YJ 7,y M
Z
# \vZ 34:83

6
$
n ]:7,
IIy M
98:16 n q$ ] _n ] # ^e j^ ! ] l]
z ;gl{gzZz z Y*
c J 7,y M
Z
# gzZ 4:73 n i i ! ] i
204:7 u i $ ] j] ] j^ ! ] p* ]] VYH3g6,
? @*

OgzZ 7D zg1
t V1@*
y M
{z @*
Cttzg +
GLZ y M

z: % N*
O O: V : V1@*
y M
s N*
Z
vi fr i &mv] ]aF ] : OgzZ MvZ Y
q 62 61 60 59:53 ] f ] # ] r^ F j] fi
XM
h {g 7BB 6,<Z WZ ] kZgzZ yZZ6,b Z}
.
q gJ
- WZ )g fZ}
.~ t "
$U*
xsZ b
uZg Zz]kZ)g fV Z}
.z n Zz]!*
xsZgzZb Z Y
]? j$i # ] ^ : q
-Z'Z}
. : Z}
.ztvZDg ZZ6,
zg egzZ hgvZ ?HQ 51:16 f ^ p^m$^ u]$ F] ^$] n $] n F]
x yZX 52:16 j$i # ] n ] ^f ] m] ] lFF$ ] o ^ :
$.~#
}
.r
# & **
Z f~zgb
j] :,n[ Ze
X D{ c*
ivZ c*
Y{ c*
i ?? 16{Z # ] ] ]

385 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

[!*
VZg !*
]%epZX } Z c b,
6] zGxi Zg
,
Hc*
}zg Z DZb~q
F,
0
h
+ F,
gzZ/ {@xe Z {z bF
F
refutation" gzZ "Measurement, observation, Doubt experiment
qX c*
0*
gZ

Z L L~q Dx) D)~t gzZ 0
CD
Dp "gzZ_} @x Ka VZ 0
a^z }gzZ wZ ]uZza2 zGgzZ"Dt @*
Y b
g ~q{c*
//6,kZ K
M F,
D A bX W,

Az~ F
F6,]fp a=] uZzyZgzZe/ {@xt
D{zbv p !*
` ZZ ~q{z //_]gzZbzg
^
yZgzZ ] gzZ e "}@x0 * AsgzZ s
x t X ~gz **
.
& gzZ/d
$w@*
7, DkZ X
gzZ ` Z}z & p
z! q V & .
` u]5
DX YD]D{ze
z! z!*
& g !*
g !*
$zh
d
+ F,
T
Z`
H x **
Db
/Z 7]gz [% b Z
lI 6,0*
]c*
6,7 Z4 ?Y 14Z~} ],Zb
On the y*LZ Feyerabend H i Z0
+Z LZ LZ Z9gzZ
~ q b ~ Critique of Scientific Reason
Z @*
F,
Z Zg7 6,g b , egx WgzZ x`
@*
x kZ
: 7,
c~p Z%eX YBb
"Kuhn's demarcation criterion has been criticized by Popper

386 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
on the grounds that it gives undue emphasis to the role of
criticism in science; by Lakatos because, among other things,
it misses the importance of competition between research
programmes (or paradigms); and by Feyerabend on the
grounds that Kuhn's distinction leads to the conclusion that
organized crime and Oxford philosophy qualify as science."

DyW
Btt
/Z ? x **
Dq
-Zbby M
H
VY ? d
$.
y M
Y1ttH @*
F,
Z Zg76,g4c*
TX ~gz**
t6,gDykZ h
+ F,
zd
$~Ti{z4
{z C7tDbZ Y Htp.
**
gzZ D~$
+ZiwZgzZb
6,4: YBD: q )ZgzZ<
L z yW
akZXC
!*
D{],
Z
|t VY 7DyW
7eh
+F,
zd
$yZY YF,
Z Zg7
I
d
{gf d
$gzZh
+ F,
?XE~DkZX 6,pbtX D{wi **
+
$Y
;h
+ F,
z ~ yW

Z
# Y
z Z syW
X 7ykZ
DyW
t BgD~gz g@*
ykZ F,c*
$
d
DYYHB6,
T {zDX Y4Z~} ],
Z
BD~ * bDY Zgz g x ZgzZi W DV
D D DZgz <
Z AZ xEx Z7 
gzZV1InC
7yW
sbX D Y`g{ lp} ],
Z

4 Z VI
Z[f~}g!*
bX C7tDgzZgZ C G
5G3E
Z bxE
t
/Z !*
Q wZt z!*
h
e| 7, gZ+
E
E

: 7,
%eb 0i ~ekZ? HbpQC
!*

Marxists are keen to insist that historical materialism is a


science. In addition, Library Science, Administrative Science,

1. A. F. Chalmers, What Is This Thing Called Science?: An Assessment of

the Nature and Status of Science and its Methods, U.S.A.:Open University
Press , 1988, p. 109.

387 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
Speech Science, Forest Science, Dairy Science, Meat and
Animal Science. and even Mortuary Science are all currently
taught or were recently taught at American colleges or
universities. Self-avowed "scientists" in such fields will often
see themselves as following the empirical method of physics,
which for them consists of the collection of "facts" by means
of careful observation and experiment and the subsequent
derivation of laws and theories from those facts by some
kind of logical procedure. I was recently informed by a
colleague in the history department, who apparently had
absorbed this brand of empiricism, that it is not at present
possible to write Australian history because we do not as yet
have a sufficient number of facts. An inscription on the
facade of' the Social Science Research Building at the
University of Chicago reads, "If you cannot measure, your
knowledge is meagre and unsatisfactory". No doubt, many
of its inhabitants, imprisoned in their modern laboratories,
scrutinize the world through the iron bars of the integers,
failing to realize that the method that they endeavour to
follow is not only necessarily barren and unfruitful but also
is not the method to which the success of physics is to be
attributed.
The mistaken view of science referred to above will
be discussed and demolished in the opening chapters of this
book. Even though some scientists and many
pseudo-scientists voice their allegiance to that method, no
modern philosopher of science would be unaware of at least
some of its shortcomings. Modern developments in the
philosophy of science have pinpointed and stressed

388 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
deep-seated difficulties associated with the idea that science
rests on a sure foundation acquired through observation and
experiment and with the idea that there is some kind of
inference procedure that enables us to derive scientific
theories from such a base in a reliable way. There is just no
method that enables scientific theories to be proven true or
even probably true. Later in the book, I will argue that
attempts to give a simple and straightforward logical
reconstruction of the "scientific method" encounter further
difficulties when it is realized that there is no method that
enables scientific theories to be conclusively disproved
either.

MgzZ s KDzcbx Vxt~}g !*


b
kZX 7 eh
+ F,
]!*
z }
|h
+ F,
**
.
gzZ D
: ~}g 0*
sf `g ) F,

Scientific knowledge is proven knowledge. Scientific
theories are derived in some rigorous way from the facts of
experience acquired by observation and experiment. Science
is based on what we can see and hear and touch, etc.
Personal opinion or preferences and speculative imaginings
have no place in science. Science is objective. Scientific
knowledge is reliable knowledge because it is objectively
proven knowledge.

gzZ
C"!*
[f L}!*
zgqxt|p

1. A.F. Chalmers, What is This Thing Called Science? An Assessment of the

Nature and Status of Science and its Methods.pXVi


2. Ibid., p.1

389 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

a + Y |^kZX /Zz**
4gzZDZ
+F,
Z [fX ~gz_ Against Method[ P.K Feyerabend
gzZ @*
ge**
! gzZ x [induction] Z`Z wZ Hume
Treatise on W6
,Z`Z wZ x X YY H7Zz6,g[b @*

Problems of [ KZ g X $
Y @ ~ Human Nature Part-III
Objective [ KZ 6
,0*
X c %6,qkZ~b [ !*
Philosophy
,
k
i My Solution to the Problem of Induction ~ Knowledge
{zX Zz**
t
# IyZ+xsZp Ze zg+46,Z`ZwZyZ
X g"
$U*
bzxsZZ`ZwZbJ
-Z

~ xE}uzgzZb
6,Rb Voodoo gzZ: Z * 7t
Z}
.~ bT g Y bZ -6,~q)bX } 9
bT [Religion of Science] b<
qX CY ]
~: Z ~b bZ!*
D VZ 7wZ6,]*ZZgzZZ
+Iv
y)F,kZX g] K<
kZ}zg ]Z NZI]c*

: 7,
%e kZ Paul Feyerabend
One reaction to the realization that scientific theories cannot
be conclu sively proved or dis proved and that the
reconstructions of philosophers bear little resemblance to
what actually goes on in science is to give up altogether the
idea that science is a rational activity operating according to
some special method or methods. It is a reaction somewhat
like this that has recently led philosopher and entertainer
Paul Feyerabend to write a book with the title Against
Method: Outline of an Anarchistic Theory of Knowledge and a
paper with the title "Philosophy of Science: A Subject with a
Great Past". According to the most extreme view that has
been read into Feyerabend recent writings, science has no
special features that render it intrinsically superior to other

390 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
branches of knowledge such as ancient myths or Voodoo. A
high regard for science is seen as the modern religion,
playing a similar role to that played by Christianity in
Europe in earlier eras. It is suggested that the choice between
theories boils down to choices determined by the subjective
values and wishes of individuals. This kind of response to
the breakdown of traditional theories of science is resisted in
this book. An attempt is made to give an account of physics
that is not subjectivist or individualist, which accepts much
of the thrust of Feyerabend's critique of method, but which
itself is immune to that critique.

H7"
$U*
)g f = Z 7 e[b~ w x
:~p Z% e 8 6,gV C;zyZZ6,2Z gzZ]c*
{zYY
There are a number of possible responses to the problem of
induction. One of them is a sceptical one. We can accept that
science is based on induction and Hume's demonstration
that induction cannot be justified by appeal to logic or
experience, and conclude that science cannot be rationally
justified. Hume himself adopted a position of that kind. He
held that beliefs in laws and theories are nothing more than
psychological habits that we acquire as a result of repetitions
of the relevant observations.

[Objective Reality] |zcb @


*
t66,0*
wZtrial & errorF,
H [errors]V!KZ~b7
**
zbgzZ 2Z W6,gx)g f]**
CZ@xY e)gf

1. Ibid., p. xvii.

2. Ibid., p.19.

391 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

}uz M
h Vd
$
sgzZ M
h yY { c*
i~}g!*
sxC
X w%Z
:D 0*
7qL ZpTg D4z]
.0*
6,gs ~ Vs
I can therefore gladly admit that falsificationists like myself
much prefer an attempt to solve an interesting problem by a
bold conjecture, even (and especially) if it soon turns out to be
false, to any recital of a sequence of irrelevant truisms. We
prefer this because we believe that this is the way in which
we can learn from our mistakes; and that in finding that our
conjecture was false we shall have learnt much about the
truth, and shall have got nearer to the truth.

gzZTg
WbX C qz^ CZ}g ] !*
gzZbb
D } ! bLZ ] zZ Zz t Tg D ]!*

X Sg CF,
X Lg x p@*
7mz*g i VzX D
Zv VzgZD
~ ~
/]g T [social practice] /Y q
-Z b
B [capital] ~gtu 9 zg V17 V1g Z Vzg Ztu]Zg y 6,V
Re~ XZgzZ @*
sp~"~ M~t Y A
$ Tgsz^
kZ
H Z97
-e Z VZ bq
-Z @*
kC(Z6,gx pX @*
Y
w V Z **
t X c*
Za [ zZq
-Z~ *g Z
/
" ZQ c*
7Nw
Y >{ W iZ%]Z XZ gzZZz g @*
bp @*

0
+
i : Zg Ztu[capitalism] x : Zg Ztu [capital] tu
c*
g #

nVzg ZD
gzZ ' Lg +Lg *Vzg Z Z
/~i !*
u [market]
x Z
# J
- V)g f iZ%Z6,VZ r f
XZ A
$ Tg sz^a w q
-Z gzZ ~ q
-Z '
Z} (,
q
-Z @*
7g~
tX CWt }g

#
c*
g~ZxkZ
/ZX @*

Yc*
w [capital]tuc*

1. K. R. Popper , Conjectures & Refutation, London: Routledge & Kegan

Paul, 1969, p. 231; A. F. Chalmers, What Is This Thing Called Science?p.43.

392 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

c*
g Z
Z'x *Z
# X Y
/
6,}iO~ Vw{g mYb
eVY F,
Vsz^~x q
-Z6,gzZ }g Z ZgzZtugzZ #

:~p Z%e!:
The maze af propositions involved in a body of knowledge
at some stage in its development will, in a similar way, have
properties that individuals working on it need not be aware
of. The theoretical structure that is modern physics is so
complex that it clearly cannot be identified with the beliefs
of anyone physicist or group of physicists. Many scientists
contribute in their separate ways with their separate skills to
the growth and articulation of physics, just as many workers
combine their efforts in the construction of a cathedral. And
just as a happy steeplejack may be blissfully unaware of the
implication of some ominous discovery made by labourers
digging near the cathedral's foundations, so a lofty
theoretician may be unaware of the relevance of some new
experimental finding for the theory on which he works. In
either case, relationships may objectively exist between parts
of the structure independently of any individual's awareness
of that relationship.

So far I have outlined an objectivist view that focuses


on theories as explicitly expressed in verbal or mathematical
propositions. However, there is more to science than this.
There is also the practical aspect of a science. A science, at
some stage in its development, will involve a set of
techniques for articulating, applying and testing the theories

1. Ibid., p.116.

393 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
of which it is comprised. The development of a science
comes about in a way analogous to that in which a cathedral
comes to be built as a result of the combined work of a
number of individuals each applying their specialized skills.
As J. R. Ravetz has put it, "Scientific knowledge is achieved
by a complex social endeavour, and derives from the work
of many craftsmen in their very special interaction with the
world of nature". A full objectivist characterization of a
science would include a characterization of the skills and
techniques that it involves.

bX[subjective] XgzZ [objective] zcXb


e;gY9!*
gzZsh
gq
-4,
+C
gzZVZbbT
s:
g!*
ze;g!*
bTVZbgzZ!*
{z
E
E

i
Yfb 0 aZX @*
YgzZ 9 Lg @*
X^:
`W CYh
+F,
L CY{g&Lh
+F,
:e&: ]c*
b
,qX x**
ggzZbZ Zb Y 9V6,gzZ Y 9
yZ{7] Hg0
+ZyZpB
bgz]]&C
akZ$
Yq]q:gzZ}Z
+~ H HyZX YYHwEZb
[Subjectivity] gzZ `Z'
m{m{m{bm{f m{q
-Z

3
E

zZ
rg~] G
5 G Z,a
KZ%gzZbkZC]gz
p=6,[}iuTzmvZ -[
g }X$
7 5
HH7wEZJ

-V-%kZpgm{uV1[Z %V;z
kZgzZ%z!*
kZ1?YYc*
;7~[ztxsZwEZZH ?VYy
W
c*
g~ Y1285?VY e:C
Lm g@*
zd
$sZ]0
,
k
+qzw&gzkZgt}uzq
5
-ZV1
m{q
-ZV7Zz**
C
? VYw&~
Wgzy
WZ

1. Ibid., p.119.

394 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

zVigzZd
$zg@*
m{q
-Zi**
fnm{q
-ZakZgj
.ZC
~ yk
bkZ
rg [subjective mind set] f ~

3
Y7gWLXZk
,
+W,
5
Zk
,
iykzV igzZ] G
5GEZ m{%
:qZj 6,
0*Ds
# zkZ%eXM
h
My . . . thesis involves the existence of two different senses
of knowledge or of thought: [1] knowledge or thought in the
subjective sense, consisting of a state of mind or of
consciousness or a disposition to behave or to act, and [2]
knowledge or thought in an objective sense, consisting of
problems, theories, and arguments as such. Knowledge in
this objective sense is totally independent of anybody's claim
to know; it is also independent of anybody's belief, or
disposition to assent; or to assert, or to act. Knowledge in the
objective sense is knowledge without a knower; it is knowledge
without a knowing subject.

Lakatos fully supported Popper's objectivism and


intended his methodology of scientific research programmes
to constitute an objectivist account of science. He talked of
"the cleavage between objective knowledge and its distorted
reflection's in individual minds and in a longer passage he
observed,
...a theory may be pseudoscientific even though it is
eminently "plausible" and everybody believes it, and it may
be scientifically valuable even if it is unbelievable and
nobody believes it. A theory may even be of supreme

1. K.R. Popper, Objective Knowledge, Oxford: Oxford University Press,

1979, pp.108-9.

scientific value even if no one understands it, let alone believe it.

395 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
The cognitive value of a theory has nothing to do
with its psychologihcal influence on people"s minds. Belief,
commitment, understanding are states of the human mind. .
. But the o bj ectivc, scientific va lue of a theory. . .
independent of the human mind which creates it or
understands it.

Lakatos insisted that it was essential to adopt an objectivists


po s iti o n w h e n w rit in g th e h is t o ry o f th e in ter n a l
development of a science. "A Popperian internal historian
will not need to take any interest whatsoever in the persons
involved, or in their beliefs about their own activities."

Consequently, a history of the internal development of a


science will be "the history of disembodied science".

The works of Ptolemy and Al Hazen provided


opportunities for the development of optics that were not
taken advantage of until the time of Galileo and Kepler. In
his investigation of that problem, V. Ronchi, writes,

Although we do not know who first invented


spectacle lenses, we do know with some exactness when

1. J. Worrall and G. Currie[eds.], Imre Lakatos. Philosophical papers Volume

1: The Methadology of Scientific Programmes, Cambridge: Cambridge


University Press, 1987, p.1.
2. Lakatos, "History of Science and its Rational Reconstraction", p.127.
3. Ibid., pp. 120-121.
4. V. Ronchi, "The INfluence of the Early Development of Opticks on

Science and Philosophy", In Galileo: Man of Science, [ed., E. McMullil],


New York:Basic Books, 1967, pp.195-206.

they were first introduced: somewhere between 1280 and

396 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
1285. Yet the first telescope did not appear until around
1590. Why did it take three whole centuries to put one
spectacle lens in front of another?

V- z ~ }g !*
[Religion of Science] b <
Z9
{
M %{ Z ({ Zp
w|b Against Method[ kZX c*
6,] c*
gzZZ
+p~}g !*
b~Vzk
,
x KZ Z9X 5g
J
<
-V- z X eY c*
7[Z W,
wq @*
V. kZ X K h (,@*
{gyZ~ zg { Z9 +! f Zz
y ~ Vz0
+Zb

KZ g @*
DY Zg ZY Zgz
|gzZb
DgzZbX~
t
~ {)z {)z: Z - z YxEvgzZb Z9X Z (,

: 7,~p Z%es
# z+4gzZ+F,
g ZZ9X @*
7kC
Feyerabend makes a strong case for the claim that
none of the methodologies of science that have so far been
proposed are successful. The main, although not the only,
way in which he supports his claim is to show how those
methodologies are incompatible with the history of physics.
Many of his arguments against the methodologies which I
have labelled inductivism and falsificationism resemble
those that appear in the earlier chapters of this book. Indeed,
the views expressed there owe some debt to Feyerabend's
writings. Feyerabend convincingly argues that
methodologies of science have failed to provide rules
adequate for guiding the activities of scientists. Furthermore,
he suggests that, given the complexity of history, it is most
implausible to expect that science be explicable on the basis
of a few simple methodological rules. To quote Feyerabend
at some length:

1. Ibid., pp. 127-128.

397 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
The idea that science can, and should, be run
according to fixed and universal rules, is both unrealistic
vernicious. It is unrealistic, for it takes too simple a view of
the talents of man and of the circumstances which
encourage, or cause, their development. And it is pernicious
for the attempt to enforce the rules is bound to increase our
professional qualifications at the expense of our humanity.
In addition, the idea is detrimental to science, for its neglects
the complex physical and historical conditions which
influence scientific change. It makes science less adaptable
and more dogmatic.....
Case studies such as those reported in the preceding
chapters. . . speak against the universal validity of any rule.
All methodologies have their limitations and the only "rule"
1

that survives is "anything goes" ....


...A passage from an article by Feyerabend written a
decade before Against Method illustrates the fact that
"anything goes" should not be interpreted it too wide a
sense.In that passage, Feyerabend attempts to distinguish
between the reasonable scientist and the crank.
The distinction does not lie in the fact that the former
["respectable" people] suggest what is plasible and promises
success, whereas the latter [cranks] suggest what is
implausible, absurd, and bound to fail. It cannot lie in this
because we never know in advance which theory will be
successful and which theory will fail. It takes a long time to

1. Paul Feyerabend, Against Method: Outline of an Anarchistic Theory of


Knowledge, London: New Left Bokks, 1975.

398 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
decide this question and every single step leading to such a
decision is again open to revision. . . No, the distinction
between the crank and the respectable thinker lies in the
research that is done once a certain point of view is adopted.
The crank usually is content with defending the point of
view in its original, undeveloped, metaphysical form, and he
is not at all prepared to test its usefulness in all those cases
which seem to favour the opponent, or even to admit that
their exists a problem. It is this further investigation, the
details of it, the knowledge of the difficulties, of the general
state of knowledge the recognition of objections, which
distinguishes the "respectable thinker" from the crank. The
original content of his theory does not. If he thinks that
Aristotle should be given a further chance, let him do it and
wait for the results. If he rests content with this assertion and
does not start elaborating a new dynamics, if he is
unfamiliar with the initial difficulties of his position, then
the matter is of no further interest. However, if he does not
rest content with Aristotelianism in the form in which it
exists today but tries to adapt it to the present situation in
astronomy, physics, and microphysics, making new
suggestions, looking at old problems from a new point of
view, then be grateful that there is at last somebody who has
unusual ideas and do not try to stop him in advance with
irrelevant and misguided arguments.

1. Paul Feyerabend, "Realism and intrumentalism: Comments on the


Logic of Factual Sapport", In The Critical Approache to Science and
Philosophy, [ed., M. Bunge], New york : Free press, 1964,p.305.

399 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
Feyerabend's anarchist theory of knowledge and
interpretations of concepts and the observation statements
that employ them will depend on the theoretical context in
which they occur. In some cases the fundamental principles
of two rival theories may be so radically different that it is
not possible even to formulate the basic concepts of one
theory in terms of the other with the consequence that the
two rivals do not share any observation statements. In such
cases it is not possible to compare the rival theories logically.
It will not be possible to logically deduce some of the
consequences of one theory from the tenets of its rival for the
pu rposes of comparison. The two theories will be
incommensurable.
One of Feyerabend's examples of incommensurability
is the relationship between classical mechanics and relativity
theory. According to the former - interpreted realistically,
that is, as attempting to describe how the world, both
observable and unobservable, really is - physical objects
have shape, mass and volume. Those properties exist in
physical objects and can be changed as a result of physical
interference. In relativity theory, interpreted realistically,
properties such as shape, mass and volume no longer exist,
but become relations between objects and a reference frame
and can be changed, without any physical interaction, by
changing from one reference frame to another.
Consequently, any observation statement referring to
physical objects within classical mechanics will have a
different meaning to a similar looking observation statement
in relativity theory. The two theories are incommensurable

400 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
and cannot be compared by comparing their logical
consequences. To quote Feyerabend himself,
The new conceptual system that arises (within
relativity theory) does not just deny the existence of classical
states of affairs, it does not even permit us to formulate
statements expressing such states of affairs. It does not, and
cannot, share a single statement with its predecessor
assuming all the time that we do not use the theories as
classificatory schemes for the ordering of neutral facts. . . the
positivist scheme of progress with its "Popperian spectacles",
breaks down.

Other pairs of incommensurable theories mentioned


by Feyerabend include quantum mechanics and classical
mechanics, impetus theory and Newtonian mechanics, and
materialism and mind-body dualism.
It does not follow from the fact that a pair of rival
theories are incommensurable that they cannot be compared
in any way. One way of comparing such a pair of theories is
to confront each of them with a series of observable
situations and to keep a record of the degree to which each
of the rival theories is compatible with those situations,
interpreted in its own terms. Other ways of comparing
theories referred to by Feyerabend involve considerations of
whether they are linear or non-linear, coherent or
incoherent, whether they are daring or safe approximations
and so on.

1. Against Method, pp.275-76.

2. "Changing Pattrrns of Reconstruction", p.365

401 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
If we are concerned with the problem of theory
choice, then a problem arises concerning which of the
several criteria of comparison are to be preferred in
situations where the criteria conflict. According to
Feyerabend, the choice between criteria and, consequently,
the choice between incommensurable theories is ultimately
subjective.
Transition to criteria not involving content thus turns
theory choice from a "rational" and "objective" and rather
one-dimensional routine into a complex discussion
involving conflicting preferences, and propaganda will play
a major role in it, as it does in all cases involving preferences.
In Feyerabend's view, incommensurability, although
it do es n ot re mo ve al l me an s of co mp ar in g r iv al
incommensurable theories, leads to a necessarily subjective
aspect of science.
What remains [after we have removed the possibility
of logically comparing theories by comparing sets of
deductive consequences] are aesthetic judgements,
judgements of taste, metaphysical prejudice, religious
desires, in short, what remains are our subjective wishes.

I accept Feyerabend's view that some rival theories


cannot be compared by merely logical means. However, I
suggest that his drawing of subjectivist consequences from
this fact needs to be countered in a number of ways. If we
are to focus on the issue of theory choice, then I am prepared
to admit that there will be some subjective element involved

1. Against Method, p.285.

402 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
when a scientist chooses to adopt or work on one theory
rather than another, although those: choices will be
influenced by "external" factors such as career prospects and
availability of funds in addition to the kinds of consideration
mentioned by Feyerabend in the above quotations.
However, I think it needs to be said that, although
individual judgments and wishes are in a sense subjective
and cannot be determined by logically compelling
arguments, this does not mean that they are immune to
rational argument. The preferences of individuals can be
criticized, for example, by showing that they are seriously
inconsistent or by showing that they have consequences that
the individual holding them would not welcome. I am
aware that the preferences of individuals are not solely
determined by rational argument and am aware that they
will be strongly moulded and influenced by the material
conditions in which the individual exists and acts. (A major
change in career prospects is likely to have a greater effect
on an individual's preferences than a rational argument, to
give a superficial example.) Nevertheless, the subjective
judgements and wishes of individuals are not sacrosanct and
are not simply given. They are open to criticism and to
change by argument and by alteration of the material
conditions. Feyerabend welcomes his conclusion that science
contains a subjective element because it offers the scientist a
degree of freedom absent from the "more pedestrian parts"
of science. I will have more to say about Feyerabend's
conception of freedom in a later section.
My second kind of response to Feyerabend's remarks on

403 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
incommensurability takes us away from the issue of theory.
Choice. Zahar's case study of the rivalry between Lorentz's
and Einstein's
theories, suitably modified in the light of my objectivist
account-of theory change, explains how and why Einstein's
theory eventually replaced Lorentz's. The explanation is in
terms 07 the extent to which Einstein's theory offered more
objective opportunities for development than Lorentz's, and
the extent to which those opportunities bore fruit when
taken advantage of. That explanation is possible in spite of
the fact that the theories are at least in part incommensurable
in Feyerabend's sense, although h is not subjectivist. It must
be conceded that subjective decisions and choices will be
involved in the conditions specified by the sociological
assumption on which my objectivist account of theory
change depends. The account assumes that there are
scientists with the appropriate
skills and resources to take advantage of opportunities for
development that present themselves. Different scientists
and groups of scientists may make different choices when
responding to the same situation, but my account of theory
change does not depend on the individual preferences
guiding those choices.
3. Science not necessarily superior to other fields
Another important aspect of Feyerabend's view of
science concerns the relationship between science and other
forms of knowledge. He

points out that many

methodologists take for granted, without argument, that


science (or, perhaps, physics) constitutes the paradigm of

404 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
rationality. Thus Feyerabend writes of Lakatos,
Having finished his "reconstruction" of modern
science, he [Lakatos] turns it against other fields as if it had
already been established that modern science is superior to
magic or to Aristotelian science, and that it has no ilIuscry
results. However, there is not a shred of an argument of this
kind. "Rational reconstructions" take "basic scientific
wisdom" for granted, they do not show that it is better than
the "basic wisdom" of witches and warlocks.

Feyerabend complains, with justification, that


defenders of science typically judge it to be supperior to
other forms of knowledge without adequately investigating
those other forms. He observes that "critical rationalists" and
defenders of Lakatos have examined science in great detail
but that their "attitude towards Marxism or astrology, or
other traditional heresies is very different. Here the most
superficial examination and most shoddy arguments are
deemed sufficient" He backs up his claim with examples.
Feyerabend is not prepared to accept the necessary
superiority of science over other forms of knowledge.
Further, in the light of his incommensurability thesis, he
rejects the idea that there ever can be a decisive argument in
fav ou r o f s ci enc e ov er o the r fo rms o f kn owl ed ge
incommensurable with it. If science is to be compared with
other forms of knowledge then it will be necessary to
investigate the nature, aims and methods of science and
those other forms of knowledge. This will be done by the

1. Against Method, p.205.

405 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
study of "historical records textbooks, original papers,
records of meetings and private conversations, letters and
the like". It cannot even be assumed, without further
investigation, that a form of knowledge under investigation
must conform to the rule of logic as they are usully
understood by contemporary philosophers and rationalists.
Failure to conform to the demands of classical logic may
well be, but is not necessarily, a fault. An example offered by
Feyerabend concerns modern quantum mechanic. To
consider the question whether the modes of reasoning
involved in some version of that theory violate the dictates
of classical logic or not, it is necessary to investigate
quantum mechanics and the way in which it functions. Such
an investigation may reveal a new kind of logic operating
which can be shown to have certain advantages, in the
context of quantum mechanics, over more traditional logic.
On the other hand, of course, the discovery of violations of
logic constitute a serious criticism of quantum mechanics.
This would be the case, for example, if contradictions were
discovered that had undesirable consequences; for example,
if it were discovered that for every event predicted by the
theory, the denial of that event is also predicted. I do not
think Feyerabend would disagree with this latter point, but
neither do I think he gives it due emphasis.
Voodoo, astrology and the like is not a pressing
problem in our society, here and new. We are simply not in a
position to. have a "free choice" between science and
Voodoo, are Western rationality and that of the Nuer tribe.
Feyerabend defends what he refers to as the

406 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
"humanitarian attitude". According to that attitude,
individual humans should be free and possess liberty in
something like the sense John Stuart Mill defended in his
essay "On Liberty". Feyerabend is in favour of "the attempt
to increase liberty, to lead a full and rewarding life" and
supports Mill in advocating "the cultivation of individuality
which alone produces, or can produces, well developed
human beings. From this humanitarian point of view,
Feyerabend's anarchistic view of science gains support
because, within science, it increases the freedom of
individuals by encouraging the removal of all
methodological constraints, whilst in a broader context it
encourages a freedom for individuals to choose between
science and other forms af knowledge.
From Feyerabend's point of view the
institutionalizations of science in our society is inconsistent
with the humanitarian attitude. In schools, far example,
science is taught as a matter of course. "Thus, while an
American can now choose the religion he likes, he is still not
permitted to demand that his children learn magic rather
than science at school. There is a separations between state
and Church, there is no separations between state and
science". What we need to do in the light of this, writes
Feyerabend, is to. "free society from the strangling hold of an
ideologically petrified science just as our ancestors freed us
from the strangling hold of the One True Relgion!" In
Feyeraband's image of a free society science will not be
given preference over other forms of knowledge or other
traditions. A mature citizen in a free society is "a person who

407 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
has learned to make up his mind and who. has then decided
in favour of what he thinks suits him best". Science will be
studied as a historical phenomenon "together with other
fairy tales such as the myths of 'primitive' societies" so that
each individual "has the information needed for arriving at a
free decision". In Feyerabend's ideal society the state is
ideologically neutral. Its function is to orchestrate the
struggle between ideologies to ensure, that individuals
maintain freedom choice and do not have an ideology
1

imposed on them against their will. .


The notion of liberty and freedom of the individual
that Feyerabend has taken over from Mill is open to a
standard objection. That notion, which views freedom as
freedom from all constraint, overlooks the positive half' of
the issue, namely, the possibilities within a social structure
to which individuals have access. For example, if we analyze
freedoms of speech in our society solely in terms of freedom
from censorship, we overlook issues such as the extent to
which various individuals have access to the media. The
eighteenth century philosopher, David Hume, nicely
illustrated the point I am getting at when he critized John
Locke's idea of the Social Contract. Locke had construed the
social contract as being freely adopted by members of a
democratic society and argued that anyone not wishing to
subscribe to the contract was free to emigrate. Hume replied,
Can we seriously say, that a poor peasant or artisan has a

1. Science in a Free Society, London: New Left Books, 1978.

408 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
free choice to leave his country, when he knows no foreign
language or manners, and lives from day to day, by the
small wages which he acquires? We may as well assert that a
man, by remaining in a vessel, freely conserts to the
domination of the master; though he was carried on board
while asleep, and must leap into the ocean and perish, the
moment he leaves her.

Each individual is born into a society that pre-exists


and, in that sense, is not freely chosen. The freedom an
individual possesses will depend on the position he occupies
in the social structure, so that an analysis of social structure
is a pre-requisite for an understanding of freedom of the
individual. There is at least one place in Against Method
where Feyerabend indicates that he is aware of this kind of
point. In a footnote to a remark about freedom of research he
notes:
The scientist is still restricted by the properties of his
instruments, the amount of money available, the intelligence
of his assistants, the attitudes of his colleagues, his
playmates - he or she is restricted by innumerable physical,
physiological, sociological, historical constraints.

Feyerabend's subsequent talk of freedom of


the individual fails to give adequate attention to the

1. The quotation from Hume's "Of the Original Contract" is in

E.Barker,Social Contract: Essays by Lock, Hume and Rousseau, London:


Oxford University Press, 1976,p.156.
2. Against Method, p.187.

409 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
constraints operating in society.

+ Y|]c*
X |E
{~
J4&
g
$
d
V~gzC
V*~ YZ]c*
ZX .*
*g
b6f ]Zg |tt CY r$
+
~ YZt%C
gzZ
+b V !*
D h Z
* 7m C Realism X Sg r$
gzZ Y7 C|kZt ? t~Z] t? H"Z
|ztx~}g!*
kZ CxC
/|~zb
c*
|
VY7: e (Zk0*
bC
}W |g|{
N 0*
|._|\W: k0*
\W: e
Zg |J
-Z
#
| Z M
h 7 0*
|~ pZ .
$ C 7 | Z !
gZ
|ZgzZM
h6,
i]Zg]f LZ c*
M
h
x **
zigW]{[||lb 'tZX
Realism X z b
y Reality |]c*
X x {
' 6,} kZp kZ ?i W |H
: q%eX x)Z {zxgzZ
According to an alternative view, which I will call
instrumentalism, the theoretical component of science does
not describe reality. Theories are understood as instruments
designed to relate one set of observable states of affairs with
others. For the instrumentalist, the moving molecule's
referred to by the kinetic theory of gases are convenient
fictions enabling scientists to relate and make predictions
about observable manifestations of the pro perties of
gases,whilst the fields and charges of electromagnetic theory
are fictions enabling scientists to do likewise for magnets,
electrified bodies and current-carrying circuits.

1. What Is This Things Called Science? pp. 136-143.

410 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
Realism typically involves the notion of truth. For
the realist, science aims at true descriptions of what the
world is really like. A theory that correctly describes some
aspect of the world and its mode of behaviour is true, whilst
a theory that incorrectly describes some aspect of the world
and its mode of behaviour is false. According to realism, as
typically construed, the world exists independently of us as
knowers, and is the way it is independently of our
theoretical knowledge of it. True theories correctly describe
that reality. If a theory is true, it is true because the world is
the way it is. Instrumentalism will also typically involve a
notion of truth but in a more restricted way. Descriptions of
the observable world will be true or false according to
whether or not they correctly describe it. However, the
theoretical constructs, that are designed to give us
instrumental control of the observable world, will not be
judged in terms of truth or falsity but rather in terms of their
usefulness as instruments.
The idea that science aims at a true characterization
of reality is often used as a counter to relativism. Popper, for
example, uses truth in this way. According to that usage, a
theory can be true even though nobody believes it and can
be false even if everybody believes it. True theories, if they
are indeed true, are not true relative to the beliefs of
individuals or groups. Truth, understood as a correct
characterization of reality, is objective truth for realists such
as Popper.
Later in this chapter I will argue that the notion of
truth typically incorporated into realism is problematic.

411 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
Before doing that I will take a more detailed look at
instrumentalism and show how, on the face of it, realism
seems to have distinct advantages over it.

D YK y 6,R~gzZ ~ YZ Z]
.z b b
|: YZt QX uVZ bk ZgzZ yZ]
.z wg
!
E
"
5

E
.2EyZ]
s i G ~ }g!*
8
-g + G
.z wz
q @*
Y Re ~ Y
E
YHE5!
"
5

G
545 GzZ

g !*
t 6,
HH{@xW"g y
W& ~gG
W
KZgzZ e: y ]!*
6,
C]Z@x Z {zp gl
/}i
D kZ C 3 X sw Fa J
-]ot0*
Z e 3 7
:c*
3 M gz
Z
The fact that theories can lead to novel predictions is
an embarrassment for instrumentalists. It must seem a
strange kind of accident to them that theories, that are
supported to but mere calculating devices, can lead to the
discovery of new kinds of observable phenomena by way of
concepts that are theoretical fictions. The development of
theories concerning the molecular structure or organic
chemical compounds provides a nice example. The idea that
the molecular structure of some compounds, benzene for
instance, should consist of closed rings of atoms was first
proposed by Kekule. Kekule himself had a somewhat
instrumentalist attitude towards his theory and regarded his
ring structure as useful theoretical fictions. On this view, it
must be regarded as a remarkable coincidence that these
theoretical fictions can nowadays be seen almost "directly"
through electron microscopes. Likewise, instrumentalist

1. Ibid., pp. 146-147.

412 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
defenders of the kinetic theory of gases should have been
somewhat taken aback to observe the results of collisions of
their theoretical fictions with smoke particles in the
phenomenon of Brownian motion. Finally, Hertz himself
reported that he had been able to produce the fields of
Maxwell's electromagnetic theory in a "visible and almost
tangible form". Episodes such as these undermine the naive
instrumentalist claim that theoretical entities have a
fictitious or unreal existence in way that observable entities
do not. Further difficulties with instrumentalism will come
to light in section 4.

Some contemporaries of Copernicus and Galileo


took an instrumentalist attitude to the Copernican theory.
Osiander, the author of the preface to Copernicus's main
work, The Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, wrote:
...it is the duty of an astronomer to compose the
history of the celestial motions through careful and skilful
observation. Then turning to the causes of these motions or
hypotheses about them, he must conceive and devise, since
he cannot in any way attain to the true, causes, such
hypotheses as, being assumed, enable the motions to be
calculated correctly from the principles of geometry, for the
future as well as the past. The present author [Copernicus]
has performed both these duties excellently. For these
hypotheses need not be true nor even probable; if they

1. Ibid., p. 149.

413 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
provide a calculus consistent with the observations that
alone is sufficient.1
That is, the Copernican theory is not to be taken as a
description of what the world is really like. It does not assert
that the earth really moves around the sun. Rather, it is a
calculating device enabling one set of observable planetary
positions to be connected with other sets. The calculations
become easier if the planetary system is treated as if the sun
were at the centre.1

3. The correspondence theory of truth


As indicated in section I, the typical realist position
incorporates a notion of truth in such a way that true
theories can be said to give a correct description of some
aspect of the real world. In this section I will investigate
attempts that have been made to make more precise the
notion of truth operative in this connection. Although I will
not argue it here, I take it that the so-called "correspondence
theory of truth" is the, only viable contender for an account
of truth able to fulfill the demands of the realist, and I will
restrict myself to discussion and criticism of that theory.
The general idea of the corrspondence theory of truth
seems straightforward enough and can be illustrated by
examples from common discourse in a way that makes it
appear almost trivial. According to the correspondence

1. E.Rosen, The Copernican Treatises,NewYork: Dover, 1962,p.125.


1. Ibid., p. 150.

414 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
theory a sentence is true if it corresponds to the facts. Thus
the sentence "the cat is on the mat" is true if it corresponds to
the facts, that is, if there is indeed a cat on the mat, whilst the
sentence is false if there is no cat on the mat. A sentence is
true if things are as the sentence says they are and false
otherwise.
One difficulty with the notion of truth is the ease
with which use of it can lead to paradoxes. The so-called liar
paradox provides an example. If I say "I never tell the truth"
then if what I have said is true, then what I have said is false.
Another well known example goes as follows: We imagine a
card, on one side of which is written ''The sentence written
on the other side of this card is true", while on the other side
of the card is written, "The sentence written on the other side
of this card is false". It is not difficult to see how, given this
situation, one can arrive at the paradoxical conclusion that
either sentence on the card is both true and false.
The logician Alfred Tarski demonstrated how, for a
particular language system, paradoxes can avoided. The
crucial step was his insistence that, when one is talking of
the truth or falsity of the sentences in some language system,
one must carefully and systematically distinguish sentences
in the language system that is being talked about, the "object
language", from sentenes in the language system in which
tal k ab ou t t he ob je ct l an gu age i s c ar ri ed ou t t he
"metalanguage". Referring to the paradox involving the card,
if we adopt Tarski's theory then we must decide whether the
sentences on the card are within the language system being
talked about or within the language system in which the

415 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
talking is being done. If the sentences on both side of the
card are taken to be in the object language then they cannot
also be taken as referring to each other. If one follows the
rule that each of the sentences must be in either the object
language or the metalanguage but not in both, so that
neither sentence can both refer to the other and be referred
to by the other, then no paradoxes arise.
A key idea of Tarski's correspondence theory, then, is
that if we are to talk about truth for the sentences of a
particular language, then we need a more general language,
the metalanguage in which we can refer both to the
sentences of the object language and to the facts with which
those object language sentences are intended to correspond.
Tarski needed to be able to show how the correspondence
notion of truth can be systematically developed for all
sentences within the object language in a way that avoids
paradoxes. The reason that this was a technically difficult
task is that for any interesting language there is all infinite
number of sentences. Tarski achieved his task for languages
involving a finite number of single placed predicates, that is,
predicates such as "is white" or "is a table". His technique
involved taking as given what it means for a predicate to be
satisfied by an object, x. Examples from everyday language
sound trivial. For instance, the predicate "is white" is
satisfied by object x, if and only if, x is white and the
predicate "is a table" is satisfied by x, if and only if, x is a
table Given this notion of satisfactioi1 for all the predicates
of a language, Tarski showed how the notion of truth can be
built up from this starting point for all the sentences of the

416 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
language. To use technical terminology, taking the notion of
primitive satisfaction as given, Tarski defined truth
recursively.
Tarski's result was certainly of major technical
importance for mathematical logic. It had a fundamental
bearing on model theory and also had ramifications for
proof theory. It also showed why it is that contradictions can
occur when truth is discussed in natural languages and
indicated how such contradictions can be avoided. Did
Tarski achieve more than this? In particular, did he go any
way towards explicating the notion of truth in a way that
might help us to understand the claim that truth is the aim
of science? Tarski himself did not think so. He regarded his
account as "epistemologically neutral". Others have not
shared Tarski's view. Popper, for example, writes, "Tarski . . .
rehabilitated the cor-respondence theory of absolute or
objective truth which had become suspect. He vindicated the
free use of the intuitive idea of truth as correspondence to
the facts". Let us look at Popper's use of Tarski to see if he
[Popper] is able to sustain the claim that it is meaningful to
talk of truth as the aim of science.1
Apart from some minor aspects, such as the words
used to denote the pre-existing features of the world, the
end-point of a branch of science, the truth, will not be a
social product at all. It is pre-ordained by the nature of the
world before science is ever embarked on. Science, which is a
social product, if it were ever to reach its end-point, so

1. Ibid., pp. 151-152.

417 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
conceived, would abruptly change from being a human,
social product to being something that, in one strong sense,
is not a human product at all. I, for one find this implausible
to say the least.
An Important contribution of Popper's to the projest
of construing science as a search for truth was his
recognition of the importance of the idea of approximation
An important contribution of Popper's to the project of
construing science as a search for truth was his recognit to
the truth. For Popper, the fallibalist, past theories that have;
been replaced, such as the mechanics of Galileo or Newton,
are false in the light of our current theories, whilst as far as
modern Einsteinian or quantum physics is concerned, we
cannot know that they are true. Indeed, they are most likely
false and liable to be replaced by superior theories in the
future. In spite of this falsity or likely falsity of our theories,
falsificationists such as Popper wish to say that science has
progressed ever closer to the truth; For example, they need
to be able to say that Newton's theory is closer to the truth
than Galileo's, even though both are false. Popper realized
that it was important for him to make sense of the idea of
approximation to the truth, so that, for instance, it makes
sense to say that Newton's theory is a better approximation
to the truth than Galileo's.
Popper attempted to make sense of approximation to
the truth, or verisimilitude as he called it, in terms of the true
consequences and false consequences of a theory. If we call
the cla s s o f al l tr u e con s equ enc es o f a the ory its

418 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
truth-content, and the class of all false consequences of a
theory its content, then we can say, quoting Popper,
assuming that the truth-content and the falsity
content of two theories t1 and t2 are comparable, we can say
that t2 is more closely similar to the truth, or corresponds
better to the facts, than it if and only if either (a) the
truth-content but not the falsity-content of t2 exceeds that of
t 1 . (b) the falsity-content of t 1 but not its truth-content,
1

exceeds that of t2.


We can say that the verisimilitude of a theory is
something like the measure of its truth-content minus the
measure of its falsitycontent. The claim that a science
approaches the truth can now be restated, "as a science
progresses, the verisimilitude of its theories steadily
increases".2
I do not think this move of Popper's enables him to
overcome the ob jections to th e appli cation o f the
correspondence theory to physics discussed in the previous
section. Further, I think it can be shown that Popper's view
of progress as successive approximation to the truth has an
instrumentalist character out of keeping with his realist
aspirations.
If we cons ider revolutionary changes in the
development of physics, then not only is the theory that is
replaced as a result of the , revolution inadequate in the light
of the theory that replaces it, but it attributes features to the

1.K.R.Popper, Conjecturesand Refutations, p.233.

419 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
world that it does not possess. For instance, Newton's theory
attributes a property "mass" to all systems or parts of
systems in the world, whereas, from the point of view of
Einstein's theory there is no such property. Einsteinian mass
is a relation between a physical system and a reference
frame. As we have seen, both Kuhn and Feyerabend have
stressed the extent to which the mechanical world as
described by Newton's theory is very different from the
world as described by Einstein's theory. The outmoded and
inadequate conceptions of mass, force, space and time, that
are utilized in the formulation of Newtonian theory, are
transmitted to all its deductive consequences. Therefore,
strictly speaking, if we are talking in terms of truth and
falsity, all of those deductive consequences are false. The
truth content of Newton's theory is zero, as is the truth
content of all mechanical theories prior to Einstein, The truth
content of Einstein's theory itself may prove to be zero after
some future scientific revolution. Viewed in this way,
Pepper's attempt to compare "false" theories by comparing
their truth and falsity contents, and thereby to construe
science as approaching the truth, breaks down.
There is a way in which Popper's conception of
approach to the truth can be rendered immune to this kind
of criticism. This involves interpreting theories
instrumentally. If, for example, we add to the claims of
Newton's theory certain practical procedures for putting it to
the test, definite procedures for measuring mass, length and
time, we can say that a large class of the predictions of

420 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
Newtonian theory, interpreted in terms of readings on scales
and clocks, and the like, will turn out to be correct within the
limits of experimental accuracy. When interpreted in this
way, the truth content of Newton's and other false theories
will not be zero, and it may well be possible to apply
Popper's conception of approximation to the truth to some
series of theories within physics. However, this
interpretation of Popper's theory of verisimilitude
introduces an instrumentalist element that clashes with
Popper's realist intentions as expressed elsewhere. It clashes,
for instance, with the claim that "what we attempt in science
is to describe and (as far as possible) explain reality".1 In the
next chapter I will give a strong argument to the effect that
this instrumentalist retreat from realism is inadequate.2

1 . K.R.Poper, Obejective Knowledge, Oxford: Oxford University

Press,1972,p.40.
2. A.F.Chalmerrs, What is this thing Called Science, pp. 157-159.

421 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

Science
Claude Alvares
I was born into a culture that continues the exercise
greater influence and power over behavior than modern
science does, or will ever do. If that were properly
understood, then this obituary were not appear either
scandalous or scurrilous. Every culture enjoins on its
members respect for certain entities, modern science does
not find a place in our pantheon.
Far from it. From this side of Suez, in fact, modern science
appears a kin to an imported brand of toothpaste. It contains
elaborate promises and much sweetness and glamour. It can
be used, if often used [many times pointlessly]. Yet can be
dispensed with at any time precisely because it is still
largely irrelevant of life.
Toothpaste has become a significant universal commodity:
for some, it has even evolved into a category of mind. For
decades now, it has remind [with the toothbrush] an
essential adjunct of modern civilization, available from
Managua to Manila. Those who have ingratiated themselves
with modernity are prone to find any absence of toothpaste

422 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
[either for themselves or for others] a source of acute
anxiety.
In our society, however, the moment we find toothpaste
unavailable, we return to neem sticks, or cashew or mango
leaves, or mixture composed of ginger, charcoal and salt. All
excellent, locally available and dependant material for
keeping the mouth fresh and disinfected and teeth clean.
Now modern science is universal commodity too, also
distinctly recognizable form Managua to Manila, also
approved my many whose devotion to its tenets and its
propagation is more often than not related to its ability to
provide high living wage and, often, in addition, power,
prestige and chauffeur-driven car. Like the early morning
toothbrush, science is considered a pre condition for a
freshly mind world view uncontaminated by unlearned or
unemancipated perception. For its parts, it offers to flush out
the many disabling superstition from all those hidden
services from a societies soul, to eliminate any and every
offending bacteria, to produce a clean ordered world. Most
important , it promises a materialist paradise for the world's
unprivileged through its awesome, magical powers. But not
for any reason difficult to understand, it also continues to
require as big and advertising budget as toothpaste. There is
something about modernity's leading prestige product that
is actually so bland it has to be rendered spectacular by
sensational copy and a fertile imagination.
Such an irreverent view of modern science will not be
comfortable for those who have been chosen to remain
imprisoned within the dominant present-day perception of

423 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
the age. But for us, it always was another culture's product, a
recognizably foreign entity. We eventually came to see it as
an epoch-specific, ethnic [Western] and culture-specific
[culturally entombed] project, one that is a politically
directed, artificially induced stream of consciousness
invading and distorting, and often attempting to takeover,
the larger more stable canvas of human perception and
experience. In a world consisting of dominating and
dominated societies, some cultures are bound be considered
more equal than others. This heritage of inequality,
inaugurated and cemented during colonialism, has
remained still largely intact today. So the culture products of
the West including its science our able to claim compelling
primacy and universal validity only because of their [as we
shall see later] congenital relationship with the political
throne of global power.
Colonialism, we know, subjects, undermines, subordinates,
and then replaces what it eliminates with its own exemplar.
It is natural to accept that Western science, an associate of
colonial power, would function not any less brazenly and
effectively: extending its hegemony by intimidation,
propaganda, catechism, and political force. In fact, being a
culture product, it was only to be expected that it would be
associated with the various [mostly aggressive] thrusts of
that culture. It would attempt to extend its hegemony to
oth er cu ltu re s t hr ou g h a n e li te cl as s , w it h s oc ial
commentators today call 'modernizers', whose
distinguishing characteristics, following period of schooling
at Oxbridge , was a thoroughgoing alienation from the life

424 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
and culture of their own people. And true to its origins, this
science has remained in the service of Western culture to this
day, a crucial component in the hysterically active
hegemony of the West.
However, due to stupendous and unrecognized inner
strengths, the cultures on which modern science was sought
to be imposed were able to prevent themselves from being
fully incorporated. Its inability to deliver the goods and its
general incompetence to deal with specific problems have
also led to its decline. A global overview today of its
hegemony would, in fact, be quiet distressing to its devotees.
In many areas of the non-Western world, it has been reduced
to the status of a commodity [like toothpaste] or a gadget [to
be purchased with money]. Its promise to transform the
world into a materialist paradise and thereby put an end to
poverty and oppression has lost all credibility. There is
evidence indeed to show that it has accomplished just the
contrary. As for its offer of a new metaphysical world view
to provide us with ethical guidance, this has also been
largely rejected. Dharma, convers ion, commu nity,
interaction with sacred entities and their associated symbols,
still remains prime movers within our societies. One even
encounters significant, desertions from the imperium of
science in the very citadels of Western culture.
Thus, the geographical areas of its influence has turned out
to be far less than as originally desired or attempt. In
comparison, other ideas have dominated [and sometimes
unsettled] human societies for far longer periods of time.
Buddhism, for example, which like Western science had its

425 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
own theory of causation, was born on Indian soil, from
where it was exported to entire civilizations. In societies like
Japan, it exercised influenced for centuries. It unsettled most
South and South East Asian societies with its radically new
notions of what society should be like and of the relationship
between the sangha and state. In comparison with
Buddhism, the sway of modern science to impressive, but
less pervasive. We should also remember that Buddhism, in
contrast to science, was not propagated and imposed by
violence.
The actual self perception of modern s cience as a
recognizably distinct human activity does not go back more
than 200 years in Western society. The very term 'scientist'
[used an analogy to the word 'artist'] was first suggested by
William Whewell as late as 1833 at a meeting of the British
association for the advancement of science. It was only used
without distastes by its practitioners towards the end of the
first quarter of this century.
This is not to deny that the world's citizenry did suffer
greatly from the temptation of modern science. It did. Just as
did until recently from the promises of development. But
jus t as one now routinely encounters the 's tink of
development', one is also compelled to concede that three
centuries of science have raised their own trail of disturbing
odors. Not surprisingly, therefore, one discovers that
whatever is being said in obituaries about development can
equally be said about modern science.
Science and Development: A Congenital Relationship
What has been responsible for the gross influence of science

426 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
over the imagination of men in our times? One major factor
has been the intimate relationship between science and
development. They cannot be understood in isolation from
each other, as India's policy makers made clear 30 years ago:
The key to national prosperity, apart from the spirit of
people, lies, in the modern age, in the effective combination
of three factors, technology, raw materials and capital, of
which the first is perhaps the most important, since the
creation and adaptation of new scientific techniques can in
fact make up for a deficiency in national sources and reduce
the demands of capital.1
Generally speaking development was merely modern
science's latest associates in the exercise of its political
hegemon y. E arlier , s c ience had link ed i ts elf with
enlightenment and millennial claims, before going on to
associate itself with racism, sexism, imperialism and
colonialism, and then settling down with development, an
idea in which most of these earlier inheritances are encoded.
If one, in fact, reflects on the events of recent decades, one is
indeed reminded that development and science have run
through the period, tied together as intimately as a horse
and carriage. Development was desired by us non-Western
societies precisely because it was associated with science.
What obtained prior to development, either in the form of
pure nature or non-Western subsistence, did not have, we
were told, the rationality, slickness and efficiency of modern
science. People, societies, nature itself were backward
because of its absence. Planners labeled entire zones
'backward' simply because they lacked factories. [The factory

427 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
has remained until today a concrete symbol of the new
processes developed by science.] Backward was to be
substituted by development, an allegedly better way of
organizing man and nature based on the rich insights of
up-to-date science.
Science, intern, was desired because it made
development possible. If one developed its associated skills,
one could have unlimited development and riches. Science
and development both reinforced the need of each other,
each legitimized the other in a circular fashion popularly
rendered: 'I scratch your back, you scratch mine.'
If development had had no special relationship with
science, there would have been no need to displace
subsistence and the new standard of living that development
proposed.
However, the relationship between modern science
and development was much more than merely intimate: it
was congenital. This congenital relationship can be traced
back to the industrial revolution when a relationship was
first established between science and industry. This should
not unduly surprise the reader. Some of the principle laws of
science arose originally out of industrial experience. For
instance, the second Law of Thermodynamics resulted from
effort to improve the working of the engine with a view to
advancing industry.
The Indian scientist, C.V. Seshadri, in a paper on
'Development and Thermodynamics', has provided some
original clues to the historical development of this
relationship between industry and science. Seshadri found

428 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
the Second Law of Thermodynamics, on close scrutiny,
ethnocentric. He charged that, due to its industrial origins,
the Second Law had consistently favored the definition of
energy in a way calculated to further allocation of resources
solely for big industry purposes [as opposed to craft]. In a
related paper co-authored with V. Balaji, Seshadri wrote:
The law of entropy, backed by its authority, provides a
criterion of utilization of energy available from various
resources. This criterion, known as the concept of efficiency,
is a corollary to the law of entropy and came into existence
along with the law. The efficiency criterion stipulates that
the loss of available energy in a conversion becomes smaller
as temperature at which the conversion is effected is higher
above the ambient. Therefore, high temperatures are of high
value and so are resources such as petroleum, coal, etc.,
which can help achieve such temperatures. In this sense, the
law of entropy provides a guideline for the extraction of
resources and their utilization.2
Efficiency, perceived in such terms, came to be the leading
criterion for judging technologies and productive work. In
the light of modern science, more efficiency of this kind was
considered synonymous with more development. Yet, in
reality, the central concept of modern science is thus fused
with a particular kind of resource utilization.
An economy based on this kind of science not only
provides itself with a self-serving criterion with which to
legitimize itself, it also assumes thereby that it has a
justification for taking over all resources hither to outside its
domain and u ntouched by modern science. Ju st as

429 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
economics invented the idea of scarcity to further its
domain, so science assumed the idea of thermodynamic
efficiency in order to dislodge competition.
Base Against Nature and Handicraft
As Seshadri pointed out, both nature and non-Western man
proved to be losers when the thermodynamic definition of
efficiency became the criterion for development. Both, by
definition, overnight became undeveloped or
underdeveloped. A tropical monsoon, for example,
transporting millions of tonnes of water across the tropics
became by definition inefficient since it performed work at
ambient [and not high] temperatures.
S. N. Nagarajan agrees:
This is not merely confined to the organic world. Even the
evaporation of water, which forms clouds and desalinizes, is
not done at 100o C. Life could not have emerged by a
process similar to what scientists use, at high temperatures.
Scientists are incompetent to construct higher organizations
at low temperatures. Tropical agricultural practices were
built upon such a kind of knowledge. The two different
kinds of approaches have different criteria of efficiency. So
the two have a different understanding of development.3
And he adds:
Nature's way is slow, peaceful, non-harmful, non-explosive,
non-destructive, both for others and for itself. Take for
example, the production of fibre by plants and animals,
compared to machines. The end result of plants and
machines processes may appear to be the same: fibre and
rayon. The machine also produces a large quantity in a short

430 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
time. But at what cost? The costs are borne by the weaker
sections and by nature. The people who are chained to the
machine [workers] are also consumed by it.
In fact, all processes are work effected at ambient
temperatures are discounted in the suzerainty of modern
science, thus tribals, bamboo workers, honeybees and
silkworms all process the resources of the forest at ambient
temperatures, and hence without the polluting side-effects of
waste heat and affluent associated with big industrial
processes. However, in the eyes of development, it is only
the high energy input rayon and pulp units that really
process the forest resources and contribute to economic
growth and production.
Yet modern science still insists: 'The efficiency
criterion stipulates that the loss of available energy in a
conversion becomes smaller as the temperature at which the
conversion is effected is higher above the ambient.'. By this
means, it in fact destabilizes and exorcizes entire industries
and livelihoods. A final illustration from the various kinds of
sugar in India can drive home the point.
India produces different forms of sugar. The most
important of these are white sugar and gur. According to the
official opinion the processes used for the extraction and
production of white sugar are superior to those that lead to
gur. Not only is the extractive efficiency of the large mills
higher, the product [white sugar] stores well it can be
transported and hoarded, and otherwise abused for the
reasons of state. The attendant pollution wreaked by sugar
mills is acknowledged, but is considered a small price to pay

431 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
for the benefits of progress.
Gur, on the other hand, is mostly manufactured in
open furnaces, using agricultural waste, timber or baggasse.
The extraction of sugar cane juice is not as high as in the big
industry process. The final product also does not keep well
beyond a certain period. However, no pollution results from
the production process; neither the earth nor its atmosphere
is damaged. And, of course, hoarding and speculation in gur
is less easy.
From a bare accounting of the two processes, it
would seem to be in the public interest for the state to
support the replacement of gur production with modern
sugar mills. Development is white sugar. And this is what
has occurred in countries like ours in the post-independence
period. Credit policy towards the farmers in the vicinity of
large sugar mills stipulates that if farmers take loans for
growing sugar cane from government financial institutions,
they are duty bound to sell all their sugar cane only to large
refineries. They may not make gur out of it. Special officers
of government, designated Sugar Commissioners, actually
oversee such development. Indeed, this authoritarianism of
development has been upheld by the Supreme Court of
India. A farmer was ordered by a Sugar Commissioner to
deposit all his sugar cane to with a large sugar mill. He
refused he wanted to process it into gur instead. The matter
went up to the Supreme Court. The Court upheld the orders
of the Sugar Commissioner.
A different picture emerges, however, when a closer
investigation is made of the qualities of the two processes

432 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
and their end products. We then discover how modern
science highlights certain qualities to the exclusion of others
and how the blind adaptation of its producers can lead us to
emphasize the wrong values. White sugar is dangerous to
health for a number of reasons long tested and proven. The
bodily processes involved in the metabolism of white sugar
end up destabilizing the health of the consumer. In addition,
the human body has no psychological requirement for white
sugar as such. It recognized that white sugar is, after all,
nothing but empty calories. Gur, on the other hand, is a
food. It contains not merely sugar, but iron and important
vitamins and minerals.
Thus, if the two sugars are compared in the round,
gur would make a positive contribution of human welfare
whereas white sugar would not. This, however, is not
apparent in any comparison of the mere production
processes that produce white sugar and gur, and in any case
the criterion of this comparison resides only in the
particular, and biased terrain of modern science's view of
efficient energy conversion. The technology for white sugar
production is simply assumed to be more efficient than the
technology used in the production of gur. Besides, whether
it is worth producing commodity that is harmful to human
health and also damages the environment [waste heat and
effluents] is not part of the efficiency debate.4
Symbolic, nevertheless, of the new status sought for
modern science by Third World ruling elites was an
international conference on the Role of Science in the
Advancement of New States held in August 1960, in Israel.

433 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
At that conference S. E. Imoke, Minister of Finance for
Eastern Nigeria, told his audience:
We do not ask for the moon nor are we anxious for a trip
there with you just yet. All we seek is your guidance,
assistance and cooperation in our efforts to gather the
treasures of our lands, so that we may rise above the
subsistence level to a life more abundant.5
Revamping Society
The drive to advance big industry in the West was paralleled
by an equally powerful project to recognize society along
scientific [i.e. efficient] lines. August Comte set out the
general design. His version of applying the principle of
rationality, empiricism and enlightenment to human society
in every detail has already had a pervasive influence of the
so-called advanced societies.
A roughly similar Comtean vision received a fresh
lease of life with the political independence of Third World
nations. Here science [the archetypal instrument] was
entrusted with the turn-key role of promising undreamed of
standards of material well-being to the so-called poor of the
planet.
The most well-known specimen of the innocent
worldview was Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of
free India. No leader of the Third World was as enamored of
the glamour and promise associated with modern science as
Nehru. For him development and science were synonymous.
The original Comtean vision is starkly revealed in Nehru's
insistence in scientific temper as a sine qua non of material

434 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
advancement. According to him [in his Discovery of India],
it was science and science alone that 'could solve the
problems of hunger and poverty, of insanitation and
illiteracy, of superstition and deadening custom and
tradition of vast resources running to waste, of a rich
country inhabited starving people.'
This alarming naivety was passed on by him to the
country's leading bureaucrats. India adopted a science policy
resolution in March 1958, which read in part:
The dominating feature of the contemporary world is the
intense cultivation of science on a large scale, and its
application to meet a country's requirements. It is this which,
for the first time in man's history, has given to the common
man in countries advanced in science, a standard of living in
social and cultural amenities, which were once confined to a
very small privileged minority of the population. Science
has led to the growth and diffusion of culture to an extent
never possible before. It has not only radically altered man's
material environment, but, what is of still deeper
significance, it has provided new tools of through and has
extended man's mental horizon. It has this even influenced
the basic values of life, and given to civilization a new
vitality and a new dynamism.
Science and technology can make up for deficiencies in raw
materials by providing substitutes or, indeed, by providing
skills which can be exported in return for raw materials. In
industrializing a country, a heavy price has to be paid in
importing science and technology in the form of plant and
machinery, highly paid personnel and technical consultants.

435 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
An early and large development of science and technology
in the country could therefore greatly reduce the drain in
capital during the early and critical state of industrialization.
Science has developed at an ever-increasing pace
since the beginning of the century so that the gap between
the advanced and backward countries has widened more
and more. It is only by adopting the most vigorous measures
and by putting forward our utmost efforts into the
development of science that we can bridge the gap. It is an
inherent obligation of a good country like India, with its
tradition for scholarship and original thinking an its great
cultural heritage, to participate fully in the march of science,
which is probably mankind's greatest enterprise today.6
Likewise, the authors of the country's First Five Year Plan
noted: 'In the planned economy of a country, science much
necessarily play a specially important rolePlanning in
science in action, and the scientific method means planning.'
These great 'self-evident truths', however, did not
seem so obvious to many ordinary people in the Third
World, particularly tribals, peasants and others not yet
converted to the Western paradigm. In fact, if the benefits of
modern science were not immediately obvious to them,
neither did development seem to symbolize a better way of
doing routine tasks. On the contrary, development seemed
more of a con-game to ordinary folk. To these perspective
observers, it actually demanded greater sacrifices, more
work, and more boring work, in return for a less secure
livelihood. It required the surrender of subsistence [and its
related economy] in exchange for the dependence and

436 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
insecurity of wage slavery.
Left to its own, development would have made little
headway across the globe. That it did eventually get moving
was du e purely to the coercive power of the new
nation-states which now assumed, in addition to the earlier
controlling function, a conducting function as well. Every
nation-state stepped in voluntarily to force development,
often with the assistance of police and magistrates. If their
citizens were so ignorant that they were unable on their own
to recognize the 'benefits of development', the new states
would have no option but to 'force them to be free'.
Development became coercion: forced relocation to
ujamaa villages, compulsory co-operative, and tying people
up in new forms of organization 'for their own good'. Said
Abel Alier, Sudan's Southern Regional President, during an
Assembly discussion of the controversial Jonglei Canal: 'If
we have to drive our people to paradise with sticks, we will
do so for their good and the good of those who come after
us.'7 The modern state does not understand, much less
accept, the right of people not to be developed.
We must recognize the state's commitment to
development stemmed for its equal commitment to modern
science. Science was an ideal choice because it claimed to be
able to remake reality. It redefined and invented concepts
an d la w s , a n d th e re by re ma de re al i ty a s w el l . It
manufactured new theories about how nature worked, or
more important, should work.
Therefore, when the state in the non-Western world
assumed the role of developer, desirous of creating a new

437 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
society and economy, with an entirely new set of temples
and all, science naturally became the most attractive and
crucial instrument for the purpose. It was Nehru, after all,
who called mammoth development projects the 'temples of
today'.
Neither people nor nature have been spares as
victims of a science-fuelled developmentalism driven on by
the state. Today, the remaking of nature has become a major
preoccupation of officialized ecology. A classic illustration
comes from the approach of scientists to what is called forest
development. Foresters are unable to recreate natural
forests. But that does not bother them. Instead they redefine
forests as plantation, and carry out monocultures under the
label of scientific forestry. Nature is thus replaced with a
substandard substitute. In reality, the afforestation
engineered by modern science becomes the deforestation of
nature.
The state claims its rights to 'develop' people and
nature on the basis of a vision of progress set out in
blueprints supplied by modern science, itself a cultural
product of the West. The people have no role other than as
spectators or cogs in this 'great adventure'. In exchange,
they, or some of them at least, are privileged to consume the
technological wonders that result from the heady union of
development and science. In the eyes of a patronizing state,
this is adequate compensation for a surrender of their
natural rights. As for those who cannot or will not
participate, they must lose their rights. They can be
displaced from the resource arena, their resources being

438 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
transferred instead to big industry.
A Totalitarian Edge
The democratic idea remains the one potential element
available to counter these twin oppressions of modernity.
For democracies are based on the principle of fundamental
human rights. Let us turn to how this potential for this
totalitarianism of modernity was, however, effectively
undermined.
We have probed the congenital links between
modern science and development, and the implied bias in
science against both nature and handicraft production. We
have also discussed how the new nation-states, heavily
committed to development, found in this science an
attractive instrument for their project of remaking their
people in the image of what they believed was an advanced
form of man.
Both these features of the modern science/modern state
relationship indirectly undermined the natural rights of
man. In the first instance, science dismissed all existing
processes in nature and traditional technics as inferior or of
marginal value, thus enabling big industry [capitalist or
statist] to substitute the blueprints supplied by science. Yet
in human history, at least up until the scientific and
industrial revolutions, the technical knowledge necessary for
survival had mostly remained non-centralized and radically
dispersed. Literally millions of arts and technologies existed
- all using a vast variety of accumulated knowledge and
productive of huge quantum of goods, cultural ideas and
symbols stemming from the rich diversity of human

439 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
experience, and based principally on exploiting processes at
ambient temperatures. In many ways, this technical
diversity of the human species more or less paralleled the
genetic diversity of nature itself.
In the second instance, the very conception of what
constituted human normality was itself redefined. People
lost the right to claim that they could function as competent
human beings unless they underwent the indoctrination
required by modernity. It was a priori assumed that they
were deficient as human beings and had to be remade. As
the scientific policy resolution quoted earlier noted: 'India's
enormous resources of manpower can only become an asset
in the modern world when trained or educated'. If in the
process they emerged as pale caricatures of human beings in
more powerful cultures, this was nothing to worry about.
Science and its experts would decide how human beings
would be brought up, trained, and entertained, and what
they should consume.
This is not too difficult for modern science to achieve
primarily because it claims to be associated not only with
greater efficiency but also to have greater explanatory
power. What is more, it claims its explanatory power to
superior to anything ever achieved before in the human past,
because it alone is impartial and therefore objective.
Objectivity was also easy to associate with equality and
democracy, since neutrality was beneficial to all. [The biases
of monarchial forms administration, for instance, were
notorious.] Modern science therefore seemed ideally suited
for modern democracies.

440 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
By implication, everything 'non-scientific' was devalued as
subjective and arbitrary, of marginal value, and could hardly
be made the foundation of public policy.
The so-called scientific revolution of the 17th century
constituted a watershed in thinking about thinking. The
revolution was successful in insinuating a general consensus
that, for the first time in human history, human beings and
succeeded in unraveling a method of gaining knowledge as
certain as the knowledge that earlier had only been available
via revealed scripture. This technique of knowledge
acquisition was so reliable that the knowledge acquired
thereby was for all practical purposes non-negotiable. It was
this claim which would soon conflict with the natural rights
of man.
The indisputable knowledge that science presumed to offer
was kept outside the arena of politics: in no way was it the
consequence of bargaining or choice. In fact, one was no
longer at liberty to choose scientific knowledge as an option
from among other systems of knowledge. Scientific
knowledge was a given. No one was any longer free [and
often encouraged] to reject its statements of religion or art.
The individual who refused to accept the basic scientific
worldview risked being labeled not merely ignorant, but
obscurantist, deviant or irrational.
Two important points here. First, fallible beings, equipped
with an equal fallible instrumentality, reason, were now
staking a claim to an infallible method of generating and
certifying knowledge. Second, rationality itself was being
reduced to nothing more than narrow and biased rationality

441 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
which has precious little to do with how the human mind
actually thinks, although much to do with how some people
think the mind ought to think.
We have to acknowledge that, in its drive for power, modern
Western science could hardly afford to diffident about the
nature of its claims. It was compelled by its own premises to
concentrate and arbitrate all epistemes, and to pretend to do
so impersonally. As the need for certification increased, so
did modern science become less democratic and access to
knowledge itself turned into a matter of privilege and
special training. The layman was now seen as an empty
receptacle to be filled up with the contents of science. He
was to forgo his own knowledge and knowledge-rights.
Another curious paradox here. Scientific reason operated
with a logic that was allegedly independent of personal
factors or whims. It aimed at the formulation of laws
existing independently of persons. Yet it certifiers were
persons, often persons who had a vested interest in the
power of science, and who were dependent on it for their
livelihood. Fallible individuals this exploited the prestige
associated withier discipline to gain a share of political
power. The ballot was surreptitiously replaced, increasingly
by the new scientific priesthood indoctrinated by its shared
assumptions.
This, of course, was diametrically opposed to democratic
functioning where rights are unique and universal and
belong to individuals primarily because they are members of
the species. Such rights include the right to claim true
knowledge and the right to reject impersonal knowledge. A

442 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
right which, in other words, includes the power to certify
knowledge. Under the new tyranny of modern science, such
rights were first assaulted, then extinguished, and ordinary
people were no longer considered as being capable by the
fruit of their own activity of providing or obtaining true and
certain knowledge of the world. This political right was
taken away from all people falling within the ambit of
science's dictatorship. In fact, for the ruling classes which felt
that human rights had been too early democratized, or
unnecessarily so, science now provided an instrument by
which they could take back with one hand what they earlier
been compelled to give away with the other.
Thus planning, science and technology - the technocracy now became the principle means for usurping the people's
rights to the domasins of knowledge and production, for
dismissing the people's right to create knowledge, and
diminishing their right to intervene in matters of public
interest or affecting their own subsistence and survival.
The non-negotiability of modern science, the much vaunted
objectivity of scientific knowledge, the seeming neutrality of
its information, all these seemed positive features to most
reasonable and educated men of different religions, values
and nations. Rationality, the scientific temper and modern
education seemed indisputable and necessary assets of
human life.
However, while science itself advanced its knowledge by
dissent, by the clash of hypotheses, it summarily dismissed
dissent from outside the scientific imperium regarding
either its content or its methods and mode of rationality. The

443 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
non-negotiability of scientific assumptions, methods and
knowledge became a powerful myth elaborately constructed
over several centuries, fed by a feigned ignorance among its
propagandists concerning how it had actually negotiated its
rise and apparently unassailable position.
Scientific knowledge - seen as above emotion, caste,
community, language, religion, and transitional - became the
preferred and primary instrument for transformation not
only above the interest of all, but more importantly,
enforceable on all. Never, in fact, was there so much
agreement among the intellectuals of so many nations,
whether liberals, communists, reactionaries, Gandhians,
conservatives, or even revolutionaries: all succumbed to the
totalitarian temptation of science.
What we have said concerning the power relationship of
modern science with other epistemologies is also true of
what came to obtain between it and technics. Development
based on it came to constitute a dynamic [actively
colonizing] power, committed to a compromising the
survival possibilities and niches of larger and larger masses
of people. By and large, it found the people's knowledge
competitive and therefore offensive. And since it maintained
a contemptuous attitude towards folk science, it also treated
people's rights to use resources in their own way with scant
respect.
Most important of all, the modern state's interest in such
development itself owed much to the latter's constant search
for ways and means to compromise, erode, and oftentimes
severely diminish, personal autonomy, and the creativity

444 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
and political freedom that went with it. In a democracy,
people can govern themselves, but they can hardly do so if
their governments are seriously attempting at the same time
to see whether they can successfully managed and changed.
Once the ordinary people's epistemologic rights were
devalued, the state could proceed to use allegedly scientific
criteria to supplant such rights with officially sponsored and
defined perceptions and needs.
Science's propaganda, that it alone provided a valid
description of nature, was turned into a stick with which to
beat trans-scientific, or folk-scientific, descriptions of nature.
The various 'people's science movements' in India took this
job quite seriously, by functioning as an unofficial
establishment, gallantly attempting to replace the science of
the village sorcerer or tantrik with the barbarism of modern
science's electric shock treatment or frontal lobotomies.
This expansion of the domain of scientific epistemology
involved the most sustained deprivation of others'
epistemologic rights. State policy being committed to this
one epistemology exclusively, abused or ignored others. In
medicine, to take just one example, the bias exercised against
Indian systems of healing in favour of imported allopathy
needs little documentation.
All imperium are intolerant and breed violence. The
arrogance of science concerning its epistemology led it
actively to replace alternatives with its own, superimposing
on nature new and artificial processes. Naturally, the
exercise provoked endless and endemic violence and
suffering as the perceptions of modern science sat clumsily

445 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
and inappropriately on natural systems. Thus, Justas the
Europeans eliminated millions of indigenous Indians from
North and South America and other indigenous populations
elsewhere to make place for their own kind, and Just as their
medicine uprooted other medicine, and their seeds
displaced other seed, so their knowledge project called
modern science attempted to ridicule and wipe out all other
ways of seeing and doing and having.
Knowledge is power, but power is also knowledge. Power
decides what is knowledge and what is not knowledge. Thus
modern science actually attempted to suppress even
non-competitive, but different ways of interacting with man,
nature and the cosmos. It warred to empty the planet of
divergent streams of episteme in order to assert the
unrivalled hegemony of its own batch of rules and set of
perceptions, the latter being clearly linked with the
aggressive thrusts of Western culture.
It is an illusion to think that modern science expanded
possibilities for real knowledge. In actual fact, it made
knowledge scarce. It over-extended certain frontiers,
eliminated or blocked others. Thus it actually narrowed the
possibilities for enriching knowledge available to human
experience. It did appear to generate a phenomenonal
information explosion. But information is information, not
knowledge. The most that can be said of information is that
it is but knowledge degraded distorted form. Science should
have been critically understood not as an instrument for
expanding knowledge, but for colonizing and controlling the
direction of knowledge, and cons equ ently hu man

446 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
behaviour, within a straight and narrow path conducive to
the design of the project.
Is, then, the defeat total? No. The planet has not
succumbed to appropriation by modern science everywhere.
Indeed the outward symbols of science - agribusiness food,
nuclear reactors, gigantic dams - are facing rebellion across
the globe. And if those who have tasted the empty fruits of
modern science are disillusioned with them, others have
refused to taste them at all. Millions of farmers for instance,
reject the modern rice strains manufactured by cereal
research centres controlled by agribusiness. Citizens across
the planet are rejecting modern allopathic medicine to
varying degrees. Millions of ordinary people reject the idea
of living by the distorting [and distorted] values associated
with modern science.
In a country like India, 40 years of state sponsorship of
science and all its works have been unable to bolster its
failing reputation. In 1976, the late Prime Minister Mrs
Indira Gandhi made the propagation of scientific temper one
of the fundamental duties of Indian citizens, and amended
the Constitution accordingly. Despite this there is an even
greater sens e of cris is among the Indian scientific
community, which finds itself every decade more and more
out of tune with Indian society's principal preoccupations.
This sense of failure has irreversibly crippled much of the
thrust to push India into the strait-jacket prepared for it by
the project of modern science. The people in non-Western
societies do not merely not co-operate with the principal
designs, they indicate they do not care a fig for the West and

447 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
its creations.
In many areas, the non-cooperation has become
aggressive. People, groups, villages have openly rejected
modernizing development and stubbornly insisted on
maintaining their ways of life, their ambient interactions
with nature, and the arts of subsistence. The revolt against
development is bound to be at another level a revolt against
modern science and the violence it symbolizes. This was
Mahatma Gandhi's view. It will eventually become the view
of those interested in protecting the natural rights of man
and nature everywhere.
References:
1.

Indian Science Policy Resolution, 1958, in W. Morehouse,

Science in India, Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1971, p. 138.


2.

C.V. Seshadri and V. Balaji, Towards a New Science of

Agriculture, Madras: MCRC, undated, p. 4.


3.

S.N. Nagarajan, in a personal communication to the author

dated 7th May 1990.


4.

See Claude Alvares, Science, Development and Violence, New

Delhi: Oxford University Press, forthecoming for a detailed argument.


5.

In Ruth Gruber (ed.), Science and the New Nations, London:

Andre Deutsch, 1963, p. 34.


6.

The entire Science Policy resolution is to be found in Ward

Morehouse, op. cit., pp. 138-40.


7.

Qouted in E. Goldsmith and N. Hildyard, The Social and

Environmental Effects of Large Dams, Wadebridge: Wadebridge


Ecological Centre, 1984, p. 18.

448 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

"Seeking New Laws of Nature"


Richard Feynman
What I want to talk about in this lecture is not,
strictly speaking, the character of physical law. One might
imagine at least that one is talking about nature when one is
talking about the character of physical law; but I do not want
to talk about nature, but rather about how we stand relative
to nature now. I want to tell you . . . what there is to guess,
and how one goes about guessing. Someone suggested that
it would be ideal if, as I went along, I would slowly explain
how to guess a law, and then end by creating a new law for
you. I do not know whether I shall be able to do that. . . .
In general we look for a new law by the following
pr oc e s s . Fi r s t w e gu e s s i t. T h en w e co mp u te t he
consequences of the guess to see what would be implied if
this law that we guessed is right. Then we compare the
result of the computation to nature with experiment or
experience, compare it directly with observation, to see if it
works. If it disagrees with experiment it is wrong. In that
simple statement is the key to science. It does not make any
difference how beautiful your guess is. It does not make any
difference how smart you are, who made the guess, or what
his name is- if it disagrees with experiment it is wrong. That
is all there is to it. It is true that one has to check a little to
make sure that it is wrong, because whoever did the
experiment may have reported incorrectly, or there may

449 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
have been some feature in the experiment that was not
noticed, some dirt or something; or the man who computed
the consequences, even though it may have been the one
who made the guesses, could have made some mistake in
the analysis. These are obvious remarks, so when I say if it
disagrees with experiment it is wrong, I mean after the
experiment has been checked, the calculations have been
checked, and the thing has been rubbed back and forth a few
times to make sure that the consequences are logical
consequences from the guess, and that in fact it disagrees
with a very carefully checked experiment.
This will give you a some what wrong impression of
science. It suggests that we keep on guessing possibilities
and comparing them with experiment, and this is to put
experiment into a rather weak position. In fact
experimenters have a certain individual character. They like
to do experiments even if nobody has guessed yet and they
very often do their experiments in a region in which people
know the theorist has not made any guesses. For instance,
we may know a great many laws, but do not know whether
they really work at high energy, because it is just a good
guess that they work at high energy. Experimenters have
tried experiments at higher energy, and in fact every once in
a while experiment produces trouble; that is, it produces a
discovery that one of the things we thought right is wrong.
In this way experiment can produce unexpected results, and
that starts us guessing again. One instance of an unexpected
result is the M meson and its neutrino, which was not
guessed by anybody at all before it was discovered, and
even today nobody yet has any method of guessing by
which this would be a natural result.
You can see, of course, that with this method we can
attempt to disprove any definite theory. If we have a definite

450 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
theory, a real guess, from which we can conveniently
compute - consequences which can be compared with
experiment, then in principle we can get rid of any theory.
There is always the possibility of proving any definite theory
wrong; but notice that we can never prove it right. Suppose
that you invent a good guess, calculate the consequences,
and discover every time that the consequences you have
calculated agree with experiment. The theory is then right?
No, it is simply not proved wrong. In the future you could
compute a wider range of consequences, there could be a
wider range of experiments; and you might then discover
that the thing is wrong. That is why laws like Newton's laws
for the motion of planets last such a long time. He guessed
the law of gravitation, calculated all kinds of consequences
for the system and it took several hundred years before the
slight error the motion of Mercury was observed. During all
that time the theory had not been proved wrong. and could
be taken temporarily to be right. But it could never be
proved right, because tomorrow's experiment might succeed
in proving wrong what you thought was right. We never
are definitely right. we can only be sure we are wrong.
However. it is rather remarkable how we can have some
ideas which will last so long.
One of the ways of stopping science would be only
to do experiments in the region where you know the law.
But experimenters search most diligently, and with the
greatest effort, in exactly those places where it seems most
likely that we can prove our theories wrong. In other words
we are trying to prove ourselves wrong as quickly as
possible, because only in the way can we find progress. For
example, today among ordinary low energy phenomena we
do not know where to look for trouble, we think everything
is all right, and so there is no particular big programme

451 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
looking for trouble in nuclear reactions, or in
super-conductivity. In these lectures I am concentrating on
discovering fundamental laws. The whole range of physics,
which is interesting, includes also an understanding at
another level of these phenomena like super-conductivity
and nuclear reactions, in terms of the fundamental laws. But
I am talking now about discovering trouble, something
wrong with fundamental laws, and since among low energy
phen ome na no bod y k now s whe re to lo ok, a ll the
experiments today in this field of finding out a new law, are
of high energy.
Another thing I must point out is that you cannot
prove a vague theory wrong. If the guess that you make is
poorly expressed and rather vague, and the method that you
use for figuring out the consequences is a little vague you
are not sure, and you say, "I think everything's right because
its all due to so and so, and such and such do this and that
more or less, and I can sort of explain how this works. . . ,"
then you see that this theory is good, because it cannot be
proved wrong! Also if the process of computing the
consequences is indefinite, then with a little skill any
experimental results can be made to look like the expected
consequences. You are probably familiar with that in other
fields. "A" hates his mother. The reason is, of course, because
she did not caress him or love him enough when he was a
child. But if you investigate you find out that as a matter of
fact she did love him very much, and everything was all
right. Well then, it was because she was over-indulgent
when he was a child! By having a vague theory it is possible
to get either result. The cure for this one is the following. If it
were possible to state exactly, ahead of time, how much love
is not enough, and how much love is over-indulgent, then
there would be a perfectly legitimate theory against which

452 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
you could make tests. It is usually saidwhen this is pointed
out, "When you are dealing with psychological matters
things can't be defined so precisely." Yes, but then you
cannot claim to know anything about it.
You will be horrified to hear that we have examples
in physics of exactly the same kind. We have these
approximate symmetries, which work something like this.
You have an approximate symmetry, so you calculate a set
of consequences supposing it to be perfect. When compared
with experiment, it does not agree. Of course the
symmetry you are supposed to expect is approximate, so if
the agreement is pretty good you say, "Nice!," while if the
agreement is very poor you say, "Well, this particular thing
must be especially sensitive to the failure of the symmetry."
Now you may laugh, but we have to make progress in that
way. When a subject is first new, and these particles are new
to us, this jockeying around, this "feeling" way of guessing at
the results, is the beginning of any science. The same thing is
true of the symmetry proposition in physics as is true of
psychology, so do not laugh too hard. It is necessary in the
beginning to be very careful. It is easy to fall into the deep
end by this kind of vague theory. It is hard, to prove it
wrong, and it takes a certain skill and experience not to walk
off the plank in the game. . . .
Because I am a theoretical physicist, and more
delighted with this end of the problem, I want now to
concentrate on how to make the guesses.
As I said before, it is not of any importance where
the guess comes from; it is only important that it should
agree with experiment, and that it should be as definite as
possible. "Then," you say, "that is very simple. You set up a
machine, a great computing machine, which has a random
wheel in it that makes a succession of guesses, and each time

453 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
it guesses a hypothesis about how nature should work it
computes immediately the consequences, and makes a
comparison with a list of experimental results it has at the
other end." In other words, guessing is a dumb man's job.
Actually it is quite the opposite, and I will try to explain
why.
The first problem is how to start. You say, "Well I'd
start off with all the known principles." But all the principles
that are known are inconsistent with each other, so
something has to be removed. We get a lot of letters from
people insisting that we ought to make holes in our guesses.
You see, you make a hole, to make room for a new guess.
Somebody says, "You know, you people always say that
space is continuous. How do you know when you get to a
small enough dimension that there really are enough points
in between, that it isn't just a lot of dots separated by little
distances?" Or they say, "You know those quantum mechanical amplitudes you told me about, they're so complicated
and absurd, what makes you think those are right? May be
they aren't right." Such remarks are obvious and are
perfectly clear to anybody who is working on this problem.
It does not do any good to point this out. The problem is not
only what might be wrong but what, precisely, might be
substituted in place of it. In the case of the continuous space,
suppose the precise proposition is that space really consists
of a series of dots, and that the space between them does not
mean anything, and that the dots are in a cubic array. Then
we can prove immediately that this is wrong. It does not
work. The problem is not just to say something might be
wrong, but to replace it by something and that is not so
easy. As soon as any really definite idea is substituted it
becomes almost immediately apparent that it does not work.
The second difficulty is that there is an infinite

454 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
number of possibilities of these simple types. It is something
like this. You are sitting working very hard, you have
worked for a long time trying to open a safe. Then some Joe
comes along who knows nothing about what you are doing,
except that you are trying to open the safe. He says "Why
don't you try the combination 10:20:30?" Maybe you know
already that the middle number is 32, not 20. Maybe you
know as a matter of fact that it is a five-digit combination. . .
. So please do not send me any letters trying to tell me how
the thing is going to work. I read them I always read
them to make sure that I have not already thought of what is
suggested but it takes too long to answer them, because
they are usually in the class "try 10:20:30." As usual, nature's
imagination far surpasses our own, as we have seen from the
other theories which are subtle and deep. To get such a
subtle and deep guess is not so easy. One must be really
clever to guess, and it is not possible to do it blindly by
machine.
I want to discuss now the art of guessing nature's
laws. It is an art. How is it done? One way you might
suggest is to look at history to see how the other guys did it.
So we look at history.
We must start with Newton. He had a situation
where he had incomplete knowledge, and he was able to
guess the laws by putting together ideas which were all
relatively close to experiment; there was not a great distance
between the observations and the tests. That was the first
way, but today it does not work so well.
The next guy who did something great was Maxwell,
who obtained the laws of electricity and magnetism. What
he did was this. He put together all the laws of electricity,
due to Faraday and other people who came before him, and
he looked at them and realized that they were

455 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
mathematically inconsistent. In order to straighten it out he
had to add one term to an equation. He did this by inventing
for himself a model of idler wheels and gears and so on in
space. He found what the new law was but nobody paid
much attention because they did not believe in the idler
wheels. We do not believe in the idler wheels today, but the
equations that he obtained were correct. So the logic may be
wrong but the answer is right.
In the case of relativity the discovery was completely
different. There was an accumulation of paradoxes; the
known laws gave inconsistent results. This was a new kind
of thinking, a thinking in terms of discussing the possible
symmetries of laws. It was especially difficult, because for
the first time it was realized how long something like
Newton's laws could seem right, and still ultimately be
wrong. Also it was difficult to accept that ordinary ideas of
time and space, which seemed so instinctive, could be
wrong.
Qu antu m mechanics was dis covered in two
independent ways which is a lesson. There again, and
even more so, an enormous number of paradoxes were
discovered experimentally, things that absolutely could not
be explained in any way by what was known. It was not that
the knowledge was incomplete, but that the knowledge was
too complete. Your prediction was that this should
happen it did not. The two different routes were one by
Schrodinger, who guessed the equation, the other by
Heisenberg, who argued that you must analyze what is
measurable. These two different philosophical methods led
to the same discovery in the end.
More recently, the discovery of the laws of the weak
decay I spoke of, when a neutron disintegrates into a proton,
an electron and an anti-neutrino which are still only

456 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
partly known add up to a somewhat different situation.
This time it was a case of incomplete knowledge, and only
the equation was guessed. The special difficulty this time
was that the experiments were all wrong. How can you
guess the right answer if, when you calculate the result, it
disagrees with experiment? You need courage to say the
experiments must be wrong. I will explain where that
courage comes from later.
Today we have no paradoxesmaybe. We have this
infinity that comes in when we put all the laws together, but
the people sweeping the dirt under the rug are so clever that
one sometimes thinks this is not a serious paradox. Again,
the fact that we have found all these particles does not tell us
anything except that our knowledge is incomplete. I am sure
that history does not repeat itself in physics, as you can tell
from looking at the examples I have given. The reason is
this. Any schemes such as "think of symmetry laws," or
"put the information in mathematical form", or "guess
equations" are known to everybody now, and they are all
tried all the time. When you are struck, the answer cannot be
one of these, because you will have tried these right away.
There must be another way next time. Each time we get into
this log-jam of too much trouble, too many problems, it is
because the methods that we are using are just like the ones
we have used before. The next scheme, the new discovery,
is going to be made in a completely different way. So history
does not help us much. . . .
It is not unscientific to make a guess, although many
people who are not in science think it is. Some years ago I
had a conversation with a layman about flying saucers
because I am scientific I know all about flying saucers! I said
"I don't think there are flying saucers." So my antagonist
said, "Is it impossible that there are flying saucers? Can you

457 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
prove that there are flying saucers? Can you prove that it's
impossible?" "No," I said, "I can't prove it's impossible. It's
just very unlikely." At that he said, "You are very
unscientific. If you can't prove it impossible then how can
you say that it's unlikely?" But that is the way that is
scientific. It is scientific only to say what is more likely and
what is less likely, and not to be proving all the time the
possible and impossible. To define what I mean, I might
have said to him, "Listen, I mean that from my knowledge of
the world that I see around me, I think, that it is much more
likely that the reports of flying saucers are the results of the
known irrational characteristics of terrestrial intelligence
than of the unknown rational efforts of extraterrestrial
intelligence." It is just more likely, that is all. It is a good
guess. And we always try to guess the most likely
explanation, keeping in the back of the mind the fact that if it
does not work we must discuss the other possibilities. . . .
That reminds me of another point, that the
philos ophy o r ideas arou nd a theory may change
enormously when there are very tiny changes in the theory.
For instance, Newton's ideas about space and time agreed
with experiment very well, but in order to get the correct
motion of the orbit of Mercury, which was a tiny, tiny
difference, the difference in the character of the theory
needed was enormous. The reason is that Newton's laws
were so simple and so perfect, and they produced definite
results. In order to get something that would produce a
slightly different result it had to be completely different. In
stating a new law you cannot make imperfections on a
perfect thing; you have to have another perfect thing. So the
difference in philosophical ideas between Newton's and
Einstein's theories of gravitation are enormous.
What are these philosophies? They are really tricky

458 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
ways to compute consequences quickly. A philosophy,
which is sometimes called an understanding of the law, is
simply a way that a person hold the laws in his mind in
order to guess quickly at consequences. Some people have
said, and it is true in cases "like Maxwell's equations, "Never
mind the philosophy, never mind anything of this kind, just
guess the equations. The problem is only to compute the
answers so that they agree with experiment, and it is not
necessary to have a philosophy, or argument, or words,
about the equation." That is good in the sense that if you
only guess the equation you are not prejudicing yourself,
and you will guess better. On the other hand, maybe the
philosophy helps you to guess. It is very hard to say.
For those people who insist that the only thing that is
important is that the theory agrees with experiment, I would
like to imagine a discussion between a Mayan astronomer
and his student. The Mayans were able to calculate with
great precision predictions, for example, for eclipses and for
the position of the moon in the sky, the position of Venus,
etc. It was all done by arithmetic. They counted a certain
number and subtracted some numbers, and so on. There was
no discussion of what the moon was. There was no
discussion even of the idea that it went around. They just
calculated the time when there would be an eclipse, or when
the moon would rise at the full, and so on. Suppose that a
young man went to the astronomer and said, "I have an idea
May be those things are going around, and there are balls of
something like rocks out there, and we could calculate how
they move in a completely different way from just
calculating what time they appear in the sky." "Yes," says the
astronomer, "and how accurately can you predict eclipses?"
He says, "I haven't developed the thing very far yet." Then
says the astronomer, "Well, we can calculate eclipses more

459 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
accurately than you can with your model, so you must not
pay any attention to your idea because obviously the
mathematical scheme is better." There is a very strong
tendency, when someone comes up with an idea and says,
"Let's suppose that the world is this way," for people to say
to him, "What would you get for the answer to such and
such a problem?" And he says, "I haven't developed it far
enough." And they say, "Well, we have already developed it
much further, and we can get the answers very accurately."
So it is a problem whether or not to worry about
philosophies behind ideas.
Another way of working, of course, is to guess new
principles. In Einstein's theory of gravitation he guessed, on
top o f al l th e ot her pri nci ple s , t he p rin cip le t hat
corresponded to the idea that the forces are always
proportional to the masses. He guessed the principle that if
you are in an accelerating car you cannot distinguish that
from being in a gravitational field, and by adding that
principle to all the other principles, he was able to deduce
the correct laws of gravitation.
That outlines a number of possible ways of
guessing. I would now like to come to some other points
about the final result. First of all, when we are all finished,
and we have a mathematical theory by which we can
compute consequences, what can we do? It really is an
amazing thing. In order to figure out what an atom is going
to do in a given situation we make up rules with marks on
paper, carry them into a machine which has switches that
open and close in some complicated way, and the result will
tell us what the atom is going to do! If the way that these
switches open and close were some kind of model of the
atom, if we thought that the atom had switches in it, then I
would say that I understood more or less what is going on. I

460 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
find it quite amazing that it is possible to predict what will
happen by mathematics, which is simply following rules
which really have nothing to do with what is going on in the
original thing. The closing and opening of switches in a
computer is quite different from what is happening in
nature.
One of the most important thing in this
"guess-compute consequences compare with experiment"
business is to know when you are right. It is possible to
know when you are right way ahead of checking all the
consequences. You can recognize truth by its beauty and
simplicity. It is always easy when you have made a guess,
and done two or three little calculations to make sure that it
is not obviously wrong, to know that it is right at least if
you have any experience because usually what happens is
that more comes out than goes in. Your guess is, in fact, that
something is very simple. If you cannot "see immediately
that it is wrong, and it is simpler than it was before, then it is
right. The inexperienced, and crackpots, and people like
that, make guesses that are simple, but you can immediately
see that they are wrong, so that does not count. Others, the
inexperienced students, make guesses that are very
complicated, and it sort of looks as if it is all right, but I
know it is not true because the truth always turns out to be
simpler than you thought. What we need is imagination, but
imagination in a terrible straitjacket. We have to find a new
view of the world that has to agree with everything that is
known, but disagree in its predictions somewhere, otherwise
it is not interesting. And in that disagreement it must agree
with nature. If you can find any other view of the world
which agrees over the entire range where things have
already been observed, but disagrees somewhere else, you
have made a great discovery. It is very nearly impossible,

461 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
but not quite to find any theory which agrees with
experiments over the entire range in which all theories have
been checked, and yet gives different consequences in some
other range, even a theory whose different consequences do
not turn out to agree with nature. A new idea is extremely
difficult to think of. It takes a fantastic imagination.
What of the future of this adventure? What will
happen ultimately? We are going along guessing the laws;
how many laws are we going to have to guess? I do not
know. Some of my colleagues say that this fundamental
aspect of our science will go on; but I think there will
certainly certainly not be perpetual novelty, say for a
thousand years. This thing cannot keep on going so that we
are always going to discover more and more new laws. If we
do, it will become boring that there are so many levels one
underneath the other. It seems to me that -what can happen
in the future is either that all the laws become knownthat
is, if you had enough laws you could compute consequences
and they would always agree with experiment, which would
be the end of the line or it may happen that the experiments get harder and harder to make, more and more
expensive, so you get 99.9 per cent of the phenomena, but
there is always some phenomenon which has just been
discovered, which is very hard to measure, and which
disagrees; and as soon as you have the explanation of that
one there is always another one, and it gets slower and
slower and more and more uninteresting. That is another
way it may end. But I think it has to end in one way or
another.
We are very lucky to live in an age in which we are
still making discoveries. It is like the discovery of
America you only discover it once. The age in which we
live is the age in which we are discovering the fundamental

462 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
laws of nature, and that day will never come again. It is very
exciting, it is marvellous, but this excitement will have to go.
Of course in the future there will be other interests. There
will be the interest of the connection of one level of
phenomena to anotherphenomena in biology and so on,
or, if you are talking about exploration, exploring other
planets, but there will not still be the same things that we are
doing now.
Another thing that will happen is that ultimately, if it
turns out that all is known, or it gets very dull, the vigorous
philosophy and the careful attention to all these things that I
have been talking about will gradually disappear. The
philosophers who are always on the outside making stupid
remarks will be able to close in, because we cannot push
them away by saying, "If you were right we would be able to
guess all the rest of the laws," because when the laws are all
there they will have an explanation for them. For instance,
there are always explanations about why the world is
three-dimensional. Well, there is only one world, and it is
hard to tell if that explanation is right or not, so that if
everything were known there would be some explanation
about why those were the right laws. But that explanation
would be in a frame that we cannot criticize by arguing that
type of reasoning will not permit us to go further. There will
be a degeneration of ideas, just like the degeneration that
great explorers feel is occurring when tourists begin moving
in on a territory.
In this age people are experiencing a delight, the
tremendous delight that you get when you guess how
nature will work in a new situation never seen before. From
experiments and information in a certain range you can
guess what is going to happen in a region where no one has
ever explored before. It is a little different from regular

463 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

e
exploration in that there are enough clues on the land
discovered to guess what the land that has not been
discovered is going to look like. These guesses, incidentally,
are often very different from what you have already seen
they take a lot of thought.
What is it about nature that lets this happen, that it is
possible to guess from one part what the rest is going to do?
That is an unscientific question: I do not know how to
answer it, and therefore I am going to give an unscientific
answer. I think it is because nature has a simplicity and
therefore a great beauty.1

1. Richard Feynmer, ''Seeking NewLaws of Nature'' in The character of

Physical Law

464 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

465 ~ 6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

466 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

467 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

468 ~6 :b+
h.
]gzZxsZ

E-mail:nawadraat8@gmail.com

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen