Accepted Manuscript

Title: On The Impact of Urban Heat Island and Global

Warming on the Power Demand and Electricity Consumption
of BuildingsA Review
Author: M. Santamouris C. Cartalis A. Synnefa D. Kolokotsa
PII:
DOI:
Reference:

S0378-7788(14)00790-7
http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.09.052
ENB 5350

To appear in:

ENB

Received date:
Accepted date:

31-7-2014
5-9-2014

Please cite this article as: M. Santamouris, C. Cartalis, A. Synnefa, D. Kolokotsa, On

The Impact of Urban Heat Island and Global Warming on the Power Demand and
Electricity Consumption of BuildingsndashA Review, Energy and Buildings (2014),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.09.052
This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication.
As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript.
The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof
before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process
errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that
apply to the journal pertain.

On The Impact of Urban Heat Island and Global Warming on the Power
Demand and Electricity Consumption of Buildings A Review

D. Kolokotsa
Technical University Crete, Greece

us

Abstract

cr

and

ip
t

M. Santamouris*, C. Cartalis, A. Synnefa,

Physics Department, University of Athens, Greece,
and
*The Cyprus Institute, Nicosia Cyprus
msantam@phys.uoa.gr

Urban heat island and global warming increase significantly the ambient temperature. Higher

an

temperatures have a serious impact on the electricity consumption of the building sector
increasing considerably the peak and the total electricity demand. The present paper aims to
collect, analyse and present in a comparative way existing studies investigating the impact of

ambient temperature increase on electricity consumption. Analysis of eleven studies dealing

with the impact of the ambient temperature on the peak electricity demand showed that for

ed

each degree of temperature increase, the increase of the peak electricity load varies between
0,45 % to 4,6 %. This corresponds to an additional electricity penalty of about 21 (10,4) W
per degree of temperature increase and per person. In parallel, analysis of fifteen studies

ce
pt

examining the impact of ambient temperature on the total electricity consumption, showed that
the actual increase of the electricity demand per degree of temperature increase varies

Ac

between 0,5 % to 8,5 %.

1. Introduction

Increase of the near surface ambient temperature in cities is very well documented[1], [2].
Urban overheating is the combined result of the urban heat island developed mainly in cities
with a positive thermal balance and of the global warming which affects the urban climate as
well. Although the impact of urban heat island is very well studied, the specific impact of the
global warming on the urban climate is poorly understood[3]. Urban heat island studies are
available for almost all major cities in the world and the corresponding urban heat island
intensity is tabulated and reported by many authors [4], [5]. The reported intensity of the UHI

Page 1 of 17

phenomena varies mainly as a function of the local topographical characteristics, the synoptic
weather conditions,

the urban characteristics like density, form and land use/cover,

anthropogenic heat released, materials used, view factor, etc while it is also highly influenced
by the characteristics of the selected rural station [6].
Urban warming has a serious impact on the energy consumption of the urban buildings by
increasing the energy and the electric power necessary for cooling needs [7], [8]. In parallel,

ip
t

higher ambient urban temperatures increase the concentration of certain pollutants like

tropospheric ozone,[9], deteriorate thermal comfort conditions in cities, [10], [11], exacerbate

cr

health and indoor environmental problems[12], [13]] and result in a serious increase of the
global ecological footprint of the cities [14].

us

Weather variations have an important impact on the electricity demand and the general
electricity market [15]. Several studies are carried out to examine the impact of various primary

an

climatic parameters such as humidity, solar radiation, wind speed, etc, on the local electricity
demand, while secondary climatic parameters such as the heating and cooling degree days are
also considered, [16], [17]. In parallel, many economic, social and demographic indices such as

the local Gross Domestic Product (GDP) , the growth rate, the energy prices, the local
manufacturing levels, etc., are also used as input parameters to estimate the electricity

ed

demand,[18], [19] . Most of the studies have concluded that ambient temperature is the
parameter presenting the highest impact on the variation of the electricity demand [16].
The relation between the daily electricity consumption and the corresponding ambient

ce
pt

temperature is not linear. It presents a high seasonality whereas the curve of the electricity
demand obtains its peak value during the coldest period of winter in heating dominated zones
or during the warmest summer period in cooling dominated zones. In winter, the relation
between ambient temperature and electricity demand is negative as higher ambient

Ac

temperatures decrease the need for heating. On the contrary, the relation is positive during the
summer period where higher ambient temperatures increase the need for cooling. The
respective curve between the electricity demand and the ambient temperature is usually of
asymmetric U shape, where a) the minimum consumption corresponds to the neutral climatic
period when heating and cooling are insignificant and b) the energy demand is almost inelastic
to the temperature and c) the maximum consumption corresponds to the periods of the lower
and/or higher ambient temperatures depending on the local climate [20]. The threshold
temperature over which the electricity consumption starts to increase, known as the inflection
point of the response function, depends on the difference between the indoor comfort
temperatures and the ambient ones. It is a strong function of the thermal quality of the building

Page 2 of 17

stock and of the indoor temperatures set for comfort. In a general approach, it is assumed that
the inflection point is around 18,3 C; however analysis of specific data for 15 European
countries showed that it is close to 14,7 C for the heating dominated countries and 22,4 C for
the cooling dominated zones, [21].
Increasing use of air conditioning as a result of temperature increase and the improvement of
the living standards had enforced and made more pronounced the correlation between the

ip
t

electricity demand and the outdoor ambient temperature above the threshold levels. The

problem seems to be more significant in cooling dominated zones. In fact, a study examining

cr

the temperature elasticity of the electricity demand for six countries with warm climate
(Australia, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Thailand, Venezuela), twenty one countries with mild

us

climate (Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland, Luxembourg, Netherlands,

New Zealand, Switzerland, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Korea, Portugal, South Africa, Spain,

an

Turkey, United Kingdom, United States), and four countries with cold climate (Canada, Finland,
Norway, Sweden), concluded that the temperature elasticity for the warm countries is close to

1,7 %, while for the mild and cold countries is 0,54 % and 0,51 % respectively, [22].
The aim of the present paper is to collect, analyze and present in a comparative way most of
the important studies aiming to evaluate the impact of urban and global warming on electricity

ed

demand. Two type of articles are considered and presented, a) those studying the impact of
ambient temperature on the peak electricity demand and b) those dealing with the impact of

ce
pt

ambient temperature on the electricity consumption in a city or state.

2. The Impact of High Ambient Temperatures on Electricity Demand
In order to manage the electricity consumption in an efficient way and forecast future electricity
needs induced mainly by the urban overheating and global warming, utilities establish and use

Ac

response functions to estimate the additional electricity needs per degree of temperature
increase or the elasticity of the demand regarding the ambient temperature, (increase of the
ambient temperature by 1 %). Response functions are mostly developed for the total electricity
demand in a place; in rare cases the specific functions concerning the residential and
commercial sectors are also available. Existing literature reports either the response function
for the peak electricity demand or for the hourly, daily, monthly or even annual electricity
consumption. Table 1 summarizes the existing literature with respect to the impact of ambient
overheating on the peak electricity demand and electricity consumption. Twenty nine studies
are analysed and reported: eleven studies deal with the impact of ambient overheating on the

Page 3 of 17

peak electricity demand and eighteen studies discuss the impact of urban warming on the
global electricity consumption.
2.1 Increase of the Peak Electricity Demand
Increase of the peak electricity demand is a serious problem for utilities as they are obliged to
build additional power plants to satisfy the demand, a fact which increases the cost of the
electricity generation. Data on the impact of ambient overheating on the peak electricity

ip
t

demand are available for Tokyo [23], Thailand[24] , Ontario East Canada [25] , Los Angeles,

Washington, Dallas, Colorado Springs, Phoenix and Tuscon [26], Israel [27] and Pert of

cr

Carolina USA [28]. Figure 1 summarizes the main results of the above studies. In particular, the
base electrical load and its percentage rise per degree of ambient temperature increase is

us

given. In parallel, the inflection point of the response functions i.e. the threshold temperature
over which the cooling demands starts to increase is reported when known.

an

As shown, the rise of the peak electrical load per degree of ambient temperature increase,
varies between 0,45 % to 4,6 %. The lower values are observed for Tokyo and the higher for
Thailand. The average increase rate between all considered cases is close to 2,65 % while the

average increase of the electric load is 226 MW per degree of temperature increase. The base
electrical load of the reported cases varied between 0,4 GW to almost 40 GW. Considering the

ed

average population of the considered cases, it is estimated that the average peak electricity
penalty per person is close to 21 (10,4) W per degree of temperature increase. The threshold
ambient temperature over which the cooling demand starts to increase varied between 13 C to

ce
pt

24 C, but for most of the cases was above 18 C. The inflection point temperature was not
correlated to the rate of increase of the peak electricity demand.
As expected, the specific data indicates that the sensitivity of the electricity network on the
additional cooling demand triggered by the ambient overheating depends highly on the degree

Ac

of penetration of air conditioning in the considered area, the thermal quality of the building
stock, the considered indoor comfort temperatures and the specific characteristics of the basic
electricity load In the event that, the reported data of the basic peak electricity demand includes
the consumption of the industrial sector, the sensitivity to the temperature increase is
considerably lower given that the industrial production is not affected seriously by the
temperature increase. On the contrary, when the basic peak electricity load reflects mainly the
consumption of the residential sector as well as the temperature depended commercial sector,
the sensitivity to any temperature increase is quite high.
2.2 Increase of the Global Electricity Consumption

Page 4 of 17

Increased electricity consumption for cooling, induce considerable stress to low income
consumers, the vulnerable population and also the electricity infrastructures and networks.
Concerning the increase of the global electricity consumption per degree of temperature rise,
studies are available for fifteen cities, states or countries. In particular, Bangkok Thailand, [19],
Spain, [20] California USA and part of the state, [28] Athens Greece [29], New Orleans USA,
[30], Hong Kong,[31][32], Ohio USA, [33] Louisiana USA, Greece, [34] Chicago USA, [35]

ip
t

Maryland USA, [36] Massachusetts USA[37] Singapore [38] and The Netherlands, [39].
Studies refer to the specific impact of temperature rise on the hourly, daily and monthly

cr

electricity demand.

In terms of the increase of the electricity demand in countries, it is reported that in Spain the

us

increase of the daily electricity demand caused by one degree temperature rise is close to 8
GWh per day which is equivalent to the 1,6 % of the basic daily consumption. The threshold

an

temperature under which electricity consumption for cooling starts to increase is close to 18 C,
[20]. In Greece, the corresponding increase of the daily electricity demand is close to 1,1 %

[34] . However, if a similar increase is also applied in two previous days then the demand
increases by 1,9 %, whereas the threshold temperature is around 18,5 C. In the Netherlands,
the daily electricity demand increases by about 0, 5 % during the summer months, and for

ed

threshold temperatures below 18 C, [39]. In Singapore the hourly temperature elasticity levels
varies between 0,3 to 0,8 %, [38]. Given the actual temperatures in the country, this is
of the hourly consumption per degree of

ce
pt

translated to an increase of about 1-2,5 %

temperature rise. In Hong Kong, it is estimated that the increase of the monthly electricity
consumption is 111 GWh per degree of temperature rise, or 4 % of the basic load, whereas the
threshold temperature is 18 C, [31].

Ac

Data on the additional electricity consumption triggered by the ambient overheating is available
for various States in USA. In particular, in part of the State of California including San Hose,
Sacramento, Pomona and Fresno the increase of the daily electricity consumption is estimated
around 2,9 % per degree of temperature rise, (DTR)for temperatures above 15 C, [33]. For the
whole area of California, the monthly electricity demand increases by 7,7 % per degree of
temperature rise above 17 C, and the corresponding energy penalty is estimated around 27
kWh per person, [28]. In a similar way, the corresponding increase of the monthly electricity
consumption for Ohio, Louisiana and Maryland USA, are 7,5 %, 8,5 % and 8,5 % respectively
and the energy penalty is close to 30, 40 and 22 kWh/person [33]. The threshold temperatures
are 16 C for Ohio, 20 C for Louisiana and 15,6 C for the residential sector and 11,7 C for the

Page 5 of 17

commercial sector in Maryland. Finally, for Massachusetts, it is estimated that the monthly
residential electricity demand increases in a rate close to 6,5 % per degree of temperature rise
above 15,5 C resulting in a penalty of 9 kWh/person, [37]. For the commercial sector the
corresponding rate of increase is close to 3 % per DTR for temperatures above 12,8 C; this
results in an additional demand of 12,7 kWh/person and month, [37].

ip
t

Information on the increase of the electricity demand per degree of temperature rise is
available for several cities in the world. In New Orland, USA, it is reported that the daily

electricity load increases to about 3 % per DTR and for threshold temperatures between 20-25

cr

C,[30]. In Bangkok Thailand the corresponding increase is quite high and close to 7,5 % per

degree of temperature rise [19]. In Athens, the increase is calculated close to 4,1 % per DTR

us

for temperatures above 22 C [29]. Finally, in Chicago USA, the estimated increase of the hourly

an

load is close to 200 MWh per degree of temperature rise above 15 to 17 C,[35].

Figure 2 presents in a comparative way the percentage increase of the electricity demand per
degree of temperature rise for all the above studies. The hourly, daily or monthly electricity
penalty varies between 0,5 % to 8,5 % with an average value close to 4,6 %. Higher

ed

temperature elasticity are reported for some USA states because of the very high penetration
and use of air conditioning in the respective areas. The threshold temperatures under which the

ce
pt

electricity demand starts to increase varies in average between 11,7 C to 22 C. Higher

threshold temperatures are observed in warm zones dominated by the cooling energy demand.
3. Conclusions

Global warming and urban heat island increase the ambient temperature and intensify the

Ac

energy consumption for cooling purposes of buildings and other structures. At the same time, in
heating dominated climates, a rise of the ambient temperature may offer beneficial and positive
energy results in terms of restricting cooling needs.
The major impact of ambient temperature rise is related to the possible increase of the peak
electricity demand that obliges power utilities to construct additional power plants and probably
increase the cost of electricity supply. In addition the potential increase of the electricity energy
consumption place under stress both the consumers and the electricity networks.

Page 6 of 17

Based on the results of fifteen studies examining the impact of ambient temperature on the
total electricity consumption, it is evident that the energy penalty of ambient overheating is quite
high and depends mainly on the characteristics of the building stock, the climate zone, the
urban form and the type of the provided energy services. The potential increase of the
electricity demand per degree of temperature rise varies between 0,5 % to 8,5 %. The
threshold ambient temperature over which the electricity consumption starts to increase is for

ip
t

most of the cases around 18 C, however it may be much lower and around to 12 C, or
considerably higher, 23 C.

cr

The potential increase of the peak electricity demand triggered by the ambient warming is also
high. Existing studies show that the peak electricity demand increases from 0,45 % to 4,6 %

us

per degree of ambient temperature rise. This corresponds to a penalty of about 21 (10,4) W

an

per degree of temperature rise per person.

In order toreduce the specific impact of urban heat island and global overheating on electricity
consumption, buildings and urban structures have to be adapted to the specific climatic

conditions. The development of low energy or close to zero energy buildingsmay reduce
significantly the energy needs and thus the resulting stress to the utilities and the consumers,

ed

[39]. In parallel, the development and use of advanced urban adaptation and mitigation
techniques and technologies with the potential to decrease the ambient temperatures in cities,
may also reduce considerably urban temperatures, [40], [41]. The mix of the urban adaptation

ce
pt

and mitigation techniques and technologies needs to be differentiated per urban area as it
depends on the inflection point of the urban area concerned.

[1]

Ac

4. References

J. Kapsomenakis, D. Kolokotsa, T. Nikolaou, M. Santamouris, and S. C. Zerefos, Forty years

increase of the air ambient temperature in Greece: The impact on buildings, Energy
Conversion and Management, vol. 74, pp. 353365, 2013.

[2]

I. Livada, M. Santamouris, and M. Assimakopoulos, On the variability of summer air

temperature during the last 28 years in Athens, Journal of Geophysical Research D
Atmospheres, vol. 112, no. 12, 2007.

[3]

M. J. Alcoforado and H. Andrade, Global Warming and the Urban Heat Island, in Urban
Ecology, J. . Marzluff, E. Wilfried, G. Bradley, C. Ryan, and U. Simon, Eds. New York, NY:
Springer, 2008.

Page 7 of 17

M. Santamouris, Heat Island Research in Europe The State of the Art, Advances Building
Energy Research, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 123150, 2007.

[5]

C. P. Tso, A survey of urban heat island studies in two tropical cities, Atmospheric
Environment, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 507519, 1996.

[6]

G. Mihalakakou, H. A. Flocas, M. Santamouris, and C. G. Helmis, Application of neural

networks to the simulation of the heat island over Athens, Greece, using synoptic types as a
predictor, Journal of Applied Meteorology, vol. 41, no. 5, pp. 519527, 2002.

[7]

S. Hassid, M. Santamouris, N. Papanikolaou, A. Linardi, N. Klitsikas, C. Georgakis, and D. N.

Assimakopoulos, Effect of the Athens heat island on air conditioning load, Energy and
Buildings, vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 131141, 2000.

[8]

M. Santamouris, N. Papanikolaou, I. Livada, I. Koronakis, C. Georgakis, A. Argiriou, and D. N.

Assimakopoulos, On the impact of urban climate on the energy consuption of building, Solar
Energy, vol. 70, no. 3, pp. 201216, 2001.

[9]

E. Stathopoulou, G. Mihalakakou, M. Santamouris, and H. S. Bagiorgas, On the impact of

temperature on tropospheric ozone concentration levels in urban environments, Journal of
Earth System Science, vol. 117, no. 3, pp. 227236, 2008.

[10]

K. Pantavou, G. Theoharatos, M. Santamouris, and D. Asimakopoulos, Outdoor thermal

sensation of pedestrians in a Mediterranean climate and a comparison with UTCI, Building and
Environment, vol. 66, pp. 8295, 2013.

[11]

K. Pantavou, G. Theoharatos, A. Mavrakis, and M. Santamouris, Evaluating thermal comfort

conditions and health responses during an extremely hot summer in Athens, Building and
Environment, vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 339344, 2011.

[12]

A. Sakka, M. Santamouris, I. Livada, F. Nicol, and M. Wilson, On the thermal performance of

low income housing during heat waves, Energy and Buildings, vol. 49, pp. 6977, 2012.

[13]

M. Santamouris, J. A. Paravantis, D. Founda, D. Kolokotsa, P. Michalakakou, A. M.

Papadopoulos, N. Kontoulis, A. Tzavali, E. K. Stigka, Z. Ioannidis, A. Mehilli, A. Matthiessen,
and E. Servou, Financial crisis and energy consumption: A household survey in Greece,
Energy and Buildings, vol. 65, no. 0, pp. 477487, Oct. 2013.

[14]

M. Santamouris, K. Paraponiaris, and G. Mihalakakou, Estimating the ecological footprint of the

heat island effect over Athens, Greece, Climatic Change, vol. 80, no. 34, pp. 265276, 2007.

cr

us

an

ed

ce
pt

Ac

[15]

ip
t

[4]

C. Cartalis, A. Synodinou, M. Proedrou, A. Tsangrassoulis, and M. Santamouris, Modifications

in energy demand in urban areas as a result of climate changes: an assessment for the
southeast Mediterranean region, Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 42, no. 14, pp.
16471656, 2001.

[16]

D. J. Sailor, Relating residential and commercial sector electricity loads to climate - Evaluating
state level sensitivities and vulnerabilities, Energy, vol. 26, pp. 645657, 2001.

[17]

J. C. Lam, H. L. Tang, and D. H. W. Li, Seasonal variations in residential and commercial

sector electricity consumption in Hong Kong, Energy, vol. 33, pp. 513523, 2008.

Page 8 of 17

Z. Mohamed and P. Bodger, Forecasting electricity consumption in New Zealand using

economic and demographic variables, Energy, vol. 30, pp. 18331843, 2005.

[19]

K. Wangpattarapong, S. Maneewan, N. Ketjoy, and W. Rakwichian, The impacts of climatic

and economic factors on residential electricity consumption of Bangkok Metropolis, Energy and
Buildings, vol. 40, no. 8, pp. 14191425, Jan. 2008.

[20]

A. Pardo, V. Meneu, and E. Valor, Temperature and seasonality influences on Spanish

electricity load, Energy Economics, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 5570, 2002.

[21]

M. Bessec and J. Fouquau, The non-linear link between electricity consumption and
temperature in Europe: A threshold panel approach, Energy Economics, vol. 30, pp. 2705
2721, 2008.

[22]

E. De Cian, E. Lanzi, and R. Roson, The Impact of Temperature Change on Energy

Demand: A Dynamic Panel Analysis, no. I. The Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei Note di Lavoro
Series Index, 2007.

[23]

K. Yabe, Evaluation of energy saving effect for the long-term maximum power forecast (title
only in original language), in National Convention of the Institute of Electrical Engineers of
Japan (IEEJ), 2005.

[24]

S. J. Parkpoom and G. P. Harrison, Analyzing the Impact of Climate Change on Future

Electricity Demand in Thailand, Power Systems, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 23, pp. 1441
1448, 2008.

[25]

A. F. Colombo, D. Etkin, and B. W. Karney, Climate Variability and the Frequency of Extreme
Temperature Events for Nine Sites across Canada: Implications for Power Usage, Journal of
Climate, vol. 12. pp. 24902502, 1999.

[26]

H. Akbari, S. Davis, S. Dorsano, J. Huang, and S. Winnett, Cooling our communities: A

guidebook on tree planting and light-colored surfacing, Cooling Our Communities: A Guidebook
on Tree Planting and Light-Colored Surfacing. 1992.

[27]

M. Segal, H. Shafir, M. Mandel, P. Alpert, and Y. Balmor, Climatic-related Evaluations of the

Summer Peak-Hours Electric Load in Israel, Journal of Applied Meteorology, vol. 31. pp.
14921498, 1992.

[28]

G. Franco and A. H. Sanstad, Climate change and electricity demand in California, Climatic
Change, vol. 87, 2007.

cr

us

an

ed

ce
pt

Ac

[29]

ip
t

[18]

C. Giannakopoulos and B. E. Psiloglou, Trends in energy load demand for Athens, Greece:
Weather and non-weather related factors, Climate Research, vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 97108, 2006.

[30]

A. H. Rosenfeld, H. Akbari, S. Bretz, B. L. Fishman, D. M. Kurn, D. Sailor, and H. Taha,

Mitigation of urban heat islands: materials, utility programs, updates, Energy and Buildings,
vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 255265, 1995.

[31]

W. Y. Fung, K. S. Lam, W. T. Hung, S. W. Pang, and Y. L. Lee, Impact of urban temperature

on energy consumption of Hong Kong, Energy, vol. 31. pp. 22872301, 2006.

Page 9 of 17

S. L. Wong, K. K. W. Wan, D. H. W. Li, and J. C. Lam, Impact of climate change on residential

building envelope cooling loads in subtropical climates, Energy and Buildings, vol. 42, no. 11,
pp. 20982103, Nov. 2010.

[33]

D. J. Sailor and J. R. Mu??oz, Sensitivity of electricity and natural gas consumption to climate
in the U.S.A. - Methodology and results for eight states, Energy, vol. 22, pp. 987998, 1997.

[34]

S. Mirasgedis, Y. Sarafidis, E. Georgopoulou, D. P. Lalas, M. Moschovits, F. Karagiannis, and

D. Papakonstantinou, Models for mid-term electricity demand forecasting incorporating weather
influences, Energy, vol. 31, pp. 208227, 2006.

[35]

K. Hayhoe, M. Robson, J. Rogula, M. Auffhammer, N. Miller, J. VanDorn, and D. Wuebbles, An

integrated framework for quantifying and valuing climate change impacts on urban energy and
infrastructure: A Chicago case study, Journal of Great Lakes Research, vol. 36, pp. 94105,
2010.

[36]

M. Ruth and A. C. Lin, Regional energy demand and adaptations to climate change:
Methodology and application to the state of Maryland, USA, Energy Policy, vol. 34, pp. 2820
2833, 2006.

[37]

A. D. Amato, M. Ruth, P. Kirshen, and J. Horwitz, Regional energy demand responses to

climate change: Methodology and application to the commonwealth of massachusetts, Climatic
Change, vol. 71, pp. 175201, 2005.

[38]

T. K. Doshi, P. Fellow, A. Rohatgi, N. Bin Zahur, E. Analyst, Y. K. Hung, and E. Analyst, Impact
of climate change on electricity demand of singapore, pp. 115, 2011.

[39]

M. Hekkenberg, R. M. J. Benders, H. C. Moll, and A. J. M. Schoot Uiterkamp, Indications for a

changing electricity demand pattern: The temperature dependence of electricity demand in the
Netherlands, Energy Policy, vol. 37, pp. 15421551, 2009.

[40]

M. Santamouris, Cooling the cities - A review of reflective and green roof mitigation
technologies to fight heat island and improve comfort in urban environments, Solar Energy.
2012.

[41]

M. Santamouris, A. Synnefa, and T. Karlessi, Using advanced cool materials in the urban built
environment to mitigate heat islands and improve thermal comfort conditions, Solar Energy,
vol. 85, no. 12, pp. 30853102, 2011.

Ac

ce
pt

ed

an

us

cr

ip
t

[32]

Table Captions

Table 1. Findings of studies on the impact of ambient temperature increase on the peak
electricity demand and the global electricity consumption

Figure Captions

Figure 1 : Increase of the Peak Electricity Demand (%) per degree of ambient temperature rise .

Page 10 of 17

Ac

ce
pt

ed

an

us

cr

ip
t

Figure 2 : Increase of the Electricity Demand (%) per degree of ambient temperature rise for
various countries.

Page 11 of 17

*Highlights (for review)

Highlights
We examine the impact of high ambient temperatures in electricity demand.

The increase of the peak electricity demand is analyzed.

The impact of ambient temperature increase in Europe is surveyed.

Ac

ce
pt

ed

an

us

cr

ip
t

Page 12 of 17

cr

ip
t

Table(s) with Caption(s)

City / Country

Reference
Year

Additional Load per K

an

No

us

Table 1

Ac
c

ep
te

Increase of the Peak Electricity Power Demand - Impact of 1 K increase of the ambient temperature
1
Tokyo Japan
2004
Peak additional demand of 180 MW / K
2
Thailand
2004
An 1 K temperature increase, rises the peak
demand by 810 MW and 577 MW the average
demand, at 2004 levels.
3
Ontario East Canada
1991Above 23 C, the peak daily electricity demand
1995
increases by 233 MW / K
4
Los Angeles, USA
1986
Increase of the daily peak Electricity demand by
545 MW per K
5
Washington DC, USA
1986
Increase of the daily peak electricity demand by
181 MW per K or 3,6 % of the basic peak load
6
Dallas TX, Fort Worth, USA
1986
Increase of the daily peak electricity demand by
454 MW per K
7
Colorado Springs, CO, USA
1986
Increase of the daily peak electricity demand by
7,3 MW per K
8
Phoenix, AZ, USA
1986
Increase of the daily peak electricity demand by
101 MW per K
9
Tuscon AZ, USA
1986
Increase of the daily peak electricity demand by 22
MW per K or 1,8 % of the basic peak load
10
Israel
1987Increase of the daily peak electricity demand by 90
1988
MW per K
11
Part of Carolina USA
1985Not Reported
1991
Increase of the Electricity Consumption Impact of 1 K increase of the ambient temperature
1
Spain
1998
Daily additional electricity consumption of 8 GWh/K
2
Athens , Greece
1993Increase of the daily energy consumption of 1300
2001
MWh /K,
3
New Orleans USA
1995
Increase of the daily average electrical load by 15
MWh / K

Percentage Increase of
the base electricity load
per degree of temperature
increase

Threshold Inflection
Temperature, ( C )

Reference

0, 45 %
4,6 % the peak and
3,8 % the average
demand.
1,5 %

22 C
Not reported

(23)
(24)

23 C

(25)

3,3 %

18,3 C

(26)

3,6 %

(26)

3,1 %

13 C

(26)

1,8 %

13 C

(26)

3,6 %

24 C

(26)

1,8 %

21 C

(26)

2,9 -3,1 %

Not reported

(27)

3,5 4 %

18 C

(28)

1,6 %
4,1 %

18 C
22 C

(20)
(29)

3%

22 C

(30)

Page 13 of 17

ip
t
9

California, USA

10

Louisiana

11

Maryland, USA

12

Massachusetts, USA

13

Bangkok, Thailand

cr

Chicago, USA

18 C
16 C

(31)
(32)

2,9 %

15 C

(28)

19932002
19932004
19841993
19841993
19892001

Increase of the daily electricity consumption

between 1,7 to 3 GWH/ K.
Increase of hourly load by 200 MWh / K

1,1 to 1,9 %

18,5 C

(33)

Not Reported

15-17 C

(34)

Increase of the monthly consumption by 27 kWh/K.

7,7 %

17 C

(32)

Increase of the monthly consumption by 40

kWh/person/K.
Increase of the monthly electricity consumption by
22 kWh/p/K for the residential sector

8,5 %.

20 C

(32)

8,5 %

15,6
C
for
residential and
11,7
C
for
commercial
15,5 C for the
residential sector
and
12,8 C for the
commercial sector
Not defined

(35)

Varies during the

day.
Variable and below
18 C

(37)

Not reported

(22)

us

San
Hose,
Pomona and

4%
7,5 %

an

California
Sacramento
Fresno
Greece

Monthly increase 111 GWh / K

Increase of the monthly consumption by 30
kWh/person/K.
Increase of the daily consumption by 18500
MWh/K

2002
19841993
20042005

Hong Kong
Ohio, USA

ep
te

4
5

19772001

For residential buildings increase of the monthly

electricity demand equal to 9 kWh/person/K
For commercial buildings, increase of 12,7
kWh/person/K

Ac
c

1986Increase of the average monthly electricity

2006
consumption by 56,7 GWh/K
14
Singapore
2003Data on the hourly electricity demand
2012
15
Netherlands
1970Data on the daily electricity consumption.
2007
Increase of the Electricity Consumption Impact of 1 % increase of the ambient temperature
1
Mild Countries , Austria, 1978Not reported
Belgium, Denmark, France, 2000
Germany,
Ireland,
Luxembourg,
Netherlands, New Zealand,

Around 6,5 % for the

residential sector, and
3,0 % for the commercial
sector
7,49 %
1-2,5 %
0,5 %
0,54 %

(36)

(19)

(38)

Page 14 of 17

ip
t
cr
us
an

1,7 %

Not reported

(22)

19782000

Decrease of the annual demand by 0,508 %

0,51 %

Not reported

(22)

Increase of the annual electricity demand by

1,659 %

ep
te

19782000

Ac
c

Switzerland,
Greece,
Hungary, Italy, Japan, Korea,
Portugal,
South Africa, Spain, Turkey,
United Kingdom, United
States
Hot Countries, Australia,
India, Indonesia, Mexico,
Thailand, Venezuela.
Cold Countries Canada,
Finland, Norway, Sweden

Page 15 of 17

Ac

ce

pt

ed

an

us

cr

Figure(s)

Page 16 of 17

Ac

ce

pt

ed

an

us

cr

Figure(s)

Page 17 of 17