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A Brewing Storm of
Environmental Concerns
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ON THE COVER
The variety, number, and strength of environmental regulations facing the power industry
are all quickly building to create what, for some plants, may be a perfect storm. Photo:
POWER/Gail Reitenbach; type: Michele White
32
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the July issue features in the Archives:
Evolved Strategy Accelerates Zion Nuclear Plant Decommissioning
The EEIs Campaign for Electric Utility Industry Supremacy
RWEs Thomas Birr on Corporate Strategy in a Changing German Electricity Ecosystem
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44
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Is China Considering
Carbon Targets?
China, the worlds biggest emitter of greenhouse gases (GHGs) could limit its total
carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions for the first
time, possibly starting in 2016. He Jiankun,
chairman of Chinas Advisory Committee on
Climate Change, reportedly told conference attendees in Beijing in Juneone
day after the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency proposed rules to slash carbon
emitted from existing power plants by 30%
from 2005 levels by 2030that China will
use two ways to control CO2 emissions in
the next five-year plan: by intensity and an
absolute cap, he said.
He, a high-level advisor and not a government official, later told news agency
Reuters that the comments were a personal view, but the announcement stirred
up optimism from clean energy policy
groups. Experts have pointed out that
China has been reluctant to establish a
binding carbon target, cautioning that
the announcement did not mean anything
substantive. The country set its first-ever
emissions cut40% to 45% by 2020,
compared to 2005 levelsrelative to its
economic growth, which means absolute
carbon emissions could still grow as Chinas economy expands.
Many of Chinas cities are plagued with
severe air quality problems, inciting widespread concerns and protests. Among the
worst hit is the capital Beijing (Figure 1),
which during 2013 endured a total of 189
polluted air dayswhen residents were
advised to stay indoors as fine particulate
levels soared. This January, the city introduced an all-out effort, setting targets
to tackle smog by 2017 by scrapping old
cars, suspending polluting industries, and
2. From trash to treasure. Wood pellet exports from the U.S. nearly doubled last year,
from 1.6 million short tons in 2012 to 3.2 million short tons in 2013. Source: EIA
Suntechs troubles are said to have followed the plunge in solar module prices
as production outpaced demand. In March,
Shanghai Chaori Solar Energy Science and
Technology Co. also missed payment on
debt, signaling Chinas first onshore bond
default. That event was seen as a test case
for the Chinese government, which investors had assumed would bail out any Chinese corporation in danger of defaulting.
Among sectors open to new investors
are State Grid Corp.s distributed power
grids and electric vehicle charging equipment, which have an estimated market
value of $32 billion, state media reported.
Chinas state-controlled grid operator has
called for a $100 billion infrastructure
project to build a nationwide network of
ultra-high-voltage links to reduce longdistance power losses and as a means to
tackle fine particulates and other air pollution. However, skeptics have questioned
the projects feasibility and high costs.
500
1,000
2,500
3,500
United Kingdom
Italy
5%
Netherlands
6%
Belgium
Denmark
Italy
2013
www.powermag.com
Rest of world
2%
United Kingdom
59%
Rest of Europe
Rest of world
Rest of Europe
3%
Denmark
7%
Netherlands
3,000
Belgium
18%
2012
The worlds first floating wind turbine array could be installed offshore of northeast Scotland by 2017 if a project recently
unveiled by Kincardine Offshore Windfarm
Ltd. proceeds as planned.
The joint project between Pilot Offshore Renewables and the construction
giant Atkins entails the installation of
eight turbines on semi-submersible platforms about 8 miles off the fishing port
RS Series
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ENHANCED GEOTHERMAL
SYSTEMS (EGS)
CONCRETE CURING
05
N
METHANOL PRODUCTION
02
UREA YIELD BOOSTING
What: During production of urea (which
is used to make fertilizers), a surplus of
ammonia is often produced when natural
gas is the feedstock. CO2 can be
compressed and combined with the
surplus ammonia for additional urea
production.
Status: Commercial. CO2 capture plants
for urea yield boosting have been
installed since the late 1990s.
01
ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY (EOR)
What: Involves injection of CO2 into a
depleted oil bearing field to decrease oil
viscosity, allowing it to flow to a
production well more easily, and
increasing production by 5% to 40%.
Status: Commercial. At least 113
CO2-EOR projects inject 3.1 billion cubic
feet per day of natural and industrial
CO2 for EOR across the U.S.
10
04
ALGAE CULTIVATION
What: CO2 can be bubbled through
algae cultivation systems, increasing
yield for a range of uses, including
biomass, biofuels, chemicals, and
food products.
Status: Demonstration level of
technical matur
maturity
03
CLATHRATE DESALINATION
W
What: CO2, mixed with brine from an aquifer
a high pressure and low temperature, forms
at
a hydrate of CO2 surrounded by water
molecules. The hydrate is removed and
rinsed, and then goes through multiple
stages to remove dissolved solids in the
brine, resulting in an exhaust stream
of potable water that can be sold where
water is in short supply.
Status: Under development
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3. Floating through. The current 2-MW WindFloat prototype off the coast of Aguadoura,
Portugal, could be expanded to five platforms. A final build-out phase is planned to have a capacity of 150 MW. Courtesy: Principle Power
4. Novel development. EnerVault connected its unique iron-chromium redox flow battery to the grid this May. Courtesy: Government Contractors Network
Grid-Scale Iron-Chromium
Redox Flow Battery
Connected
One of the worlds first grid-scale ironchromium redox flow batteries was interconnected this May to the distribution
grid. The EnerVault Turlock, which its
developer EnerVault says is a 250-kW,
1-MWh battery grid-scale energy storage
system, will be charged by a 150-kW dualaxis tracking solar photovoltaic system in
an almond orchard in Californias Central
Valley, will power a 260-kW irrigation
pump, and will inject energy back into the
grid during peak times (Figure 4).
According to the Energy Storage Association (ESA), iron-chromium flow batteries,
pioneered and studied extensively by NASA
in the 1970s and 1980s, are essentially redox flow batteriesa class of electrochemical energy storage devices that employ
reduction and oxidation reactions to store
energy in liquid electrolyte solutions, which
flow through a battery of electrochemical
cells during charge and discharge.
That means, unlike other types of batteries, which are packaged in small modules, iron-chromium flow batteries consist
POWER Digest
Chile Banks on Renewable Capacity
Expansion, Energy Efficiency. Chile in
mid-May released a $650 million investment plan to reduce energy costs and
promote non-hydro renewable energy development for the country that imports
about 60% of its primary energy resources.
The plan calls for a 30% cut in marginal
power costs on Chiles central grid, which
serves 90% of the countrys citizens, by
2018. It also requires that 45% of power capacity installed between 2014 and
2025 be from solar, wind, and geothermal
sources to put Chile closer to its target
of producing 20% of its energy from renewables. The government also called for
energy savings of up to 20,000 GWh per
year. Experts have warned that Chile must
triple its 18 GW capacity within 15 years
to continue growing its economy (see
Chiles Power Challenge: Reliable Energy
Supplies in the September 2012 issue).
Chiles power mix is dominated by hydropower, but droughts have left a country
that has no indigenous oil or natural gas
reserves energy-strapped. Beyond calling
on the state oil company to boost exploration, the country also hopes to build a
liquefied natural gas import terminal in
the mineral-rich north.
www.powermag.com
13
Latest Electromagnetic
Technology Device Improves Inspection Accuracy and Repeatability
Eddy currents are electrical currents induced within conductors by changing
magnetic fields. They are commonly used
in nondestructive evaluation (NDE) and
corrosion monitoring of structures with
painted surfaces. The work of eddy current
technicians, who specialize in the electromagnetic modality, requires a high degree of accuracy even when working under
challenging testing conditions.
Traditionally, technicians relied on service bulletins or paper-based instructions
that outline each step of the test to ensure accuracy and their own safety. This,
however, can add to the complexity, cost,
and timeliness of the testing. It also provides opportunity for error, often requiring
a second technician to read the instructions and record the result, which itself is
an error trap.
General Electrics (GEs) Measurement
and Control business recently introduced a
first-of-its-kind, handheld electromagnetic
inspection technology that integrates testing intelligence and industry experience
into an easily adaptable platform. The GE
Mentor EM allows technicians to access information and guidance needed to perform
efficient and accurate weld, rotary, and surface inspections (Figure 1). By decreasing
the need for paper-based service bulletins
and cumbersome manuals, the device replaces legacy processes and takes full advantage of the latest technology.
The equipment makes eddy current in-
14
technicians gain access to on-device photos, procedures, and videos for reference
while setting up, acquiring data (Figure 2),
or analyzing data. By limiting the range of
adjustments available to the operator, the
opportunity for error is minimized.
The menu-driven features of the Mentor
allows linking the eddy current technique
utilized for examination to the procedures
required for guidance, said Spiess.
In high-consequence inspection environments, it is essential that technicians
have access to the information they need,
when they need it, said Dave Jankowski,
North American commercial NPI leader
for GE Measurement & Control. GE Mentor EM with Mentor Create eliminates the
cumbersome paper trail traditionally associated with electromagnetic eddy current testing, dramatically improving the
safety, efficiency, and accuracy of the
testing process. Additionally, GEs innovative technology will help transform the
industry by bridging the skills gap and
addressing the current global shortage of
experienced inspection personnel in the
workforce today.
The device has a high-resolution display, and its touchscreen is designed to
work with gloves. We at STP find the flexibility of the Mentor useful for many applications, Spiess said.
Edited by Aaron Larson, a POWER
associate editor (@AaronL_Power, @
POWERmagazine).
RELOADED
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2. Burner geometry.
3. Good as new.
It is essential
for mechanical tolerances to be within onequarter inch of design specification. Courtesy:
Storm Technologies
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1,600
1,400
1,200
1,000
800
600
400
200
0
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
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2
O2 (%)
Tuning Up
To comply with the performance tune-up work practice requirement, each facility must demonstrate continuous compliance by
conducting a combustion process tune-up, a thorough equipment inspection, and an optimization to minimize generation
of CO and NOx. The work practice requirement must be completed
at least once every 36 calendar months (or 48 calendar months
if a neural network is employed). The work practice involves:
maintaining/inspecting burners (Figures 1 and 2) and associated combustion controls; tuning the specific burner type, as
applicable, to optimize combustion; obtaining and recording
CO and NOx values before and after burner adjustments; keeping records of measurements and adjustments (Figure 3); and
submitting a report for each tune-up conducted.
A combustion tune-up will involve optimizing combustion
of the unit consistent with the manufacturers instructions, as
applicable, or in accordance with best combustion engineering
practices for that burner type. Under the final rule, the tuneup must be conducted at each planned major outage and in
no event less frequently than every 36 calendar months, with
an exception that if the unit employs a neural network system
for combustion optimization during hours of normal unit operation, the required frequency is a minimum of once every 48
calendar months.
Initial compliance with the work practice standard of
maintaining burners must occur within 180 days of the compliance date of the rule. The initial compliance demonstration for the work practice standard of conducting a tune-up
may occur prior to the compliance date of the rule, but it
must occur no later than 42 months (36 months plus 180
days) from the compliance date of the rule or, in the case
of units employing neural network combustion controls, 54
months (48 months plus 180 days). Adequate records must
be maintained in order to show that the tune-ups met the
requirements of this standard.
Boiler Tune-Up Requirements
The work practice standards for boiler tune-ups require inspections of the burners and combustion controls. Should issues be
found with the burners or combustion control components that
affect the ability to optimize NOx and CO, these items must be
installed/corrected within three calendar months after the burner
inspection. Burner or combustion control component parts that
do not affect the ability to optimize NOx and CO may be addressed
on a timetable determined by the plant.
Boiler tune-ups are to include visual inspection of flame pat18
NOx
NOx (ppm)
CO (ppm)
CO
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COOLING TOWERS
CIRCLE 12 ON READER SERVICE CARD
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
Though no single mercury capture approach is best for all plants, when you can
capture two (or more) pollutants with one sorbent, its worth a careful look.
Sterling M. Gray, Jim B. Jarvis, and Steven W. Kosler
The trademarked SBS Injection technology has been widely applied to control SO3
emissions from coal-fired power plants.
However, it is only in recent years that the
co-removal of mercury has also been documented and demonstrated at several plants.
The technology injects a sodium-based
solution into the flue gas, typically ahead of
the APH or SCR. By removing SO3 prior to
these devices, many of the adverse effects of
SO3 can be successfully mitigated, and plant
performance and reliability can be improved.
SO3 removal efficiencies of greater than 98%
have been achieved using SBS Injection, with
stack emissions typically less than 1.0 part per
million (ppm). The process has been installed
on 24 boilers representing more than 15,000
MW of generating capacity, and has been in
continuous operation for more than 10 years.
A typical installation is shown in Figure 1.
As with any emissions control technology, proper design and operation are critical
to ensure that desired performance and reliability are achieved. Because the SBS Injection technology relies on the injection of a
wet sorbent solution into the flue gas, care-
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
1. SBS Injection system.
2. The lower the better. Native mercury capture across the electrostatic precipitator
(ESP) can be greatly enhanced when SO3 is reduced to only a few ppm. Source: URS Corp.
Plant A Plant B
Plant D (Pre-SCR) 2009
Plant C
Plant D
Plant E
14
As noted, MATS requires power plants to reduce emissions of HAPs, including mercury,
and although ACI is the most widely used
technology for the specific control of mercury emissions, its effectiveness is greatly reduced in the presence of SO3. Plants burning
medium- to high-sulfur fuels and equipped
with SCRs can have as much as 30 to 80 ppm
of SO3 in the flue gas.
Research shows that even low levels of
SO3 (2 to 5 ppm) can inhibit good mercury
adsorption. There has been significant effort to develop sulfur-tolerant carbons to
overcome this challenge, but with only limited success. Dry sorbent injection (DSI)
has also been used to control SO3, but this
technology is often unable to achieve the
low SO3 levels required for good mercury
capture, and it can adversely affect the per-
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Measured or estimated SO3 concentration at ESP outlet (ppm)
www.powermag.com
45
23
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
URS has gathered extensive data from
existing SBS Injection installations that also
show how SO3 affects the native capture of
mercury by the unburned carbon (UBC) or
loss on ignition (LOI) that is typically present
in flue gas. Figure 2 shows how mercury adsorption onto unburned carbon increases dramatically as the flue gas SO3 concentration
is reduced from 5 ppm to 1 ppm. The data
shown were collected by varying the SBS
sorbent injection rate and measuring both the
mercury and LOI levels in the fly ash and the
SO3 concentration in the flue gas exiting the
electrostatic precipitator (ESP). The results
show that reducing the SO3 down to very low
levels can result in significantly higher mercury capture rates.
Industry research also shows that mercury
adsorption onto carbon is temperature dependent with minimal capture above 350F and
maximum capture below 250F. To investigate
both the effect of flue gas temperature and
SO3 concentration, URS recently conducted
a full-scale test program with cofunding provided by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) and a host utility. Testing was
conducted at a Midwestern power plant with
an existing SBS Injection system. The plant
burns high-sulfur bituminous coal and is
equipped with an SCR, ESP, and wet FGD.
During the test program, the APH exit
gas temperature was varied from nominally
340F down to 290F at full-load conditions by
simply varying the degree of combustion air
preheat. Temperatures as low as 265F were
achieved at reduced load conditions. The
SBS sorbent injection rate was also varied
from a typical molar injection ratio of 1.5 to
an elevated ratio of 2.5 Na2CO3:SO3.
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
260
24
270
280
290
300
310
320
Air preheater outlet temperature (F)
330
www.powermag.com
340
350
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
SBS sorbent injection rate are illustrated in
Figure 4. At typical SBS sorbent injection
significant co-removal of hydrochloric acid (HCl), thereby reducing levels in the downstream flue
rates, roughly 40% HCl capture was achieved,
gas desulfurization system and wastewater streams. Source: URS Corp.
while elevated injection rates resulted in
75
nearly 70% HCl capture. These results are
consistent with previous testing that shows
70
that SO3 is preferentially removed, with ex65
cess sorbent available to remove HCl present
in the flue gas. However, results at a given
60
plant will vary depending on the relative concentrations of SO3 and HCl in the flue gas,
55
and the overall sorbent injection rate.
Co-removal of HCl with the fly ash can pro50
vide several advantages to the operating plant.
Some plants must control the dissolved chlo45
ride levels in their wet scrubbers due to materi40
als of construction and corresponding corrosion
concerns. As a result, many plants must operate
35
with a chloride purge stream from the FGD system. In most cases, this chloride purge stream
30
must be treated prior to discharge.
1.25
1.50
1.75
2.00
2.25
2.50
2.75
In addition, the newly proposed ELG rules
SBS Injection molar ratio (Na2CO3:SO3)
may require additional treatment to meet new
FGD wastewater streams can be met without regulated by MATS and proposed ELG rules, stringent limits for mercury and selenium. By
respectively. Recent testing has shown that capturing HCl in the fly ash, and reducing the
the need for additional treatment.
sorbent injection for the removal of SO3 and amount captured in the FGD system, it may
mercury is also effective for the capture and re- be possible to greatly reduce, or even elimiHCl and Selenium Co-Removal
nate, the need for a chloride purge stream.
As mentioned earlier, HCl emissions in flue gas moval of HCl and selenium from flue gas.
HCl removal results as a function of the As a result, it may be possible to avoid the
and selenium discharges in wastewater are also
Chloride removal across ESP (% of coal Cl)
4. HCl captured in ESP. In addition to very high SO3 removal, SBS Injection can achieve
www.powermag.com
25
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
95
90
It All Adds Up
5. Captures selenium too. Significant co-removal of selenium across the ESP using SBS Injection can help plants meet the stringent proposed effluent limitation guidelines.
Source: URS Corp.
340F 315F 293F 270F
100
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
1.25
1.50
1.75
2.00
2.25
SBS Injection molar ratio (Na2CO3:SO3)
significant capital and operating costs associated with FGD wastewater treatment.
Effective capture of selenium has also
been demonstrated using the SBS Injection
process. Figure 5 shows selenium removal
2.50
across the ESP as a function of the SBS sorbent injection rate and flue gas temperature
at the APH outlet. Results indicate that 60%
to 90% capture efficiency was achieved over
the range of sorbent injection rates tested.
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ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
With quickly approaching deadlines for achieving renewable portfolio standard goals, the likely lapse of a critical exemption this month may increase the
challenges for meeting those mandates.
Brandon Bell, PE
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ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
V permitting programs. Those facilities would
not be granted a deferment and would be subject to carbon dioxide equivalent regulations.
For biomass facilities that were already covered under Title V programs, the EPA issued
a guidance document for determining the best
available control technology (BACT) for biogenic carbon dioxide emissions. The EPA also
made the deferral voluntary, leaving it to the
discretion of individual states to adopt the deferral and to regulate accordingly.
30
71
73
16
55
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
same distribution of biomass plant sizes is
expected in the future, approximately 89% of
those facilities would be classified as major
emission sources as a result of the GHG Tailoring Rule being applied.
Sunset Provision
The exemption of biogenic carbon dioxide
sources from the GHG Tailoring Rule was
not a popular move for some industry groups.
This is evidenced by the more than 200-page
Summary of Public Comments and Responses document issued on June 28, 2011.
With such strong feelings against the deferral, these groups filed a challenge to vacate
the EPAs deferral.
In July 2013, the D.C. Circuit Court issued
a 2-1 ruling vacating the biogenic carbon dioxide deferral and caused turmoil in the biomass
industry. The industry legally had 30 days to
file for a rehearing on the ruling, but the opportunity to appeal is being withheld. Instead,
the court decided to tie any additional actions
to another key case, Utility Air Regulatory
Group (UARG) v. EPA. In this case the UARG
is challenging the EPAs authority to regulate
carbon dioxide from stationary sources via the
Massachusetts v. EPA (2007) ruling.
The D.C. court withheld the mandate of
the vacatur until a ruling from UARG v. EPA
was issued. As a result of this withholding,
the original biogenic exemption remains in
place. The Supreme Court heard oral arguments in the UARG v. EPA case on Feb. 24,
2014, and a decision is expected in the latter
part of the year.
Although this would appear to give renewable biomass power generators hope for the
future, the reality is that time is still running
out on this exemption. In the published deferral, section 51.166 provided clear direction for
the lifespan of this deferral: For the purposes
of this paragraph, prior to July 21, 2014 the
mass of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide
shall not include carbon dioxide emissions resulting from the combustion or decomposition
of non-fossilized and biodegradable organic
material originating from plants, animals,
and biodegradable organic material.
That statement is commonly referred to as
a sunset provision for the deferral. Without
EPA studies supporting the future exemption
of biogenic carbon dioxide emissions, and
barring any decisions by the federal courts
to overturn the vacatur, on July 21, 2014, the
deferral will simply expire.
www.powermag.com
31
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
Source: EPA
Power plant operators have long understood the vital role water plays in power
generation. Now, as the rest of the world begins recognizing that as well, a conflict
is brewing between the growing demand for electricity and increasingly strained
water resources.
Thomas W. Overton, JD
Uncertain Data
One problem in tackling these challenges is
a paucity of good data. The U.S. Geological
Survey (USGS), which publishes comprehensive reports on water usage in the U.S. every
five years, has not reported water consumed in
power generation since 1995only total withdrawals. The USGS plans to return to reporting this data with the study for 2010, but this
report will not be available until late 2014.
Thus, though it is known that withdrawals for once-through cooling (OTC) have
been more or less level since 1980, it is not
www.powermag.com
clear how recent moves toward generation resources with very different water use profiles
may have affected consumption. The Electric
Power Research Institute (EPRI) has attempted to fill this gap, most recently with a report
updated in April 2014, though it covered only
thermoelectric plants using freshwater.
The EPRI results, based on data from
2009 for all thermal plants except nuclear
(for which data through 2011 was available)
are consistent with previous studies suggesting that while power generation withdrawals are a significant portion (about 40%) of
total withdrawals, consumption constitutes a
much smaller share. Total withdrawals were
estimated at 139,800 million gallons per day
(mgd), with OTC accounting for almost all
of this. Consumption was estimated at 3,930
mgd, with most of this (2,760 mgd) account-
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
ed for by wet recirculating cooling.
This appears to represent a largely unchanged load on the nations water resources
compared to 2005 USGS data. The USGS estimated that total (fresh and saltwater) withdrawals for power generation that year were
201,000 mgd, of which 142,710 mgd were
freshwater.
Regional Challenges
While the U.S. is far less water-stressed than
countries such as China and India, many
states face challenges in meeting water demand. A May 2014 report from the U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO) found that 24
of 50 states were likely to experience regional water shortages over the next decade and
40 out of 50 state water managers expected
some portion of their states to experience
shortages under average conditions.
These responses are not surprising given that
large portions of the western U.S. are currently
experiencing severe to exceptional long-term
drought. This includes nearly all of California,
Arizona, and New Mexico, and large portions
of Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas.
Significantly for the generation industry,
California and Texas represent the two largest
markets for future capacity, according to the
Energy Information Administration (EIA).
Further, the Southwestern U.S. as a whole is
projected to see greater than 30% electricity
demand growth by 2040.
Ongoing droughts have threatened disruptions to generation in Texas and the Midwest
(see Water Issues Challenge Power Generators in the July 2013 issue) and have caused
curtailments in hydropower generation in
California and the Pacific Northwest. The
California Independent System Operator
said in May that the state was likely to have
as much as 1,669 MW of its hydroelectric
capacity unavailable this summer, while
as much as 1,150 MW of thermal capacity
would be unavailable due to limitations on
cooling water withdrawals.
Kate Zerrenner, project manager for the
Environmental Defense Funds U.S. Climate
and Energy Program and a former climate
policy analyst with the GAO, isnt convinced
generators fully appreciate what theyre facing. Many electric utilities and power grid
operators have drought contingency plans,
but drought planning is not the same thing
as water planning, she told POWER. If we
anticipate a growing demand of this limited
resource (and we do), we need to talk about
climate change. It is no longer an option to
conduct long-range planning without using
all the available data. We need a thorough
analysis of climate impacts on water, so both
electric and water utilities know what theyre
working with.
1. Under threat.
Changing Regulations
Given its numerous inherent challenges, its
hardly surprising that the water-energy nexus
has drawn increasing regulatory attention.
At the federal level, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) on May 19 issued its final rule governing power plant cooling water
intake systems under Section 316(b) of the
Clean Water Act. The rule is focused on reducing impingement and mortality of aquatic life
and is expected to have little immediate effect
on total withdrawals. Closed-cycle cooling is
favoredthough not requiredfor new capacity. (For more on the new rule, see the June
2014 issue cover story, Site-Specific Factors
33
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
2. Shifting gears. Dynegys 2.5-GW Moss Landing plant near Monterey, Calif., must
cease using ocean water for cooling before 2018. Dynegy is considering retrofitting wet cooling
towers for the four-unit facility. Courtesy: David Monniaux
While wind and solar photovoltaic generation require negligible amounts of water,
the same cannot be said of all new generation technologies. Concentrating solar power
(CSP), in particular, when coupled with wet
cooling methods, can consume substantial
amounts of water, in some cases exceeding
that of fossil generation methods. This is a
problem since these systems are typically
sited in hot, arid, water-poor areas because
these regions typically experience the highest
insolation.
When coupled with dry cooling, CSP requires very little water (Figure 3). However,
in addition to the increased costs, dry cooling
is much less effective in hot environments,
and CSP plants can experience reduced outputs of 10% to 15%, or more, on hot days.
Integrated gasification combined cycle
(IGCC) generation, should it gain a footholdwhich is uncertain (see Does IGCC
Have a Future? in this issue)could reduce
overall water consumption from coal generation. However, the savings are not as great as
might be suspected because the water saved
from the steam cycle and emissions control
systems is offset by consumption from the
gasifier.
According to research by the National
Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL), current IGCC designs consume around 102 gal/
MWh to 139 gal/MWh for process and emissions control, compared to 107 gal/MWh to
116 gal/MWh for steam plants. The main
savings are in cooling, if wet evaporative
methods are used: Largely because of their
greater efficiency, IGCC plants consume
around 20% to 30% less water for cooling
than do steam plants.
When carbon capture and storage (CCS)
is included, however, the water savings are
significant. Though CCS itself consumes
substantial additional water, it requires far
less when coupled with IGCC than with
steam. Adding CCS could nearly double a
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
steam plants water consumption, according
to the NETL report, but it would increase
an IGCC plants consumption by only about
37%. Still, said Zammit, the penetration
and impact [of CCS] will be unit- and sitespecific.
Another impact on water resources could
come from biomass generation. While inplant water consumption is comparable to
coal plants, growing biomass fuel may require significant amounts of water, particularly if it is grown specifically for use in a
power plant. This is a concern in areas where
agricultural water supplies are already under
stress, such as China, India, and the U.S. central plains.
Biomass is not the only fuel with an effect
on water resources. Natural gas from shale is
projected to constitute 53% of the U.S. gas
supply by 2040, according to the EIA. While
the water consumed by hydraulic fracturing
is small compared to agricultural use, much
shale gas development is taking place in areas under water stress, such as Texas. Shale
gas, as a new industry, must compete with
existing demands on water resources, something that has caused controversy in many
areas. It is worth noting as well that, unlike
water used in agriculture, most of the water
used in hydraulic fracturing is permanently
lost from the hydrological cycle. Waterless
methods, though currently limited, are likely
to grow in importance.
4. Nifty shades of gray. The Sand Hill Energy Center in Austin, Texas, began using treated wastewater from a nearby wastewater treatment plant for cooling in 2006, which allowed it
to reduce its use of municipal potable water by 80%. Courtesy: Austin Energy
The use of alternative sources of water deserves special attention, since it can have the
most direct impact on a plants consumption
of local water resources. One facet of this can
include capturing wastewater streams, such
as cooling tower blowdown, and using these
for processes that do not require high water
quality. Cascading wastewater from higherto lower-quality needs enables extensive reuse. Many plants in water-stressed areas have
already implemented such recycling measures. Making degraded water sources more
cost-effective for cooling is another area with
future possibilities, according to Jessica Shi,
a senior technical leader at EPRI.
Where large quantities of water are needed
for wet cooling, municipal wastewater has
proven useful as a replacement for freshwater. A number of new plants in the U.S., such
as the Sand Hill Energy Center in Austin
(Figure 4) and the Empire Generating Plant
in Rensselaer, N.Y., have leveraged such supplies. Doing so, however, requires special
measures because of the potential for generating airborne pathogens.
For high-quality water needs, purification and desalination of water resources
that are not suitable for agriculture or other
competing useswhether seawater or lowquality groundwateris an option. While
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ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
Economic and population booms forecast for several countries in the oil- and gasrich Middle East are forcing a reassessment of those countries historic reliance on
fossil fuels and a new focus on securing sustainable electricity and water supplies.
Sonal Patel
The Challenges
According to experts, long-term sustainable
growth in the Gulf Arab states particularly
will depend on how well they introduce energy efficiency measures, invest in low-carbon
energy supplies, improve water efficiency,
and expand water desalination capacity.
The Renewable Energy Policy Network
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
Table 1. Installed renewable capacity in the Middle East. Source: REN21
Installed
capacity (MW)
PV
CSP
Wind
Biomass/
Waste
Geothermal
Hydro
Oman
0.7d
0c
0c
0c
0c
0c
0.70
1b
0c
0c
0c
0.023b
0d
1.02
Yemen
1.5b
0c
0c
0c
0c
0c
1.50
Kuwait
1.8d
0c
0c
0c
0c
0c
1.80
Bahrain
5c
0c
0.5b
0c
0c
0c
5.50
NA
Saudi Arabia
7a
0c
0c
0c
0c
0c
7.00
Jordan*
1.6b
0c
1.4b
3.5b
0c
10b
16.50
Qatar
1.2d
0b
0b
40b
0b
0b
41.20
UAE
22.5b
100a
0c
3b
0c
0c
125.50
1b
0c
0.5b
0c
0c
282b
283.50
Israel*
269b
0c
6c
27b
0c
7e
309.00
Syria
0.84d
0c
0c
0c
0c
1,151d
1,151.84
Iraq
3.5e
0c
0c
0c
0c
1,864b
1,867.50
Iran
4.3d
17c
91b
0c
0c
9,500b
9,612.30
NA
Palestine*
Lebanon*
Total
Renewable target(s)
Notes: a = 2013, b = 2012, c = 2011, d = 2010, e = 2009. All countries are net oil-exporting, with the exception of those marked with an asterisk.
almost 40% over 2011, and a 6.5-fold increase from 2004. Yet, that progress could
be hindered by a number of challenges, it
warns, including the regions susceptibility
to political unrest, financial uncertainty, and
policy risk.
Nuclear Possibilities
Considering those risks, it is significant that
several countries in the Middle Eastamong
them, the UAE, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and to a
lesser extent, Qatar, Oman, Kuwait, and Bahrainare actively considering starting nuclear
programs for power and water supply.
In a 2008 independently published comprehensive policy on nuclear energy, the gasrich UAE dismissed coal as an option to meet
projected escalating power demand because
of its environmental and energy security implications. In an explanation that has since
been echoed by the regions other countries,
the UAE said nuclear emerged as a proven,
environmentally promising and commercially competitive option.
Today, after accepting a $20 billion bid
from a South Korean consortium to build
four nuclear reactorsa total of 5.6 GW
two are already under construction at UAEs
Barakah site in Abu Dhabi (Figure 1). The
UAE hopes to have all four 1.4-GW APR1400 units producing power by 2020 and
plans to export power to Gulf neighbors via
the regional power grid. Uniquely, the UAE
offset delays to a construction start by offerwww.powermag.com
ing joint-venture agreements to foreign investors for the construction and operation of
future nuclear plants, and it plans to manage
its nuclear power program based on contractor services, rather than indigenous expertise.
It also concluded long-term agreements for
the supply of nuclear fuel. The plants will,
for the most part, be financed by the state and
Korean equity partners.
The Barakah reactors wont be the first in the
region. That honor goes to Irans controversial
Bushehr reactor. Construction was suspended
in 1979, resumed in 1994, and the plant began
commercial operation in late 2013, reconfigured
as a VVER-1000 by Russias Atomstroyexport.
37
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
Power Trading
Emerging solutions to address potential energy shortfalls in the region include the establishment of cross-border interconnections and
power trading. While most countries have had
long-existing interconnections with neighboring countries, some are considering transcontinental imports, including hydro from the
Nile Basin, the Congo, and Central Asia and
Pakistan. The most prominent interconnection program is the Gulf Cooperation Council
Interconnection Authoritys (GCCIAs) partly
commissioned 400-kV supergrid, which
links GCC countries: Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar,
Oman, UAE, and Saudi Arabia.
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ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
bilateral negotiations and contracts and allow countries to request bulk electricity and
advertise spare capacity at the same time.
The GCCIA ultimately wants to establish a
wholesale and spot-priced market in the GCC
and beyond, though GCCIA Chief Operating
Officer Ahmed Ali Al-Ebrahim acknowledges several hurdles must first be overcome.
Perhaps its greatest challenge, though:
The GCC must orchestrate a policy shift
away from electricity subsidies in the region.
Subsidies on power and natural gas produced
obstruct a proper electricity market from
forming in the GCC, because true prices of
both are unknown. Until GCC countries can
address the political and economic issues that
inhibit price-reflective electricity markets,
the full potential of the GCC interconnection
grid will be left untapped, he said.
Water Woes
For the drought-prone Middle East, where
average rainfall ranges between 20 and 40
cm per year (compared to 72 cm globally),
water scarcity is a paramount concern. The
region hosts about 5% of the worlds population but only 1% of its renewable water resources, most of which is in transboundary
basins such as the Euphrates and Tigris River
Basins (shared by Syria, Iraq, and Iran) and
the Jordan River Basin System (Jordan, Palestine, and Israel). As a result, almost all of
the regions water resources are overexploited and severely polluted, leading to saltwater
intrusion in the aquifers and subsequent lowering of water tables. Meanwhile, population
and economic growth are expected to further
catapult water demandwhich, compounded
by adverse climate change effects, could set
the stage for conflict.
Some initiatives entail regional collaboration on water and electricity. The oil-rich
countries on the Arabian Peninsula, specifically, are tackling the problem with large desalination schemes to help alleviate water
stress. Desalination is costly and energy intensive, with energy costs accounting for up
to 50% of operation costs. According to the
Pacific Institute, desalination plants generally require 15 MWh for every million gallons
of freshwater produced. Still, the process has
been practiced for more than 50 years in the
region (Figure 2) and emerged as the most
feasible solution for some countries.
The International Desalination Association (IDA) reports that more than half of the
worlds capacity growth between 2001 and
2011276%, rising to 6.7 billion cubic meters a day (m3/d)took place in the Middle
East. The regions desalination efforts are
characterized by three main methods differing in terms of energy consumption and cost,
and whether they can be used for seawater
the Arabian Gulf Coast that will have the capacity to produce 30,000 m3/d and 2.5 GW of
power via ultra-high concentrator photovoltaic cells when completed. That RO project
is only the first phase of the King Abdullah
Initiative for Solar Water Desalination that
requires all seawater desalination in the kingdom to be powered completely by solar by
2020. The second phase entails a 300,000
m3/d solar-powered desalination plant; a third
phase implements the initiative throughout
the kingdom.
Finally, with 120 desalination plants operating in the region and more water required
to fuel the energy boom and vice versa, some
experts express trepidation about the possible
environmental consequences from release of
so much brine back into the oceans. Then
there are concerns about greenhouse gas
emissions from the intense amount of energy
required for the process.
But the solutions here too are standard.
Two levels of actions require urgent attention to achieve a lower energy footprint, says
Middle East expert and former IDA President
Dr. Corrado Sommariva. The first one is the
creation of policies that encourage energy
efficiency, providing a realistic price for energy even in oil-rich countries and rewarding
energy efficiency. On the technical level, it
is necessary to educate managers and plant
operators on how to operate plants in a much
more energy efficient manner with relatively
few changes.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
Geoengineering: A Practical
Climate Work-Around or Just
Plain Crazy?
Source: NASA
Faced with roadblocks to reducing greenhouse gas emissions via globally meaningful regulations or carbon pricing schemes, some scientists say its time to consider
even more drastic human intervention.
Kennedy Maize
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
1. Cloud brightening.
When aerosol
particles from ship exhaust enter the lower atmosphere, marine stratocumulus clouds are
brightened, leaving ship tracks visible in satellite images. Scientists at Pacific Northwest
National Laboratory and the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) are
among those studying the effects of particle
injection to evaluate whether this technique
could be used to offset some effects of global
climate change. Courtesy: Jeff Schmaltz,
MODIS Rapid Response Team, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center
gies could, if used carefully, significantly reduce climate risk. Full stop.
Keith says the technologies hes explored,
injecting sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere or
adding fine sea salt to marine clouds to make
them whiter and change the solar albedo, or
reflectivity, appear to provide a pathway by
which we could substantially reduce climate
risks over the next half-century. That means
reducing the risks of sea-level rise, reducing
the risks of stress for crops of people in the
poorest and hottest parts of the world.
Keith says he sees geoengineering as a
short-term way to buy time. Nothing changes the fact that in the long run, the only way
to manage carbon risk is to stop emitting carbon dioxide. But, similarly, nothing we know
about cutting carbon dioxide emissions says
thats going to help us deal with the risk of
CO2 thats already in the atmosphere. He
says he sees cutting emissions as a longterm solution and geoengineering as more of
a short-term solution.
In his book, Keith says, Geoengineering complements emissions reductions. Cutting emissions reduces the long run risk by
stopping the accumulation of carbon, while
geoengineeringif it works as expected
will mask risks in the short run (in the slow
moving world of carbon and climate short
run means the next half century).
But geoengineering cannot eliminate the
underlying risk that comes from humanitys
rapid (in geological time) transfer of carbon
from underground reservoirs to the atmosphere. Its hard to overstate the importance
of geoengineerings ability to reduce risk
for current generations as there are no other
methods that can reduce these risks significantly in the next half century.
tion. The federal government is the only entity that has the incentive, responsibility, and
capacity to run a broad, systematic and effective program; it can also play an important
role in effectively establishing international
research norms.
Not So Fast
But thats not a unanimous opinion by any
reckoning.
The enthusiasm for geoengineering,
even for small-scale research, is dangerous
techno-optimism that risks turning over the
state of the climate to business interests, says
Clive Hamilton, professor of public ethics at
Charles Sturt University in Australia and also
the author of a recent book, Earthmasters:
The Dawn of the Age of Climate Engineering
(Yale University Press, 2103). He argues that
research into geoengineering would threaten
the moral imperative to protect the Earth. He
writes that geoengineering actually represents a profound change in the relationship of
Homo sapiens to the Earth. In the twenty-first
century the fate of nature has come to depend
on the goodwill of humans, and to the extent that humans are part of nature the Earth
system itself has acquired a moral force.
Hamilton and Keith debated the geoengineering topic at a joint HarvardMassachusetts Institute of Technology meeting last
fall, with predictably inconclusive results
(Figure 2). Nonetheless, the eventand the
publication of dueling bookshas served
to raise the profile of the geoengineering issue. The sparring between those advocating
geoengineering research and its opponents
has been going on for several years, but it has
been rekindled by the publication of the two
books and the failure of the governments of
Salters Ducks
Back in 1974, amidst the Arab oil embargo,
University of Edinburgh engineer Stephen
Salter came up with an interesting idea
for how to generate electricity from ocean
waves. It was a pear-shaped device about
the size of a house that floated in the water. As the waves hit it, the gyroscopes inside the device converted the wave energy
into rotation, which could then be used
to generate electricity. Each duck could
generate up to 6 MW, and the plan was
to install them in groups of a dozen or so
(perhaps to be known as flocks). A smallscale prototype was built in 1976.
Initial estimates from the government
concluded that Salters ducks were far
too expensive to compete with even the
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41
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
2. Point counter point. Clive Hamilton
(left) of Australias Charles Sturt University
argued against geoengineering while David
Keith of Harvard spoke in favor of it during an
October 2013 event. Courtesy: Harvard Public
Affairs and Communications
sneered at the larger-scale plans of technologists such as Keith and Salter. In a conference
call with reporters recently, as reported in the
Guardian newspaper, Gore said, The most
discussed so-called geoengineering proposalslike putting sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere to reflect incoming sunlightthats
just insane. Lets just describe that clearly
it is utterly mad.
Gore is also cool to what some have
termed soft geoengineering, a planetwide
endeavor to build new nuclear power plants.
This is a course proposed by several leading
climate scientists, including the prominent
climate campaigner and former NASA scientist James Hansen and National Center for
Atmospheric Research scientist Tom Wigley.
Gore told the conference call that hed been
a staunch supporter of nuclear power when
he was in Congress, but is no longer optimistic about expansion today. I do believe that it
may be possible for scientists and researchers
to develop a better and more inherently safer
and cheaper form of nuclear reactor, which
may yet play a significant role in resolving
this crisis. It is not available now.
Geoengineering advocates acknowledge
that nasty side effects could result from spraying sulfur into the air or seawater into clouds.
In his Washington Post interview, Keith said,
We can say what the technical risks are. Putting sulfates in the stratosphere can accelerate
the depletion of ozone that comes from the
chlorine that weve already put up there from
CFCs. It could change atmospheric circulation in ways that are hard to predict. . . . The
bigger risks have to do with misuse. People
often talk about using these technologies to
return temperatures to pre-industrial levels. If
you did that, that would be a dramatic climate
cooling, with bad consequences, like reducing precipitation a lot.
Keith also takes on the moral question.
Nothing plausible we do to reduce emissions in the next, say, quarter-century is
going to materially reduce the risk for real
people, especially some of the poorest and
most vulnerable on our planet from climate
change. So yes, the potential moral hazard is
a major problem. But the fact that its a major
problem is hardly an argument for foregoing
a technology that might substantially reduce
risk for those living now.
A Geoengineering Retrospective
Geoengineering sounds like a new and
somewhat radical, frightening to some, approach to the potential problem of global
warming. But using technology, often at large
scale, to confront environmental and human
issues, is nothing new. Mankind has long
moved the environment to suit its needs.
Writing in the Bulletin of the Atomic Scienwww.powermag.com
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
neering, technologists are looking to move
beyond preventing sunlight from penetrating
the atmosphere and warming the climate. Call
it that giant sucking sound, or direct carbon
capture from the atmosphere. In 2007, flamboyant British entrepreneur Richard Branson
put $25 million into a competition for an environmentally sustainable and economically
viable way to remove greenhouse gases from
the atmosphere. The idea is not to capture
carbon before it is emitted, but after.
One of the 11 finalists for the Virgin Earth
Challenge, is Carbon Engineering in Calgary,
Alberta, Canada. David Keith is the president
of the company. Keith comments, We hope
this technology will make it cheaper to reduce
carbon emissions from parts of the transportation infrastructure such as aircraft that are
otherwise hard to decarbonize, and we see
ourselves competing with other ways to accomplish this goal, such as biofuels.
The company describes its process as follows: Our capture technology brings atmospheric air containing CO2 into contact with a
chemical solution that naturally absorbs CO2,
in a device called a contactor. This solution,
now containing the captured CO2, is sent to a
regeneration cycle that simultaneously extracts
the CO2 while regenerating the original chemi-
cal solution, for re-use in the contactor. The extracted CO2 is combined with all the CO2 from
the systems energy use and both are delivered
as a high-pressure pipeline-quality product. (A
video of the companys technology is available
at http://carbonengineering.com/).
In their Harvard debate, Hamilton suggested that sucking carbon dioxide out of the
atmosphere could attract private investors,
which he implied would be a bad idea. He
noted that N. Murray Edwards, a Canadian
oil sands mogul, recently invested in Keiths
Carbon Engineering. Hamilton argued that
private interests would pursue profits and
ignore the role of governments in guiding
climate policy.
Keith countered that there is nothing
sinister about the Edwards investment,
which is a matter of hedging his bets if
fossil fuels prove to be a bad investment. In
his book, Keith said he sees a sharp distinction in the role of private enterprise in
solar geoengineering and carbon removal.
The development of solar geoengineering
should be as public and transparent as possible. The extraordinary global power of
these technologies means that they cannot be effectively governed by the local
rules appropriate for more conventional
Potential is limitless.
An idea has no momentum until talented people start chasing it. Its then that
one begins to glimpse whats possible, and the future begins to take shape.
Today, we are thousands of people sharing ideas, dedicated to finding new
ways to meet the needs of an ever-demanding Power sector. Which is why,
when it comes to nuclear, natural gas, coal, renewables, hydroelectric and
electric delivery systems, more people are turning to us to get it done.
We are URS.
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DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
44
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Defining Temporary
Calling power service temporary doesnt
quite capture all of its distinguishing attributes. Its temporary rather than permanent,
rented rather than owned, and mobile rather
than fixed. Its also modular and easily scalable. Ask some of the major companies
in the power rental space how they define
temporary power, and some even shy away
from that term because their projects run six
months or longer and range up to 450 MW
in size.
APR Energys Rich explained, When
we think of temporary power, we think of
short-term rental contracts, typically of a year
duration or less, including event power. APR
Energy has removed temporary power from
our vernacular. Rather than focus on shortterm rental projects, we instead work to develop long-term, larger-scale power projects
that bridge customers until their permanent
infrastructure is in place.
Cummins Duncan told POWER, In the
DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
past, temporary power mainly constituted
mobile power, which was required to be
made available quickly and for very short duration. Today temporary power also includes
long-term requirements by utilities whose
capital constraints make investment in permanent sources of energy difficult.
An Expanding Market
According to an April power rental mar-
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45
DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
ket research report by MarketsandMarkets
(M&M), the global power rental market is
expected to grow from an estimated $7.8
billion in 2012 to $17 billion in 2017 with a
compound annual growth rate of 17% during
the same period. Global power rental market
revenuegenerator rental plus revenue from
the temporary power plantwas estimated
at $6.4 billion in 2011. Roughly half of that
revenue derives from peak load installations,
with prime load and standby service making
up the other half.
To put those numbers in perspective, Aggreko, the largest player in the market, says
that in 2013 it served customers in about 100
countries and had revenues of approximately
$2.5 billion.
Theres good reason to be skeptical of
market report figures, in part because, as Altaaqas Keddis noted, the barriers to entry in
this industry are fairly low, especially for
local, small-scale generation rental. Also,
this business is very dynamic with high
transaction rate. The combination of these
factors, in addition to the lack of transparency in many countries, makes the industry
extremely difficult to track and size.
And, as Cummins Duncan noted, the size
and location of the market varies from year
to year. He said market studies hes seen estimate that the temporary power opportunity
is in the region of $5 billion globally; this
can vary significantly by year, with large opportunity existing in North America, Europe,
Middle East, Africa, and Asia Pacific. When
looking at market opportunity, it is important
Another newer role that Cummins is heavily involved in is providing prime power to
U.S. military bases in war zones like Iraq and
Afghanistan. Cummins largest installation
to date was at Victory Base Complex-East,
Iraq, a 74-MW Prime Power Plant. The project consisted of a new 54-MW plant designed
and constructed by Berger/Cummins (a joint
venture between Cummins Power Generation
and The Louis Berger Group), an integrated
and previously existing 20-MW plant, an
electrical infrastructure upgrade consisting
of a new 100-MW bus/switchgear, 40-MW
substation, six new 11-kV overhead distribution feeders, and a fuel farm constructed to
supply the power plant.
According to Duncan, the plant resulted in
the removal of 103 spot generators, resulting
46
www.powermag.com
DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
3 Turbine on wheels. GEs trailer-mounted (TM) mobile gas turbine generators, including the TM2500 shown here, supply power for 50-Hertz and 60-Hertz applications using essentially the same technology as that used in permanent gas turbine power plants employing the
LM2500 turbine. Courtesy: GE Power & Water
Technology Trends
for power rental and temporary power solutions in Saudi Arabia, and all Altaaqa services are provided by CAT diesel engines. Its
longest-running project is a 16-MW temporary power station supplying a mall in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, that has been operating
for six years.
Another type of new playing field is the
multinational one. Aggreko is producing and
delivering cross-border power to three utility companies in Southern Africa (Figure 2).
Shantaram explained that the 232-MW temporary power site uses natural gas from the
Temane gas fields as a fuel source and is lo-
Shantaram noted that Aggrekos basic business of delivering flexible power solutions
anytime, anywhere hasnt changed much
over five decades, but the technology has.
Today we have generators that range from
10 KW right up to 1 MW, and deliver our
solutions in stackable, 20-foot containers
for efficient transportation by road, rail,
ship, or plane.
Diesel-powered internal combustion engines have been the go-to technology in this
part of the generation world. However, gas
gensets and turbines are becoming much
more common.
APRs Rich argued that one of the biggest
innovations in this sector has been the use of
mobile turbines: Before 2011, utilities were
forced to use smaller-MW reciprocating engine power modules because that was the
only feasible fast-track solution. As mobile
turbine technology has developed and become available, utilities have turned to them
Clean Diesel?
Diesel engineswhether in vehicles or
stationary power systemshave a reputation for dirty emissions. But when it comes
to the latest generation of technology,
that reputation is becoming outdated.
The Diesel Technology Forum (DTF), a
U.S. industry group formed in 2000 that
promotes the use of clean diesel, says
that todays diesel generators emit 26
times less particulate matter than those
manufactured 10 years ago.
Diesel generators used for other than
emergency use are subject to a variety
of federal, state, and local regulations
in the U.S. and abroad. In 2006, the
EPA finalized the first national emission
standards for new stationary diesel engines under the New Source Performance
Standards (NSPS), the DTF notes. The
NSPS requires all new diesel engines to
be certified to emission standards that
generally follow EPAs non-road or marine
www.powermag.com
47
DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
rapidly. . . . Since 2011, turbine share has
grown rapidly, from zero in 2010 to a 35%
share of the 100-MW+ deal space in 2013.
Approximately 20% of all fast-track power
deals since 2012 have been for gas turbines.
Utilities prefer the grid stability and power
density that turbines provide, and it is a technology that they understand.
He also noted that the aeroderivative turbine technology used in many APR plants is
the same technology used in many permanent plants; the only difference being that it
is mobile and can be moved if needed.
Another advantage of mobile gas turbines
Rich mentioned is that they are opening
doors to new markets and opportunities in
developed countries, where emissions and
scale are of importance.
In fact, in October 2013, APR Energy announced it had agreed to acquire GEs power
rental business, which will tie it even more
closely with gas turbine technology. Today,
APR Energys fleet is about 55% mobile
gas turbines and 45% gas or diesel power
modulesprimarily GE and Caterpillar
equipment, as the company currently has a
strategic alliance with GE and a global agreement with Caterpillar.
Even non-utilities are turning to gas turbines. In September 2005, when Hurricane
Rita flooded and caused the shutdown of
the Valero Energy Corp. refinery in Port
Arthur, Texas, and when utility power was
unavailable, Valero looked for a quick yet
simple option. GEs Aeroderivative Gas Turbine business provided the refinery with a
TM2500 gas turbine (Figure 3), a blackstart
diesel generator, and an automatic transfer
switch. The 22.5 MW supplied was, according to a GE press release, more powerful
and much less sprawling than a cumbersome
string of diesel generator sets. Six days after
Valero signed the temporary power contract,
the unit was fully installed and delivered auxiliary power for three months until the utility
could resume supplying permanent power.
Typically, Kempf said, units can be ready
to enter commercial operation in about 30
days. GE has also supplied its trailer-mounted, mobile aeroderivative gas turbines in
other countries. For example, two of the four
dual-fuel (gas and diesel) TM2500+ units
involved in a $135 million project for General Electricity Co. of Libya were installed
and commissioned within six weeks after site
selection in December 2013. The project will
provide more than 100 MW for the summer
peak by expanding the Zawia and W. Tripoli power plants. GE notes that the mobile
units can be moved anywhere in the country
to supply emergency backup power or as a
base-load bridge to permanent power installations. The TM2500+ can produce more
than 26 MW of powera 31% increase over
the TM2500, GE says.
GE also offers gas engines from 300 kW
to 10 MW. Kempf said, A containerized gas
engine solution, for fast installation/relocation, can be supplied up to 4.4 MW and with
efficiencies up to 46%.
Whatever the prime mover, squeezing
maximum efficiency out of the technology is key. Aggreko, which manufactures
its own equipment, last year launched the
G3+, a 1-MW engine that the company
says provides customers with up to 14%
4. Powering growth. This photo shows Altaaqas largest single temporary power plant,
95 MW, being installed in May 2014 in Al-Kharj, Saudi Arabia. Courtesy: Altaaqa
48
www.powermag.com
Fuel Options
Because it is available almost everywhere,
diesel has been the traditional fuel of choice
for temporary power (see sidebar). However,
its not the most cost-effective, so the global
players are adding alternatives.
We were the first company to develop and
produce in volume 1-MW gas-fired generators in 20-foot containers, and we now have
over 900 MW on rent in our Power Projects
businessfar ahead of any competitor, said
Shantaram. In the second half of 2013, gas-fueled plants generated 35% of Aggrekos Power Projects rental revenue, having grown at a
compound growth rate of over 55% between
2007 and 2013. Utilities using our gas technology are enjoying all-in costs per kilowatthour from our plants, which is often cheaper
than some of their permanent capacity, and far
below diesel-fueled power plants.
Aggreko has been investing heavily in the
development of temporary power generation
that can use natural gas and heavy fuel oil
(HFO). In 2010, Aggreko began looking for
a fuel that was cheaper than diesel but more
easily available than gas. The answer was
HFO, which is widely used for both power
generation and shipping, Shantaram said.
We overcame some significant engineering challenges to develop an engine capable
not only of running off HFO, but of doing
so inside a 20-foot container, and launched
our new product in March of 2013. Customer
reaction has been very favorable, as we are
able to save them millions of dollars in fuel
costwe believe that this product will become a very important part of our portfolio
over the next five years.
Cummins has also delivered natural gas
and biogas turnkey power plants for dedicated installations. The company has seen
increased demand for gaseous fuels over the
past five years, particularly natural gas and
biogas. As Duncan noted: Two factors influence the viability of this as an option; firstly,
there has to be a reliable source of fuel available locally, either via pipeline or through local production. Secondly, the contract length
has to be long enough to justify any additional infrastructure investments required to
support these fuels.
There may be long-term potential in
dual-fuel technology, he said, which could
allow operators to minimize operating costs
by changing fuel substitution rates to most
effectively respond to fuel price economics.
DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
5. Supporting hydro.
A 30-MW project for a hydro site in Peru, shown here during delivery, was mobilized in five days using trailers specially designed for loads of up to 26 tons.
Courtesy: Aggreko
Surmountable Challenges
Currently, up-front technology choices are
significantly influenced by capital cost, and
the economic viability of these options often
mean that substitution rates are constrained,
limiting potential fuel saving upside.
APR Energy has plants running on both
natural gas and diesel fuel. Rich said customers choose and provide the fuel. As APR
Energys mobile turbines are dual fuel, they
can operate on either diesel or natural gas
with the ability to change at the flip of a
switch. We also offer power modules that use
either diesel or gas.
Fuel is the most expensive part of the
kilowatt-hour, Rich added. So fuel efficiency improvement is the main focus. The
flexibility to operate with dual fuel is vital,
and in this market only the turbine can deliver that ability.
As in the permanent power world, regulatory issues were the most frequently mentioned challenge. Aggrekos Shantaram
noted that even though the companys expertise is in working across borders, challenges can present themselves when having
to adapt to local regulations or requirements that differ from country to country.
However, with over 50 years experience
working in almost every country and in
every industry . . . we can obtain permits
whether it be in Mozambique, Romania,
USA, or Brazil.
APRs Rich noted that The nature of todays market is that our contracts are often in
developing countries, which typically makes
them challenging from the start, particularly
in terms of logistics, labor, and security.
GEs Kempf pointed out that in bridging solutions, the time required for power
purchase agreement negotiation in many
regions can create challenges to rapid deployment. Fuel handling, transportation,
and other issues can also present challenges at times, but solutions are almost
always available.
Then theres weather. Temporary power
is often the only option in remote areas, and
those areas are often remote for obvious
reasons of climate or terrain. Temperature
extremes and poor or absent infrastructure
present challenges for logistics and operation. Luckily, temporary power plants are
mobile and modular, so any damaged equipment can be replaced quickly.
Recent Accomplishments
The coal unloading and transfer system is, for
outage planning purposes, treated as a virtual
Unit 5, and is scheduled for an annual outage lasting between four and 14 days. This
approach allows SGS to plan, procure, and execute coal handling upgrades at predictable periods of time each year rather than piecemeal.
Over the past few years, a number of upgrades
have been completed that have significantly
improved coal-processing operations:
www.powermag.com
eight hours, but some operators would speed up feeders and conveyors
such that a train was being unloaded in significantly less time. Fast
is good, but only up to a point. Rapid unloading caused a significant
increase in wear and tear on the equipment and increased fugitive
emissions that overpowered the surfactant spray system, in addition to
causing coal spills that required an additional six hours of cleanup. A
simple operational change to limit the unloading feeder speed reduced
coal-handling system operating and maintenance costs.
2014
Enhanced PDF version now available
The 2014 UDI Whos Who Directory covers more than 4,500
U.S. and Canadian generating plants. The directory provides:
Nearly 8,100 plant management and support
contact names, titles, and primary job functions.
Basic plant operating statistics for more than 1,500
power stations, including:
Generation (MWh)
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Power plant design characteristics
Choose which purchase option that best suits your needs:
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51
Safety Is Valued
The plants incident and severity rates (currently 1.5 and 0, respectively) are historically
well below the industry average and may also
be considered as best in class, according to
the PRBCUG. The plants safety organization each year selects a volunteer to be the
plants Safety Rover. The Rovers role is to
spend the day where work is being performed
in order to be a resource to workers in identifying and addressing potential hazards.
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COAL
Ballooning Budgets
Edwardsport reached commercial operations
two years late and about $1.5 billion over budget, but that record fairly shines in comparison to Mississippi Powers Kemper County
project, which will be the first to incorporate
carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology
(Edwardsport is CCS-ready but does not
have it installed). The Kemper County plant
has seen costs spiral from an initial estimate
of $2.2 billion to more than $5.5 billion in
the most recent revision in April. That update
again pushed out the plants in-service date
to May 2015, a year beyond the original plan.
Missouri Powers parent, Southern Company, blamed early miscalculations on the
type and amount of piping needed for many
of the problems. With the state having set a
cost cap of $3.87 billion, the overruns have
cost Southern about $1.6 billion.
54
None of this has stopped the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and the Environmental Protection Agency from touting IGCC
with CCS as the future of coal generation.
I consider seeing this plant a look at the
future, DOE Secretary Ernest Moniz said
at an event at Kemper County last November. Were going to need not 10, maybe 100
more of these plants across the country.
Yet only two other such plants are under
active development in the U.S., the Texas
Clean Energy Project (TCEP), near Odessa,
and Hydrogen Energy California, planned
for a site near Bakersfield; both are still in
search of financing despite years of work
(see Is Polygeneration the Future for Clean
Coal? in the March 2014 issue). Most recently, in April, developer Summit Power requested yet another extension from the DOE,
with financial closing now hoped for in June
2015. Director of Projects Laura Miller said
the companys goal between now and then is
to cut hundreds of millions of dollars from
the current $3.5 billion estimate.
These numbers are naturally a deterrent
to future investment. Jeff Phillips, manager
of the Electric Power Research Institutes
(EPRIs) Advanced Fossil, Carbon Capture,
Utilization and Storage research program,
told POWER, The combination of the substantial cost overruns at the two U.S. IGCC
projects built this decade and relatively low
natural gas prices present in North America
has dried up interest in IGCC among U.S.
power producers.
Mixed Record
COAL
Use of flue gas or other low-grade heat
sources to reduce costs and energy consumption for coal drying.
Dry solids pumps or use of supercritical CO2 instead of water for preparing coal
slurry.
Higher-temperature particulate removal
devices and hot gas desulfurization.
Advanced shift catalysts using less steam,
and membrane separation of CO2 and H2.
Hydrogen-firing gas turbines, improved
aerodynamics, and materials advances
to allow higher firing temperatures and
larger blade sizes that improve efficiency
and output.
MHPS believes such plants can be competitive with conventional coal generation.
According to Terry Fujino, project coordinator and manager, boiler and IGCC engineering,
for MHPS, the Nakoso plant has met and exceeded all performance guarantees and targets
since it began initial operation. In April 2013,
it was transferred to commercial operation and
renamed as Unit 10 of Nakoso Power Station.
Based on the results at Nakoso, Tokyo Electric Power Co. has announced plans to build
two new coal-fired IGCC plants in Fukushima
Prefecture with outputs of approximately 500
MW each, using the same air-blown MHPS
gasification technology as the Nakoso plant.
Research into all of these areas is ongoing, though commercialization is closer for
some than for others. Recent improvements
in natural gasfired turbine performance are
also applicable to this field, and advanced
turbines optimized for IGCC are in development by GE, Siemens, and MHPS. Gasifier
technology is also a robust area of research
and development.
Moving Forward
What happens next may depend in large part
on the success of the new Asian plants. If
those projects can avoid the large cost overruns that were encountered by the U.S. IGCC
projects, Phillips said, it will open the door
to more IGCC projects not only in Asia but
possibly elsewhere. If they cannot, it could
doom the technology.
The generators and manufacturers are so
far undaunted. Fujino said MHPS continues to move forward on IGCC and gasification projects.
Duke Energys Good, for her part, was optimistic about Edwardsport in the same earnings call. Since the in-service date we have
been monitoring our success by progressing through GEs new product introduction
protocol, conducting detailed performance
testing and optimization procedures, and obtaining valuable operating experience with
the new facility, she said. All major technology systems have been validated and we
continue to focus on final performance testing and optimization. We are on track to be
within the total revised project estimate of
$3.5 billion.
Stay tuned. Godot may yet put in an appearance.
www.powermag.com
55
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In 1982 and 1989 the British Columbia Utilities Commission, BCUC indeinitely tabled
proposals for developing Site C, but BC
Hydro announced plans for Site Cs resurrection in April 2010. The debate amongst
stakeholders has not ceased since.
Following the approval of the IRP in November 2013, BC Hydro is currently working on securing the next round of permitting and social licenses for Site C. The
approved IRP contemplates that BC Hydro
would proceed with various processes and
stages to advance Site C to a stage that
would enable the government to make an
informed inal decision on whether Site C
should proceed sometime in 2014 or 2015,
commented Charles W. Bois, a partner at
Miller Thomson LLP.
If approved in the aforementioned timeframe, BC Hydro plans to bring the project
online by 2024. Site C is dispatchable
and it produces 1100 MW of irm capacity,
which makes it higher quality than run of
river or wind, which are both intermittent
resources, said Doug Little, vice president
of energy planning and economic development at BC Hydro.
The government, meanwhile, is conscious
that rosy growth projections made at the
height of the commodities boom are untrustworthy. The resource-rich province recovered exceedingly well from the Global
Financial Crisis, posting GDP growth igures of 5.1% and 4.4% in 2010 and 2011
respectively. However, lower commodity prices have partially been responsible
for the provinces slowed growth; the
Royal Bank of Canada estimates 2.1%
growth for 2014.
Although most indicators point towards
Site Cs approval in the coming months,
there are still some hurdles to overcome.
BCs independent power producers (IPPs)
are closely monitoring the situation. Conditions have changed; I would not classify myself as an advocate of the [Site C]
project. It is my job to assess whether Site
C is the best way to generate 1100 MW
of electricity at the point in time when it
would be built and operating. Over the
last several months I have been busy trying to develop alternative packages of ideas, combinations of generation that I can
take to the Cabinet and let them make the
choice whether to pursue Site C or another
option, commented Minister Bennett.
July 2014
www.gbreports.com
www.gea.ca
engineering hydropower
weirs intakes gates lake taps pressure tunnels
penstocks powerhouses
1 to 100 MW
4
July 2014
July 2014
www.gbreports.com
Mobile hoppers being lifted onto Amixs Arctic Tuk barge. Photo courtesy of Amix Heavy Lift.
more accessible.
Amix Heavy Lift acquired a ringer-crane
in 2005 and placed it on its Arctic
Tuk barge in order to move heavy
equipment,
including
transmission
cable spools, and generation turbines of up
to 380 mt. Thereare substantial savings in
time and money; companies can import
straight into a British Columbian port,
utilize our services of heavy-lifting equipment, and then truck the cargo to site,
said Clarke Longmuir, president of Amix
Heavy Lift.
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Paharpur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 . . . . . . . 12
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Cormetech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 . . . . . . . 19
www.nol-tec.com
Orion Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 . . . . . . . . 8
www.burnsmcd.com
Carver Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 . . . . . . . . . 5
www.mwhglobal.com
Nol-Tec Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 . . . . . . . 14
www.belttech1.com
www.psa.mhps.com
MWH America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . . . . . . . . . 2
www.baldor.com
Belt Tech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 . . . . . . . . 9
www.mandieselturbo.com
www.appliedbolting.com
Baldor Electric. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 . . . . . . . . 6
www.ada-cs.com
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POWER
&ROM THE EDITORS OF 0/7%2 4HE E
NEWSLETTER DEVOTED TO
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G E N E R AT E
NEW
ideas.
NEW
connections.
NEW
opportunities.
NEW
resources.
www.electricpowerexpo.com
COMMENTARY
New Rules
The landmark Clean Power Plan proposed in June by the federal
Environmental Protection Agency is one crucial rule of the road
that will help ensure that we stay on the fast track to a clean
energy economy. Placing limits on power plant pollution is the
single most important thing we can do right now to avoid irreversible climate change. From 2005 to 2013, the U.S. reduced its
power sector carbon dioxide emissions by around 15%, thanks
in large part to advances in energy efficiency and fuel switching
from coal to natural gas. But to date, the power industry has had
no limits on the amount of carbon pollution it can emit, even
though power plants account for nearly 40% of U.S. carbon dioxide emissions from energymore CO2 than all of our factories,
homes, and businesses combined. These common-sense limits on
carbon pollution from existing fossil fuel power plants deserve to
be put in place straight away.
When adopted, these standards will be a landmark achievement
for climate stability and public health; they could also go down in
history for providing the tipping point in our nations transition to
a clean energy economy. Retiring the most highly polluting coalfired power plants presents a unique opportunity for clean energy
solutions to fill this gap in generating capacity.
Real-world deployment of clean energy technologies is demonstrating that issues such as the variability of solar and wind
energy can be addressed affordably, in ways that make the grid
smarter, more efficient, and more reliable. Renewables are now
the fastest growing power generation sector, with more solar
panels installed in the U.S. over the last 18 months than the
previous 30 years. The costs of solar and wind energy are falling
rapidly, while electric vehicle sales are climbing, with 100%68
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power.info@psa.mhps.com
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