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Instrumentation and Measurement

5th Semester, 3rd Year (14EL)
B.E Electrical Engg. Program
Nayyar Hussain
Assistant Professor

Lecture # 04
Department of Electrical Engineering

Mehran University f Engg. & Technology,

Jamshoro

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Chapter No. 1: Introduction

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Functional elements of an instrument

Static and dynamic characteristics
Errors in measurement
Statistical evaluation of measurement data
Standards and calibration
Terminology, accuracy, precision, resolution,
sensitivity, bandwidth, decibel.

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DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

Dynamic characteristics refer to the

comparison between instrument output and
ideal output when the input changes.
Explains
the
behaviour
system
of
instruments system when the input signal is
changed.
Depends on a few standard input signals
such as step input, ramp input ann sinewave input.

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DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
Step Input

Sudden change in input signal from steady

state.
The output signal for this kind of input is
known as transient response.
Input

Time

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DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
Ramp Input

The signal changes linearly.

The output signal for ramp input is
ramp response.
Input

Time

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DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
Sine-wave Input

The signal is harmonic.

The output signal is frequency response.

Input

Time

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Errors
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Errors :

Is the difference between the result of the measurement and the

true value of the quantity being measured

Errors pertains to measurement not to an instrument.

Error = Measured Value True Value
+ VE ERROR
-VE Error
% Error

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Measurements Errors (cont.)

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There are two general categories of error:

systematic (or bias) errors and random (or
precision) errors.

Errors
Systematic
Random

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Systematic Errors
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Systematic errors (also called bias errors)

They are consistent, repeatable errors. For example, suppose the

first two millimeters of a ruler are worn off, and the user is not
aware of it. Everything he or she measures will be too short by
two millimeters a systematic error.

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Systematic Errors Sources

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Systematic errors arise for many reasons. Here are just a few:
Calibration Errors: due to nonlinearity or errors in the calibration
method.
Loading or Intrusion Errors: the sensor may actually change the
very thing it is trying to measure.
Spatial Errors: arise when a quantity varies in space, but a
measurement is taken only at one location (e.g. temperature in a
room - usually the top of a room is warmer than the bottom).
Human Errors: arise if a person consistently reads a scale on the
low side, for example.
Defective Equipment Errors: arise if the instrument consistently
reads too high or too low due to some internal problem or damage.

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Random Errors
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Random errors
They are unrepeatable, inconsistent errors, resulting in
scatter in the output data.
The random error of one data point is defined as the
reading minus the average of readings.

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Other Sources of Errors

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There are many other errors, which all have technical names, as
defined here:
Zero Error: The instrument does not read zero when the input is
zero. Zero error is a type of bias error that offsets all
measurements taken by the instrument, but can usually be corrected
by some kind of zero offset adjustment.
Linearity Error: The output deviates from the calibrated linear
relationship between the input and the output. Linearity error is a
type of bias error, but unlike zero error, the degree of error varies
with the magnitude of the reading.

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Other Sources of Errors (Cont.)

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Sensitivity Error: The slope of the output vs. input curve is not
calibrated exactly in the first place. Since this affects all
readings by the instrument, this is a type of systematic or bias
error.
Resolution Error: The output precision is limited to discrete
steps (e.g., if one reads to the nearest millimeter on a ruler, the
resolution error is around +/- 1 mm). Resolution error is a type
of random or precision error.

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Other Sources of Errors (Cont.)

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Hysteresis Error: The output is different, depending on whether

the input is increasing or decreasing at the time of
measurement. This is a separate error from instrument
repeatability error.
Instrument Repeatability Error: The instrument gives a
different output, when the input returns to the same value. The
reasons for the differences and the procedure to get to that
value are usually random, so instrument repeatability error is a
type of random error.

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Other Sources of Errors (Cont.)

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Drift Error: The output changes (drifts) from its correct value,
even though the input remains constant. Drift error can often
be seen in the zero reading, which may fluctuate randomly
due to electrical noise and other random causes, or it can drift
higher or lower (zero drift) due to nonrandom causes, such as
a slow increase in air temperature in the room. Thus, drift
error can be either random or systematic.
Parallax: This error can occur whenever there is some distance
between the measuring scale and the indicator used to obtain
a measurement. If the observer's eye is not squarely aligned
with the pointer and scale, the reading may be too high or
low (some analog meters have mirrors to help with this
alignment).

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Other Sources of Errors (Cont.)

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Environmental factors: Be aware of errors introduced by your

immediate working environment. You may need to take account
for or protect your experiment from vibrations, drafts, changes
in temperature, electronic noise or other effects from nearby
apparatus.
Reading Error: describes such factors as parallax,
interpolation, or optical resolution.
Loading Error: results from the change of the measurement
instrument when it is being used.
Effect of support.
Dirt.

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Other Sources of Errors (Cont.)

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Errors due to Vibrations.

Metallurgical Effects.
Contact Point Penetration.
Errors due to Deflection.
Errors due to Looseness.
Errors due to Wear in Gauges.
Errors due to Location.
Errors due to Poor Contact.
Errors due to Impression of Measuring Stylus.

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Q & A,
THANK YOU.

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