EEIB413: PCI - INSTRUMENTATION

Instrumentation is defined as the art and science

of measurement and control of process variables
within a production or manufacturing area

Transducer is a semi complete instrument:

Transducers

Environmental
Changes e.g.
Heat, pressure,
Light etc.

Changes in
Resistance,
Voltage,
Current,
Inductance,
Frequency,
Capacitance,
Shape, colour
Etc.

Signal
Conditioning

Sensor (transducer primary)

Display
Available output:
4 20 mA or
0 - 1 volt electrical.
0.2 1.0 kg/cm 2
Pneumatic.

(Secondary)

Transducer characteristics

   




   
 

     



      

1. Transfer function, f =
or Sensitivity, G =

= Gain

2. Error
- Scale error, e.g. zero (offset), sensitivity, non-conformity, hysteresis
& dead space.
- Dynamic error - from internal sensor/ transducers capacitor.
- Due to noise, from DC & AC lines, either voltage or current.
- Noises, e.g. pickup, crosstalk, interference.
- Frequency change
3. Effected by environmental changes, e.g. temperature, pressure,
Humidity.
4. Linearity

Types of error

(a) Offset (zero)

(d) Non comformity

(b) Sensitivity

(e) Hysterisis

(c) Combined

(f) Dead space

4. Linearity

5. Sensor time responses:

a. Zero order

b. First order
b(t) = bi + (bf bi)[1 e-t/T]

c. 2nd order oscillatory

R(t) = Roe-atsin(2fnt)

2nd and 3rd orders the instrument/ transducer takes ~ms to settle
at the actual reading.

Analog signal conditioning

- Convert the signal from sensor, etc. , suitable for process control.
- Sensor produces change in voltage/ current/ pulse (frequency).
(electrical signals)
Types:
1. Offset (bias), also called zero error.

E.g.
Fine pot. to eliminate offset.
Coarse pot. - for full scale deflection (FSD)
adjustment on the Ammeter, so that,
0.1 V 1 mA range.
2. Linearization shall design to provide output that varies linearly
with physical parameter.

3. Conversion
e.g. Thermocouple sensitivity 20 mV/oC
i) Shall increase mV to V OR to current [4, 20] mA = [0.25, 1.25] V
via 62.5 .
ii) Convert freq. to V/I
iii) Digital interface (ADC & DAC).

4. Loading effect
- Open circuit no load, Vo = Vs

- With load, Vo =   
Vs


5. Noises unwanted signal

- Eliminate using - a discriminator or comparator.
- Filters
- Fast Fourier Tf +
Averaging etc.
6. Wheatstone bridge convert the sensors
resistance into voltage or current (D).

Va =  Vs
  

Vb=   
Vs



   
      

V(D) = Va Vb= = 

Vs

Eg. R1 is RTD from a thermistor, Pt100, with conversion range:

[95, 100, 105] [-100, 0, 100]oC.
Then, for NULL condition, choose R2, R3 and R4 = 100, Vs = 5V.
Using MATLAB, R1= [95:0.1:105]
dV=5*(100*100-R1.*100)./(R1+100)/(100+100);
plot(R1,dV)
If R3 is the sensor (Pt100) and other Rs = 100

Re-arrange for Real & Imag.,

0.6V

Vo
0.06V
-0.06V

Vi
-0.6V
-100oC 0oC

100oC

Band reject RC filter (notch filter):

fL= 0.187fc and fH = 4.57fc, fc = 1/(2RC)

Important features:
- Open loop gain
- Freq. responses
- Offset
- Slew rate
- CMRR

Application of Op-Amp
1.a. Integrator

Iin =




= -.

/01


1.b. Differentiator

Since Iin = C

2
= - # 3 2 45

2. Comparator




= -If

Vout = -RC




Vin (-) > Vref (+)

S is closed

Vout = 0 V

Vin (-) < Vref (+)

S is open

Vout = 5 V

Eg.
Hysteresis Comparator:

=
3. Sample and hold




Vout

4. Active filters
(a) Low pass

Zf = R2 // Zc =


!" #

Zi = R1
$

Gain = - = - 

 !

$

%
%&

where = 2f & 0 = 2f0 = ' #

()
(

(c) Band pass

(b) High pass

Gain
1

Gain = Gain = -

!,# 
 !,#   !,#  

where 1 = 1/(R1C2), LP = 1/(R2C2), HP = 1/(R1C1),

and LP - HP .

*
*+

 !, #
 !

%
%&

where o = ' #

()
(

Gain
1

*
*+

Application of Op-Amp cont.

5. Logarithmic using diode or bipolar transistor

OR


Id 6 Is exp( 7 )

Vbe = Vt In(Ic/Iso)
Ic = Vin/R
Vout = -Vt ln (Vin/IsoR) = K ln(Vin)

1

Vout = -Vt In(Vin/IsR)

where Id is the diode current, Is is the
saturation current, Vd is the voltage
across the diode and Vt is the thermal
voltage.

where Ic is the collector current of the transistor,

Iso the saturation current, Vbe the base emitter voltage.
K is a constant.

6. Buffer

Vout = Vin

- Use for isolation.

7. Instrumentation amplifier
RG

Eg. 1NA114
1
Vi 8
Vi(+)

2
3

8
1NA114

Vo = (1 + 50/RG) (Vi(+) Vi(-))

Note: Zi = 1010 // 6 pF, RG in k.

Comparator rules:

Example:

Power, PL = i2ZL

Impedance matching:
Zs

Power, PL =

i 2Z

For maximum power transfer to the load,

ZL = ZS

ZL (Load)

Vs

This condition will also minimize the signal

reflection from the load to the source, S.

Eg.

For matching condition, oL = 1/oC

o = 2fo = 1/ 9.
fo =
Q factor =

</
=>
 =>

): ;#

Matched: no reflection, & Amplitude

not changed.

Amplifier with impedance of 500 drives 8 speaker

70V line matching transformer:

Insert a buffer here!