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OXFORD PAMPHLETS
1914
THE EASTERN
QUESTION
BY
I\ F.
URQUHART
SECOND IMPRESSION
Pf'ice
Threepence nef
BlllJ AIN'S
CASE
BARKF.R.
R. L. KLKTCIIER.
L. G.
II.
C.
DAVIS.
AUTIM R HASSALL.
With an
W.
F. ^
.GAN.
of the
Two
Shillings
and Sixpence
EDINBURGH
TOUONTO
Eastern Question'
between East and West is
a very ancient one, and wherever such a division exists
there must necessarily be a wide debatable land in
which there will be interaction or conflict political,
social, and religious.
At times some powerful political
of
some
kind.
The
'
(livinion
Roman
Empire, or a imifying
may imnose peace
on this debatable land and encourage a period f fruitful
intercourse between the two 'civilizations', o use a
convenient though a dangerous word. At other times,
as for instance durin<T; the wars between Greece and
I'cMsia. at the time of the great Mahometan attack, or
during the Crusades, East and West have been in
-'Vnt spiritual and military conflict. The frontier has
spiritual force, such as Christianity,
shifted
at
?mt Asia begins. At all times there has been much that
is Asiatic about the eastern part of the
Kiirope of our
maps, and in the Middle Ages the frontier of Latin
Christendom, of those countries whose religious life had
its centre in Rome, was in many respects the boundary
of Europe.
In the south the Ea.stern Empire, that is to
say that eastern half of the old Roman Empire which
had its capital at Constantinople, tended to become more
oriental as time went on
and in the north there was
a great difference between the Russians, who had been
'
'
'
'
Mtantinoplo,
Rome.
to
was
religiouB obedience
Knr..i)o
This Asiatic v-haractcr of rMsi. n.
cent
y
intensified when in tlu- t liiiC rnt 1.
nut urallv
who Lad
and
settled in Russia,
and
and
when
man
<.nie
originally from
in tlie
many
of
century a new
in
many respects
and
oriental in character, hut prepared
of those
two
dan'H
i-
it liad
of foreign intervention
region in
of peace, to isolate the storm
government
better
South-east Europe, to promote cither
lost should be
they
under the Turks or to see that what
Christian states and not by any of
of
aU lovers
be
the
moment
this policy
was
successful.
The Turkish
and
wviv divided
till-
(licit
luM
kh
ii
ft
(Jrt-ece, Jiiiliraria,
Ailsl
(til.
la
and
St-rvia.
did. iiidci-d.
passed into the Souti>ern Slav question, and the diplomatic Ijarriei which had been set up lound the storm
region were
,-^>vept
away.
llus^ia
ablaze.
fathers,
movements
and
racial problems
',
'
between men.
number
of
An Englishman,
ways unlike an
Italian.
elusive.
Does
it
What
exactly
for ixistance,
is
we
is
in a
If
we make
THE
QUESTION
EAiSTERiN
thm
Aiifilo
Saxon
race
cms
s.
vanish
to
mixed
all
it
and the
In
alto^'ct her.
uncommon
not
is
Yet
test of race.
riu'cs,
this is
a most
to
ttn-
tnistworthy test. Men with very different racial oharacTn any case
tcristics often speak the same language.
it will tend very tuucIi to cIcaiMM ss of thought if we make
The
a diutinctiun between
race
and nationality
latter term should be kept for the description of a
definite body of people, large enough to be to some
extent Helf -sufficient, who have a perniaiient wish to be
Ilacc. language, reunited in a political community.
"
'
history, geographical
past
ligion,
"
position
these
all
he absence of nearly
all
he
ics
'
nationality
'
race
'
is
'
is
a question of
and
In other words
human
will
and
desire,
teristics.
Now
of race.
Jiut
in
some
states to pieces
and building
up othen.
out
Its
(liiiiypr.
miturally uttructed
Hyiupathy;
hut
time
once they had grown iK)werful, proved that
they too could be both oppr^re and warlike, and they
alitie.s
in
natiuiialiticH,
added
not
racial
iltogcthe- an
liHve tak
'II
the
advatitajje
that
It is
p'-icc of thi'
instead of being
political loyalty.
'
'
its
own
merits.
It is, indeed, ([uite possible that ,
itioal
systems which can link together difTercpt rf^. es, as the
British Empire does, may provj a grci'^r benefit to
mankind than those in which
liticai d. visions are
,
THE
EA.sTKItX QI ESTION
thoutrli for a
down
i)eriiiaiieiitly in
Syria and
owed
to
their sncof^ss
tiie
Balkan Peninsuhi.
military qualities,
tine
They
lo
tlie
tlie
whom
with
The
minions.
of
fell
exercised a real,
if
they
lost
much
Europe
territory in central
but at the
or Africa.
The
tieii
wliich
together
as whi^e as
into everyday
service,
is
and
life,
and
social organization.
many
tie
pe()])les
and
races, Berber,
governors
whom
by their fear
and the strength
rebellion,
custom.
strong
governor would sometimes make himself practically independent, and the Sultan might have to encourage a
local rebellion in order to secure his fall.
There was
but
very
ill
protected
against
the illegal
Under such a
system there was almost unlimited scope for personal
tyranny, but there was none of that steady administrative
pressure which a modern government can bring to bear
upon a population. A bad governor might cause a great
deal of suffering to his subjects, but he could effect no
permanent change in their thoughts or their manner of
exactions of the governor or his agents.
living.
It is
We
10
government.
personal character
the
and property were insecure
economic development of the country, and the establishment of much that we know as civilization, was therefore
impossible. Yet the supreme test of a government is the
type of character which it produces or allows to develop.
Judged by this standard the East has a strong defence.
Few Europeans have acquired a knowledge of Eastern
of the ruk'r.
Life
ties.
many admirable
quali-
Many of the worst moral and social evils w hitli are the
fruit of our economic conditions are absent in a simpler
society where family life is very vigorous and men are
content to live as their fathers lived before them.
Though every European who has
'
'
resistance
that
'
'
view,
it
with
tlie
national
Christian peoples.
when Turkish
'
11
habits and
ideas
No effort was
of
the different
made, even
in the
days
military power
was unquestioned, to
to use government pressure in order to
assimilate
t'
On the
contrary, the
corporate
villages
based on religion.
The Turks, perhaps unfortunately for them, were not
content to remain oriental. Throughout the last century
there was a movement among them in favour of introducing European reforms. Some of these, such as the
tical organizations
military reforms of
existence
Mahmoud
Turkey
of
11,
payment
of officials.
There
classes,
at
first
'
'
Young ^Turks
'
air^iitiKt
him
and
12
much
of
what was
host in Turkey.
own
iieople
men,
in a
word,
who
the Turks.
it is
still
appears to
soon be taken by men who are better representatives of the good qualities of the Turkish race.
Without good qualities the Turks could not j)ossibly
have kept even elemental y order in the Balkan Peninsula.
Tt is a patchwork of rival nationalities, a population
place
may
amongst whom a genuine love of fighting and an astonishing courage are found combined with a remarkable
capacity for hatred and cruelty. The second Balkan
The
Moslem masters.
Balkan States
will
be best
and that
in
many
districts, especially in
are of no value at
13
successful merchants
l)eeanK'
'J'his
success they
won
They owed
in 182S.
it
more
of Turkey.
themselves organized
oii
a religious
l)asis,
recognized
Hocks; and
ail
members
of the Orthodo.v
Church; what-
known
as Greeks, just
all
grees,
Moslems were
ca'led Turks.
It
the >-thcr
Christiasi
po}>H!;>'
-f T\!rk:^y,
^^f^rvi='n,
14
this
They are
money
to education.
Tiny
much
was
a))le
wars.
Salonica
of territory,
and
fell
to her
lot
with
17,tUtl
in addition to this a
si^uare miles
number
of islands.
For the present the appetite of Greece is probably satistied, though she is doubtless allowing her semi-indeHer
]>endent guerillas to invade southern Albania.
lu r
iieul_v
uciiuiied
i.->laini>
iind
her
own
coasts
lose
of her
Macedonian conquests.
15
We may
hope
but in any
is
not
no
discredit to them to say that whatever may happen
their great achievements lie behind them in the
likelv to oniuhite tiie
Greek
of ancient days.
It is
past.
It
wc
is
Out
of a population
of
"
f(
very
luture.
is
much
to be
o^
jupying a
16
wide
Adriatic
of
ou the 80uth-west.
of
The
Ht)uth-eatern half of
by the Hervianw
north-west
finally a small
Slav
ar<'
he Huljii.iians,
lirief pi'iiod
of glory in
but rarely
suc
essful.
.\
considerable
number
of
187S the
Kingdom
complete inde-
pendence.
and
many
Servians rcmainei
under diicct
There was also the little principality of
Montenegro established in a rugged and mountainous
district not far from the Adriatic and peopled by men
of Servian race.
It had never owed much more than
a nominal allegiance to the Turks, and foi- generations
the Montenegrins carried on a luthless vendetta waifare
IJosiiia.
TiU'kish rule.
They
too
owed
patronage.
'.
licll)c(l
17
now Austria
l)ec<iine
first
To
of S<m'\ ia
'
revival in
the middle of
the
last
THE
18
(f
their late
EAkSTEKiN yUE8'riON
kiri^'
'
'
the
who
Archduke
all
and
The
Bulgarian people s(>em to have conie into Europe with th<Huns. They were not 8ia vs, and spoke a language which
did not belong to the European family of languages.
Their original home probably lay in the plains north
of ihe Caspian
and farther
langua<i<'
east.
aii<l
many
of the character-
istics of
the Slavs
whom
I'urlsi^li
lipsf.
c .lUiUest
From a
^ulloivd
the>
iUi
19
fxlraonlinuiy
com-
(M'clfsiastical
or^Muizatioii
was
(!rcck.
(ireek
\^a^
tlir
Euglishmen
ihc educated elas>es.
of all
lanixiia^fc
ra verisiiig the t'iiiimy in the tirst half of the last century
spoke of the people as if they were all Greeks. Slowly,
i
however, the
War.
sccined
('cclesiasl ical
iJy
itself,
187( tlu-y
self-government, and
live
had
years
down
in a
notoriety,
nvent
for the
i
vents
uneii viable
Turks an
both
in
the
Balkan
'
atrocities
Peninsula and elscuhei'e have shown that
are no Turkish monopoly. The Bulgarian revolt was
'
a semi-attached province
THE EASTEUN
20
I'lincc.
MtilL'.iriiiii
first
kirliia ||M'(1
by
who
iiiinistt'r
tlif
KSTION
AlexuiKlcr of HiittciilKUL'
paitv. aiwl
IJilHsiaii
ruled duriim
tilt"
st miiji-
:is
willed
tlio
lii'Mirue
aj^iiiust
Turkey
ilHueiice
li
hiis
seemed
at
least
the diplomatie
madness they
a ntonieiit of
and lost some oi their conboth on the western and their eastern frontiers.
They are considered by many, however, to be the most
pro<rressive and the most eflieient of the Balkan States,
and heir friends inaititain tli.it w hen hey ha ve recos t-reil
from the ecmseqiienics of defeat and repai-ed tluiir
resouiX'eH, they will onee more endeavour to secure a
suH'ered a series of (U'feats,
(|ueHt8
iM'V
of
"
of the
iioman Empire.
Huns, of
Loinan
iiie
pjnpii'c.
is
tlie
old luliabitants ot
it
I'lovinro.
21
(hiriiiu'
At the
and nineteenth
ci^'liteent h
ilie
lieginninv, of the
nineteenth century
of King.
it
The
j^co^rraphical position of
necessarily the
most
pacific
Roumania makes
of the
Bidkan States.
Every (hsturbance of the status quo in the Balkans, anything which tends to weaken the separate states renders
more likely a Russian intervention, and from sucl \n
intervention Roumania would be the first to tsuffer. Sh<'
succeeded in almost entirely ki'ejnng out of the recent
Bidkan wars, though, in the interests of peace, she
ever,
Roumania has
lier
"
ljarl>aric
"
of this extraordi-
national ambitions.
Across the
Balkan Penuisula
itself,
22
nmhition
'I'm ks
way.
ment but
less
tolerati(jn
tnjin
their
own
govern-
new Servian
or
Greek masters.
There remains y(^t another Balkan race, and that the
oldest of all. The Albanians, who have beeii already
mentioned as in a sense 'Turks because they are mostly
"
hills,
they
the
Mahometan
Even
this superficial
government.
Th( (establishment
of Greece, Servia,
and Bulgaria
its
own
23
for a law
As a matter
It is therefore
have in the ultimate solution.
more than ever essential to understand something of the
character and aims of Russia.
will
development, and where, for the last ten years, a revolution has been in progress, partly violent, partly peaceful,
which "must necessarily affect the character both of the
people and of the state
The only
possible course
is
to
may
tend.
Russia
till
The
b}'
it
"
'
oriental
Europe
continued
'
may
"
be
state.
was begun
fitfully
during
During the later years of the century the work of Peter was carried on with extraordinary
nationalist reaction.
24
licrinc J
a masteifnl woman 1)orii of
German princely family. She understood better
than any native Russian sovereign the national senti-
sucooss hy
ii
';it
small
From
tion consisted of
still
classes.
very oriental.
They
govcned by an
consistetl
whom
The mass
religion
This vast
official class,
central-
ized
and autocratic.
statesmen in Europe
At
its
^few of
25
end
of
the
later
centurier
century, included
seventeenth
one-seventh
the
of
land
surface
two
of
the globe.
policy of conquest
was
in accordance with
to say, but
the wishes of the Russian people
there can be no doubt that one of the forms which it
took, conquest from the Turks, was profoundly popular.
To the Russian people the Tmkish war was the renewal
it is difficult
all this
first,
26
the
tiie
the
gerated.
If
the
reforms
of
"
three parts
(>(
and the
reconciliation
27
it
chamcter of Russian ruie
nhoulcl mean tiie weakening of the central bureaucracy
and a tendency towards a federal system. What has
boi'U grautetl to Poland and Finland will l)o demanded,
though no doubt lo u lessor extent by South Russia.
Indeed
it is
obvious that
ih a
movement
of the future
may
be
made
loose
between all
would not be a danger to the world but their formation
into a strong centralized and military state would be
federal union
Mediterranean port,
will
still
'
of
her
the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles. Constantinople is indeed a position of great value to an aggressive
Though it is not as im])()rtant as it was in the
state.
house
',
28
seuH
.situation
in
the
!ialkan.s
and
at
ige
eli
in
Asia Minor
while
last
tlu'
Dardaiu'lles to ships oi
war
However summary may have been this attempt to survey the conditions and the problems of Eastern Eiurope,
it is clear that after the ju'esent war the Eastern Question
w
ill
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