Experiencing

Construction
BULDING CONSTRUCTION 1 (BLD60303)

Documented by:
Teoh Jun Xiang
0322099 Tan Min
Chuen 0322938 Tang
Ying Jien 0322357 Saw
E Sean 0322003 Tang
Fu Hong 0323092 Tan
Yan Jie 0323906 Teh
Wei Hong 0323743
Thomas Ting Shii Kai 0323962

CONTENTS

Content page
No.

Section

Page

1.0

Introduction (Tang Ying Jien and Saw E Sean)

1.1

Introduction to Site 1 (Tang Ying Jien)

1.2

Introduction to Site 2 (Saw E Sean)

2.0

Site and safety (Tang Ying Jien)

2.1

2.2

Introduction to site and safety in Elmina Valley Phase

EV1A (Tang Ying Jien)
Safety signboards (Tang Ying Jien)

2.3

Bulletin board (Tang Ying Jien)

2.4

Safety protocols (Tang Ying Jien)

2.5

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) (Tang Ying Jien)

2.6

Plants and machineries (Tan Min Chuen)

4-6

3.0

3.1

Preliminaries (Tan Min Chuen, Teh Wei Hong and Tang

Fu
SiteHong)
Layout (Tan Min Chuen)

3.2

Preliminary (Services connection) (Teh Wei Hong)

3.3

Setting out (Teh Wei Hong)

9-11

3.4

Earth work (Tang Fu Hong)

11-12

4.0

Foundation (Teoh Jun Xiang and Saw E Sean)

13

4.1

Foundation type and construction process (Site visit) (Teoh

Jun Xiang)
Foundation type and construction process (Reference) (Saw
E Sean)
Superstructure (Tan Yan Jie, Thomas Ting Shii Kai
and Teoh Jun Xiang)
Superstructure (Site visit) (Tan Yan Jie)

13-14

25

5.2.1

Superstructure (Reference) (Thomas Ting Shii Kai and Teoh

Jun Xiang)
Ground beams (Thomas Ting Shii Kai)

5.2.2

Slabs (Thomas Ting Shii Kai)

25

5.2.3

Beams and columns (Thomas Ting Shii Kai)

26-27

5.2.4

Walls (Teoh Jun Xiang)

27-36

5.2.5

Staircase (Thomas Ting Shii Kai)

36-37

6.0

38

6.1

Doors and Windows (Tan Yan Jie and Thomas Ting Shii
Kai)
Doors (Tan Yan Jie and Thomas Ting Shii Kai)

6.2

Windows (Tan Yan Jie and Thomas Ting Shii Kai)

39-41

7.0

Roof (Teh Wei Hong and Tang Fu Hong)

42

7.1

Roof type and construction process (Site visit) (Tang Fu Hong) 42-45

7.2

45-49

8.0

Roof type and construction process (Reference) (Teh

Wei Hong)
Summary (Teoh Jun Xiang)

9.0

References (Thomas Ting Shii Kai)

51-

4.2
5.0
5.1
5.2

7-8

15-20
21
21-24

25

38-39

50

Tang Ying Jien 0322357Saw E Sean 0322003

1.0 Introduction
1.1Elmina Valley Phase EV1A

Figure 1.1 Two-storey terrace houses which

were proposed to be built at Elmina Valley
Phase EV1A

Project: Elmina Valley Phase EV1A

Project Title: 157 unit, 2-Storey Terrace
House (1,709 sq. ft.)
Project Duration: 18 months
Site Possession Date: 29th of January
2016 Completion Date: 28th of July
2017

1.2Lot 120, Mukim Lunas, Daerah Kulim, Kedah Darulaman

The Elmina Valley Phase EV1A
was once an oil palm plantation
estate until it was transformed
into a residential area. It is
located at Petaling district which
is connected to the Guthrie
Corridor
Expressway,
Federal
Highway, Kuala Lumpur Kuala
Selangor Expressway and North
Klang Valley Expressway. The
strategic location of the site
meant that a shorter drive to
Kota Damansara,
Shah
Alam
and the
Subang Airport is made possible.
The residential area consists of
157 terrace units with nature
parks as its recreational area. A
man-made

Figure 1.4 Two-storey semi-detached houses

which were proposed to be built at Mukim
Lunas, Daerah Kulim, Kedah Darulaman

Figure 1.5 Two-Storey terrace houses which

were proposed to be built at Mukim Lunas,
Daerah Kulim, Kedah Darulaman

lake was also built in the middle of the residential area for aesthetic and recreational
purposes. There is also an amphitheatre provided within the residential area to act as
a gathering place for the residents.

Figure 1.2 Location Plan of Elmina

Valley Phase EV1A

Figure 1.3 floor plans of a single terrace house unit within Elmina Valley Phase EV1A.

The project is located at Kulim District,

Kedah, Malaysia. It is the closest town to
the
Greater Penang in Kedah. As there are
quite a huge amount of people living
in the district, rapid development of
residential areas occurs around the
area
to
cater
the
provide
accommodation for the increasing
number of citizens. Lot 120, Mukim
Lunas, Daerah Kulim, Kedah Darulaman
is one of the residential construction
projects
that
aims
to
provide
comfortable living place for the public.
The project is located near a river as
well as a police and petrol station. The
residential area consists of 12 units of
single-storey terrace houses, 28 units of

2-storey terrace houses, 8

units of single-storey semidetached houses and 20
units
of
semi-detached
houses.

Lunas,
Darulaman

Daerah Kulim, Kedah

Lot

Project Title:
-12 units of single-storey Terrace House
-28 units of 2-Storey Terrace House
-8 units of single-storey semi-detached
house
- 20 units of semi-detached house

120,

Project Duration: 24 months

Mukim

Site Possession Date: 10 September 2016

Project:

Completion Date: 9 September 2018

Figure 1.6 Location Plan of Mukim Lunas, Daerah
Kulim, Kedah Darulaman

Tang Ying Jien 0322357

2.0 Site and Safety

2.1Introduction
The safety of personnel working in the construction site of Elmina Valley is taken
very seriously and every safety measures have been carried out to ensure the
workers safety on site at all times. The Sime Darby Development Department
have designated a green zone in every construction site to provide an area to
conduct security checks on workers as well as visitors to ensure their safety on
site. Safety equipment which are stored in the green zone are also distributed
to provide protection to those at site. Safety signboards, bulletin boards and
security booths are present in the green zone.

2.3Bulletin Board
- Consist of various pinned project information for workers, visitors and other
authorised personnel to refer to.
- Articles on health and safety for construction site personnel to read.
- Posters on safety campaigns are posted on the boards to create awareness
among the construction site personnel.

2.2Signage
- Provides emphasis on important reminders and alerts the public on the
potential dangers and risks on the construction site.
- A diagram of the Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) to remind workers of
the required safety equipment when on site.
- Signage of assembly point to indicate the location of the emergency gathering
point during any unforeseen accidents or emergencies.

Figure 2.3 Bulletin Board

2.4Safety Protocols
The safety issued on workers are very strict and they were required to wear
helmet, vest safety boots for normal safety compliance. The workers need to
be registered as verified foreigners and need to have formal permits and
passports. Every workers requires to keep their ID, which is written at the back
of the safety helmet for security and safety measurements. The workers are also
required to enter personal code and hand print in the green zone when entering
the construction site.

Figure 2.1 Signage of the emergency

assembly point and the sign with diagrams of
the Personal Protective Equipment (PPE).

Figure 2.2 Penalty sign. Fines will be issued to

those who violate the safety rules and
regulations of the construction site.

Figure 2.4 Hand Print Scanner

Figure 2.5 Safety Gate

Tang Ying Jien

0322357

2.5Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

i. Safety Helmet
- To provide protection from falling objects and to protect the
safety of workers when they are operating a construction
vehicle.
- To prevent direct contact between dangerous objects and the
head which may cause injuries to the head.

ii.Eye Protection
- Providing protection to the eyes of the workers from hazardous
objects such as dust particles, molten metal as well as
sparks during construction.

Figure
2.6
Personal
Protective Equipment (PPE)
sign within the construction
site.

Figure 2.7 Collection of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

iii.Protective Gloves
- Protects the hands of the workers when handling sharp objects,
tools and corrosive chemicals.

Safety Helmet

iv. Safety Clothing

- To protect the workers from any direct contact to objects which
may cause harm to the physical body.
- To allow a worker to be highly visible in the construction site.

Safety Clothing

v. Safety Boots
- To provide protection to workers feet from sharp objects which
may pierce and injure the feet.

Safety Clothing

- To protect the feet against any falling objects.

Safety Boots

Tan Min Chuen

0322938

2.6Plants and Machinery

ii.Excavator

he selection of the appropriate type and size of construction equipment often

affects the required amount of time and effort and thus the job-site productivity
of a project. It is therefore important for site managers and construction planners
to be familiar with the characteristics of the major types of equipment most
commonly used in construction.

2.6.1

Earthmoving and excavating equipment

- Earthmoving and excavating equipment are heavy-duty vehicles, designed

specially to execute construction tasks, most frequently involving earthwork
operations.
- As they imply the mechanical advantage of a simple machine, the ratio
between input force applied and force exerted is multiplied. Some equipment
uses hydraulic drives as a primary source of motion.

i. Back-hoe Loader

The back-hoe loader can be used for a wide variety of tasks as there are
both a bucket and a shovel attached to it. It is normally used in smaller
construction works to dig shallow excavations and trenches, general grading,
mall demolitions as well as light transportation of building materials

Used to excavate below or above natural surface of ground on which machine

rests and dig pits for basement. It can excavate close range works as they
have better bucket. Excavators can also be used for forestry work, demolition
and many more.
iii. Vibratory soil compactor

Compactors
are
used
for
compacting crushed rock as the
base layer underneath concrete
or stone foundations or slabs.
The function of compactors is to
produce
higher
density
soil
mechanically. The basic forces
used in compaction are static
weight, kneading, impact and
vibration.
The
degree
of
compaction that may be achieved
depends on the properties of soil,
its
moisture
content,
the
thickness of the soil layer for
compaction and the method of
compaction.

2.6.2 Lifting and erecting equipment

2.6.3 Mixing and grading equipment

Lifting and erecting equipment are machineries that are used to deliver
materials and equipment or lift loads from a place to another vertically and
horizontally.

Mixing and grading equipment are construction equipment that mix up the
materials and are mainly used to produce concrete by mixing aggregates, water
and cement.
i. Concrete Transport Truck

i. Truck Mounted Moblie Crane

may combine to cause

disastrous
tip-over
A crane mounted on a truck carrier provides the mobility for this type of crane,
these cranes are able to travel on highways, eliminating the need for special
equipment to transport the crane, usually used in smaller construction to dig
shallow excavations and trenches, general grading, hoist and place materials
ii.Forklift
A tractor with a fork built in
front to lift heavy objects. It is
commonly used in construction
to
move
aside
or
load
materials into or onto another
type of machinery. Another
critical characteristic of the
forklift is its instability. The
forklift and load must be
considered a unit with a
continually varying center of
gravity with every movement
of the load. A forklift must
never negotiate a turn at
speed with a raised load, it

Concrete transport trucks (intransit mixers) are used to transport and mix
concrete while travelling to the construction site. The concrete mixing
transport truck maintains the material's liquid state through agitation, or
turning of the drum, until delivery. The interior of the drum on a concrete
mixing truck is fitted with a spiral blade. In one rotational direction, the
concrete is pushed deeper into the drum. This is the direction the drum is
rotated while the concrete is being transported to the building site. This is
known as "charging" the mixer. When the drum rotates in the other
direction, the spiral blade "discharges, forces the concrete out of the drum.
ii. Portable Concrete Mixer
A device that homogeneously combines cement, aggregate such as sand or
gravel, and water to form concrete. The portable concrete mixer uses a
small revolving drum to mix the components. For smaller jobs, the concrete
made at the construction site has no time lost during its transportation, giving
the workers ample time to use the concrete before it hardens.

2.6.4 Transporting vehicle

ii. Bar Cutting Machine

Transportation vehicles are heavy vehicles that able to transport materials

and equipment for a long distance. They are usually used to transport materials
from the base to the construction site.

Bar cutting machines are used for

cutting reinforcement bars and various
forms of round bars.

i. Dump Truck
Dump trucks are used for transporting
loose material (such as sand, gravel, or
dirt) for construction. A typical dump
truck is equipped with an open-box bed,
which is hinged at the rear and
equipped with hydraulic pistons to lift the
front, allowing the material in the bed to
be deposited on the ground behind the
truck at the site of delivery.
ii.Truck

A motor vehicle designed to transport

cargo. Trucks vary greatly in size, power,
and configuration, with the smallest
being
mechanically
similar
to
an
automobile. Trucks are usually used to
transport plants such as, generator set,
portable concrete mixer, mobile lighting
tower to desire places on site.

Mobile lighting towers are used to light

up the construction site at night. And also
used to light up spaces with low light
intensity.

iv. Generator Set

A generator set is an electronic device
that supplies electric energy to devices
and machineries on site.

2.6.5 Construction equipment

i. Bar Bending Machine

iii. Mobile lighting tower

Bar bending machines are used for

bending reinforcement bars and various
forms of round bars.

3.0 Preliminaries

i. Site Entrance

ii. Signboard

Allows vehicles and machineries to

get in to the construction site.

The sign board displays information

about the construction and the
various companies involved in the
construction process.

3.1Site Layout

Barbenders yard
To Construction site

iii. Access Road

iv. Hoarding

Storage area

Workers cabin Shower area

Kitchen canteen

Carpark
security post

Surau
en

green zone
site office generator set
Entrance

Allows vehicles and machineries to

access the construction site from the
main road.

v. Storage

Cante

Erected around the of construction

site to shield it from view and
prevent unauthorised access. It is an
important component to prevent theft
and vandalism.

Designated places were used to store excess materials and also park
unused machineries.

vi. Site Security

Drainage

Hand print scanning for each worker

to identify their identity. This can
prevent unauthorized access to the
site.

viii. Site Office

Temporary drainages are excavated

on site to discharge water from site
during rain and heavy downpour as
well as to prevent flooding.

Construction sites will generally require office facilities to provide accommodation

for site managers, provide space for meetings and to provide storage for site
documentation. It is important that site offices are comfortable, attractive and
versatile, as well as being suitably robust and secure

x. Wash Trough

xi. Canteen

xii. Surau

The green zone is the area within

the yellow fencing. Within the green
zone, people are not required to put
on safety helmet and safety boots.

The green zone is the area within

the yellow fencing. Within the green
zone, people are not required to put
on safety helmet and safety boots.

The canteen is a place for workers

to have their meals. Kitchens are
also provided to allow the workers to
cook their own meals.

A Muslim prayer room is provided

for Muslim workers to conduct their
daily prayers.

xiii. Barbenders Yard

dump

xiiii. Rubbish

xv. Workers Accomodation

viiii. Green Zone

Designated places were used to

store excess materials and also park
unused machineries.

Rubbish containers that allow workers

to dispose garbage on site. It will be
transported by the dump truck when it
is full.

The workers accommodation is a composition of large numbers of cabins

to accommodate the workers. The accommodation is constructed using
containers and zinc roofing, which results in the containment of hot air within
the living space. Stairs are provided to allow accessibility to the first floors.
In addition to that, balconies are also present outside of the cabins to allow
the workers to hang their shirts for drying and a car park is also provided for
the workers to park their vehicles.

Teh Wei Hong

0323743

3.2Preliminary (Service Connection)

3.3.1Horizontal Control Technique

Before starting earthwork make sure there are no service lines such as
electrical connections, water supply and drainage connections, telephone
lines or others below ground.

Horizontal control surveys are conducted to coordinate horizontal positional

data. These positions can be referenced by parallels or plane coordinate axes.
Because they are used as a framework for other surveys, these surveys must
be precise and accurate. These surveys provide a network of monuments or
points on the ground that can be used as the control for any other
surveying project, such as a boundary or construction survey. The
advantages of using a horizontal control survey is that lost monuments can
be replaced accurately, surveys can be coordinated, more than one network
station can provide a check to the work, and a reduction in the cost of the
project can be achieved. Most horizontals should (and will) be connected to
the control network.

3.3Setting Out
Setting out involves working out the location and extent of the building on
site. As each site is different, contractors should start by establishing the
particular conditions. The process involves the positions and levels of building
lines and road alignments shown on the construction plans to be established
on the ground by various techniques and instruments. Setting out is usually
divided into two stages which is the first stage of setting out and the second
stage.

i. First Stage
In practice, the first stage of setting out involves the
use of the horizontal and vertical control techniques.
The purpose of this stage is to locate boundaries of
the work in their correct position on the ground
surface and to define the major elements. In order to
do this, horizontal and vertical control points must be
established on the site.
Figure beside shows the setting out process before
the foundations were constructed. Timber frames
were first fixed on site to allow strings to be tied and to
determine the location in which the walls will be
erected.

ii.Second Stage
The second stage of setting out continues from the first stage, beginning at
the ground floor slab or road sub-base level. Up to this point, all the control
will be located outside the main construction, for example the pegs
defining building corners, centre lines and so on will have been knocked
out during the earth moving work and only the original control will be
undisturbed.

Foundation

3.3.2Vertical Control Technique

A vertical control survey determines elevation with respect to sea level.
These surveys are also used as a benchmark upon which other surveys are
based and high degree of accuracy is required. These surveys are useful for
tidal boundary surveys, route surveys, construction surveys and topographic
surveys. In a vertical control system, at least two permanent benchmarks
should be used, but the number of benchmarks required may increase
depending upon the needs and complexity of the project. These projects are
needed for the construction of water and sewer systems, highways, bridges,
drains, and other major town or city infrastructure. These surveys can be
done alone, but are often done in conjunction with a horizontal control survey.

iii. Temporary benchmark

3.3.3 Method used in setting out

i. Baselines
Baselines are located by setting out their terminals. If co-ordinated they
would be set out from a traverse. The length of the baseline can be
measured and compared with its compound values. Alternatively, the
baseline could be set out with reference to other detail such as road
centrelines, existing buildings, etc. Again it is necessary to check the
measured length against that given on the drawings. Usually for the
purpose of measuring angles.

A temporary benchmark (TBM) is a fixed point with a known elevation used for
level control during construction works and surveys. Nails in road seals, or
marks on kerb & channel are commonly used as temporary benchmarks

3.3.4Setting out of pipelines

Pipelines are to be checked on chainage, this could be every few pipes, for
small diameter and every pipe for large diameter. The pipelines must be tested
in accordance with the contract specification, any air or water testing of line
should be done by an experienced person.

ii.Offset pegs
Offset pegs are normally used in the form of baselines or grids or as
horizontal control points used to establish the design of the proposed
structure. The offset pegs are only used when the original pegs are unable to
be installed.

3.3.5Optical level, optical square and Theodolite construction

A Theodolite is an instrument for measuring both
horizontal and vertical angles, as used in
triangulation networks, and geo-location work.
Other specialized purposes make Theodolites ideal
for shop and factory floor layout of tools and
fixtures. They also work well for layout for the
construction of concrete slabs, landscaping, and
road design.

Clearly
mark
what
the various nals are
for.
e.g.
centreline,
edge,
trench, wall, plumbing

3.3.6Sight Rails
A series of rails set with a surveying instrument, and used to check the
vertical alignment of a pipe in a trench.
Use plumb bob to
get point below if it is
farther than can be
done with a spirit level

3.3.7 Equipment used

i. Theodolites

3.4 Earth work

3.4.1

iii. Software

Site clearing

Removal of trees and stumps

A
surveying
instrument
with a rotating telescope
for measuring horizontal
and vertical angles.

Surveying software is essential to any

land surveyor or building surveyor who
undertakes simple or complex land
surveys or measured building surveys
using a total stations.

iii. Marking & survey points

There are several type of ground marking and setting out equipment
including:

Figure 3.4 Site clearance at Lot 120, Mukim Lunas, Daerah Kulim, Kedah Darulaman

The purpose of this section is to establish uniform practices to be

followed for removal of trees and stumps. Where such removals are set up
on a lump sum basis, varying interpretations as to the extent of removal are
possible. It is necessary to exercise judgment in the administration of this
item to accomplish the desired results.

- Survey Flags
- Paint
- Survey Nails
- Marking Crayons
- Marking Plates (Temporary and permanent)

Figure 3.5 Excavators are used to remove the trees

3.4.2
Figure 3.1 Survey Flags

Figure 3.2 Marking crayons

Figure 3.3 Survey naills

Benchmark

The desired level was marked in a permanent

place. This mark will be needed throughout the
project duration.

3.4.3 Side-slope in
excavation

3.4.4

3.4.7 Compaction
During earth excavation check
that slope is maintained in side-soil.

Compaction reduces the volume of air space in the soil. This

compaction increases the dry unit weight and strength of the soil to better
support structures. This is a very important step.

Base soil

Check the base soil, on which building's foundation will rest, is hard enough.
You may consult geotechnical engineer that the base soil is perfect for
further work execution.

3.4.5

Excavation area

- Ensure that the excavation area is extended beyond the foundation of

buildings for easy circulation of movement during work execution.
- Cleaning of foundation bed: Check that loose and displaced materials are
cleaned from the foundation bed.

Dump trucks are normally used instead of

scrapers when the soil is being excavated by
loaders. Most dump trucks can travel over
public highways, and move faster than scrapers.
Figure 3.6 Soil compactor are used in the compaction of soils after grading.

3.4.6Backfill
- Check backfill is being done after ending the shutter removal period of footing.
- Backfilling material: Try to backfill with the excavated soil. And check
the backfilling material is free from large lumps, organic or any other
foreign materials. Check all shuttering materials are removed before
backfilling.
- Backfilling should be done evenly on all sides. Check that is being
done properly.
- Backfilling should be done layer by layer. Each layer shouldn't exceed 6
inch thickness. And each layer should be compacted to maximum dry
density of soil. Check those are being done properly.

14

Teoh Jun Xiang 0322099

Construction process of reinforced concrete pad footings

1. The position of footings are set out according to the plan dimensions
2. Cement powder is then used to mark the size of footings
3. The earth was excavated to the required depth and dimensions by using an excavator
4. Hardcore was then placed on top of the excavated earth and it should be used in not less than 150mm thick but no greater than 600mm in selected aggregate.
The hardcore is then compacted down in layers using a plate compactor
5. A formwork is then placed according to the set dimensions
6. Studs are then added to prevent the falling of the formwork.
7. Bracing is then used to hold the formwork in position. This is to ensure that the formwork is able to withstand the horizontal forces of the concrete when it is poured.
8. A lean concrete mixture is then added and levelled. Its purpose is to provide an even surface for the foundation concrete. It is also used to prevent direct contact
of foundation concrete with soil
9. Workers then start to arrange the reinforced concrete bars to form reinforced concrete cages
10. After the reinforced concrete cages are completed, the workers place the reinforced concrete cage into the formwork
11. The reinforced concrete cage is then placed on top of the spacer blocks. The spacer blocks are used to maintain the reinforcement in the proper position.
Concrete spacers can help prevent corrosion, protect them from fire for a certain length of time and help to provide a proper transfer of stresses from concrete to
steel rebars.
12. After placing the rebar cages in the formwork, the reinforcements were erected for stump and add more ties to the formwork
13. Eventhough concrete is durable and has a very good compression strength, it has a weak tension strength. As such, reinforcements are used to carry tensile
load of structures
14. A starter bar is tied to the reinforcement to allow the reinforcement of the column to be tied onto the reinforcement steel bars.
15. The position of starter bars were fixed before the concrete was poured into the formwork.
16. Concrete is poured into the formwork and adequate compaction is ensured by using vibrators or self-compacting concrete. The concrete is allowed to cure
before proceeding to the next stage of construction
17. Set, curing and hardening and when the concrete gains sufficient strength, the formwork is dismantled, and thus the reinforced concrete pad footing is completed

Excavation

Pour concrete

Set,
curing,
hardening

Pour concrete

Formwork

Add spacer block

tiesfor
Add formwork Reinforcement

Add Rebar

for stump

15

Saw E Sean 032003

4.2Foundation type and construction process (reference)

Types Of Strip Footing

The Foundation is the substructure and the bottommost section of a

building. It is constructed halfway or completely below the surface of the
ground.

Function of foundation
- They spread the load over a larger area at an equal rate so that the burden
on the foundation soil does not exceed the safe bearing capacity.
- Foundations shift the unequal load of the superstructure equally to the sub
soil hence it minimizes the differential settlement that occurs.
- Foundations offer the stability against, voids formed by scouring
underground water and the burrowing animals.
- Foundations prevent the structures from sliding above the sloping ground.

Uniformly distributes load

(Load is distributed evenly
along the entire structure)

Point
loads
condense
at
points)

- Foundations offer a leveled and balanced surface for the construction of the
superstructure.

4.2.1 Shallow foundation

ii.Pad Footing

- Transfer load directly on to the hard layer of soil.

- Maximum depth of shallow foundations is 3 meter.

i. Strip Footing
- Strip footing is the most common
and
Mansonry
concrete wall

Reinfo rce d
concrete
strip footing

- Pad footings are usually used when the load of

the building is carried by the columns.

widely used foundation; it is

basically a strip of concrete placed
in a long narrow ditch.
- It
usually
supports
the
load
bearing structure or wall without
columns and beams. (e.g.: Brick
wall)

- Pad footings are individual or isolated

foundations to support the columns of the
building.
- Pad footings are a form of disseminate
foundation,
which
is
made
up
by
rectangular, square, or sometimes circular
concrete pads that support localized singlepoint loads like structural columns, groups of
columns or framed structures.

- Provides support for light loads when the soil is in stable condition and
with adequate bearing capacity

or

(Load
is
individual

- It uses concrete pad at the base with

concrete columns or steel columns attach by
captive bolts.

Types of pad foundation design

- The depth of the foundation is

roughly 1 meter, while the width of
the foundation depends on the
condition of soil and the load. As
an example, the
weaker
soil
requires a wider strip foundation.
- The thickness of the strips must be
at least 150mm.

Mass

concrete

for stell columns

Reinforced concrete

with sloping upper suface

P l a i n
reinforced concrete

Step
ped

reinforced
concrete

16

Saw E Sean 032003

ii. Raft Footing

footing

iv. Cantilever/ Strap

Column
B

- Raft footing are similar to slab floating on

top of the soil.

Column B

- It is usually used on soft natural ground

- It used to cover the whole base area of a
building and extend beyond it; this is to
prevent
differential settlement
which
can
Column
A

cause foundation failure on a building.

- It supports the walls and acts as floor slab

Stra
p
Beam

- The detail of edge of the foundation is

decided by the nature of the load applied
on it.

Footing
of
Column B

Column A

- A form of concrete apron will extend

from
the edge of the foundation to act
as protection from erosion

Types Of Raft
Footing

Stra
p
Beam

Footing
of
Column A

Adjoining
wall

Footing
of wall

- Independent footings of two columns are connected by a beam.

- The beam is used to help transfer the weight of the loaded column footing
to adjacent footing.
- The strap beam is not in contact with the soil, and thus does not transfer any
pressure to the soil.

Light
loads

Heavy uniform load

Light load and point

loads

Heavy loads and heavy

isolated point loads

Types of cantilever (plan to elevation)

1

17

Saw E Sean 032003

4.2.2 Deep Foundation

- Deep foundations function to transfer the load of the building to a deeper layer
of dense sand and gravel below the soil.
- The depth of the foundation is more than 3 meters
- Deep foundations are used for heavy load when the soil is unstable
and inadequate bearing capacity.

i. Pier Foundation (Caisson)

load

Concretemis
design
can
vary
based on several
factor

Diameter can
vary
widely
Reinforcing Steel
(typically
required
by
design)

Depth can
vary
widely
Sid
e
resistanc
e

- A pile is fundamentally a long piece of a strong material penetrating into

the ground to act as a steady support for structures built above the ground.
- Piles are used when the soil strata could not handle the heavy load from
the structure.
- Pile foundations may be classified as either End bearing or Friction piles,
according to the manner in which the pile loads are resisted.

End Bearing Pile

Axial load

Lateral

ii. Pile Foundation

BellMay
be
used or amitted
as desired
Bell size variesNo larger than 3
times the shaft
diameter at base

- The shafts of the piles act as

columns carrying the loads
through the covering inferior
subsoils to firm strata into
which
the
pile
toe
has
penetrated.
- This can be rock strata or a
layer of firm sand or crushed
stone
which
has
been
compress by the displacement
and
vibration
encountered
during the driving.

Weak soil

- Consists of a cylindrical column of large diameter to sustain and transmit

large super-imposed loads to the firm strata below.

- Preferred in a location where the top strata consists of decomposed rock

overlying a strata of sound rock.

- If a suitable load bearing strata cannot be

discover at a fitting level, especially in stiff
clay soils, it is possible to use a pile to
carry this pressure bulb to a bottom level
where a higher bearing capacity is found.
- The friction or floating pile is mainly
supported by adhesion or friction action of
the soil around the perimeter of the pile
shaft.

End Bearing Pile

Base Resistance

- Often used in the construction of bridge piers & other structures that
requires foundation beneath rivers & other bodies of water.

Friction Pile

- Any foundation imposed on the ground will

form a pressure which spreads out to form
a pressure bulb.

Strong soil or rock

Friction Pile

Saw E Sean
032003

Types of pile
Large displacement pile
The large displacement pile is the pile which is solid and with large x-section
area and hence compress bigger amount of soil under the ground.

Eg. RC pile

19

non- displacement pile

For non-displacement pile, a void is form on the ground by excavation. The
void is then filled with concrete. The side of the void can be supported or
unsupported depend on the situation.

Eg. Bore pile

Displacement piles
Precast reinforced concrete piles
Small displacement pile
The small displacement pile is the pile with less x-section area and
compress or displaces less amount of soil under the ground.

Eg. H-pile
- The precast reinforced concrete piles are piles which were
moulded in circular, square, triangular or octagonal form.
- They are casted and cured in a casting yard and then
transported to the site for installation
- They provide high strength and resistance to decay.
- They are heavy, and because of their brittleness and
low tensile strength, extra care in handling and driving is
required.
- Cutting of the precast reinforced concrete piles requires
the use of concrete cutter, pneumatic hammers, cutting
torches, etc

Steel preformed piles

Driven in situ/ Cast-in-Place piles

For non-displacement pile, a void is form on the ground by excavation. The

void is then filled with concrete. The side of the void can be supported or
unsupported depend on the situation.

Type of Steel preformed piles

- Driven in situ piles are those piles which are cast in place inside the ground.
- The pile shaft is formed by using a steel tube which is either top driven or
driven with an internal drop hammer working on a plug of dry
concrete/gravel as in Frankipiles.
- This method can be used to build the piles up to 610mm.
- Since the cast-in-situ piles is not subjected to handling or driving pressure, it
is not essential to reinforce the pile in ordinary cases or in places where
the pile is completely flooded in the soil. Reinforcements are only provided
when the pile acts as a column and is subjected to inclined forces.

H-piles

pipe piles

screw piles

Composite piles
- Composite piles are piles which are made from two different materials that
are driven one over the other, so as to allow them to act together to
perform the function of a single pile.
- One advantage of this type of pile is the ability to adopt of the fine qualities
of both the materials
- They are economical as they utilize the great erosion resistance
characteristics of one material with the cheapness or strength of the other.

- Cast- in-situ piles can be differentiated into two types. In one the metal shell
of the pile is permanently left in place lining the ground along with the core
while in the other type, the outer shell is withdrawn.

Piling proccess

Pile driving methods (displacement piles)

Non-displacement piles

1. Dropping
weight
2. Explosion
3. Vibration
4. Jacking

Bore Pile
- Bored pile is a cast in situ concrete pile which has to be casted on the
construction site. Contrary to displacement piles, the soil has to be excavated
and the resulting hole will be filled with concrete or a precast concrete pile
which will be dropped into the hole and grouted in. As such, no
displacement of soil will occur.

Drop Weight
Lead

Hammer
Drive
cap

Optional 3-ways
swivel

Notes :
1.Installation
of
optional
swivels convert fixed leads
to Cardonic Leads.
2.Semi fixed leads have the
ability to move in the updown direction

Crane
pile

Mat

- Bored piling machine which was used to cast the bored pile has
specifically designed drilling tools, buckets and grabs and the machines are
used to remove the soil and rock.
- Casting of bored piles have to be done by specialised bored piling contractors
- The length, width, depth and style of bored pile foundations depends on
the type of the project and the surrounding environment.
- It produces less vibration and reduces the noise level compare to other
piling system.
- It causes less disruption to adjacent soil
- Bored piles are usually used for tall buildings or huge industrial complexes,
in which a foundation that can carry thousand tons of loads is needed,
most probably in unstable or difficult soil conditions.

Step
1
- The crane is used to transport the piles to a particular area that has
been excavated.
- The piles are all delivered cautiously as they are fragile.
Step 2
- The pile is tied up to its lifting lug and is prepared for hammering.
Step 3
- Before the hammering procedure begins, they are all located accordingly to
be driven into the ground
Step 4
- Hammering process started
- The drop hammer is used to drive the pile
- The subsoil around the pile shaft is displaced
- The pile driving to its maximum depth until it cannot be driven

13

Teoh Jun Xiang 0322099

4.0 Foundation

4.1 Foundation type and construction process (from site visit)

Residential houses constructed at Elmina Valley Phase EV1A are 2-storey terrace houses. After conducting our site visit, weve learnt that the type of foundation
used to construct the houses are classified as reinforced concrete pad foundations. Pad foundations are individual or isolated foundations which are used to support
localised loads such as columns.
Pad footings are one of the most simple and common types of foundations and they are used when the load of the building is carried by columns which sit on top of
square or rectangular pads of concrete.

1. Photo shows shows the conditions of the earth

after excavation and site formworks were placed
according to the set dimensions

Photo shows that the position of the starter bars

and
reinforcements
were
maintained
by
connecting additional ties to the formwork.

2. Photo indicates that the formwork is

readily constructed
and reinforced
concrete cages can be inserted into it.
Studs and bracings which were used to
prevent the falling of the formwork and
to hold the formwork in position can be
seen.

3. Photo
shows
that
the
reinforced concrete cages
are being inserted into the
formworks.

4. Photo shows that a layer of lean concrete

mixture is added and levelled underneath the
reinforced con- crete cages. Spacer blocks are
also
visible
under- neath the reinforced
concrete cages. Reinforcements were added on
top of the reinforced concrete cages to create
stumps.

Photo shows the conditions of the earth after excavation and site formworks were placed
according to the set dimensions

Photo shows
that
the

foun
dati

on is completed and the formwork is removed.

The excavated earth is awaiting bed fill.

21

Tan Yan Jie 033906

5.0 Super Structure

5.1Super Structure (from site visit)

5.1.1
Ground Beam
- Ground beams are reinforced concrete beams which support walls, joists and other structures near ground level.
- Ground beams are either standing directly upon the ground or supported at both ends by piers.

Construction process of ground beam on site

1.

The
props/supports
are
being erected. The soffit of
beams are being fixed

5.1.2

2. Formwork for the side

of beam are being
constructed

3.

Steel reinforcements are

placed into the
formworks.

4.

The formwork was erected

to the side of the beam
complete with struts

Slabs

Ground floor slab

Ground floor slabs are reinforced concrete blockworks situated on the ground which supports walls. These concrete slabs are a common structural element of
modern buildings. It is normally horizontal and has a smaller thickness if compared to its span. It is usually furnished using a flat and strong surface in reinforced
concrete construction.

Construction process of ground floor slabs on site

1.

Preparing the site

system

2. Improve the soil support

5.

3. Building formwork
4. Install reinforce bar

6.
7.
8.

The photo shows the ground floor slabs present on site.

Tan Yan Jie

033906

First floor slab

i. Continuous beam

2
2

Continuous beams are supported on more than two supports. It is more

economical for any span lengths and they are several beam supports at the
bottom.

Photos above shows the fisrt floor slab in our site

Similar to ground floor slabs, first floor slabs are reinforced concrete
blockworks supporting walls of the first floor of the building. However,
they are not constructed on the ground, but are supported by a series of
columns and walls. The types of first floor slabs found at Elmina Valley
Phase EV1A are two way slabs with beams.

The image shows the continuous beam found on site. The horizontal beams (blue) are
supported by a series of columns (red).

ii.Simply supported beam

Simply supported beams are supported freely at the two ends on walls / columns.

Most of the construction process of first floor slabs are the same as ground
floor slabs, which include:
1. Building formwork.
2. Install reinforce bar.
3. Pouring concrete.
4. Consolidation. (Process of uniting)
5. Finishing.
6. Curing

5.1.3

Beams and

columns Beams
Beams are structures which are rectangular in cross-section that carry
the weight of the floor slab or the roof slab and they transfer all the loads
including its self-weight to the columns or walls.
There are two types of beams found on the 2-storey link houses of Elmina
Valley Phase EV 1A, namely continuous beams and simply supported
beams.

The ffigureshows the simply supported beams located at the front faade of the terrace
houses. The areas marked blue are the beams and the areas marked red indicate the
location.

Construction process of beams

Most of the construction process of beams is similar to ground beams.
1. The props/supports are erected.
2. The soffit of beams are fixed.
3. The formwork for the side of beams are constructed
4. Steel reinforcements are placed inside the formworks.
5. The formwork, which is completed with struts, are constructed to the side of
beams
6. The concrete was then poured into the formwork.

Columns
A columns is a vertical structural member that functions to transmit the load
from ceiling/roof slabs and beams, including its self-weight to the foundation.
Columns situated on the ground floor are a continuation of foundations, and,
in the case of Elmina Valley Phase EV 1A, the columns are a continuation
of the reinforced concrete pad footings.
The image shows the columns found on
site. Completed columns on the ground floor
support the first floor slab, and the formwork
of the columns on the first floor are also
visible.

1. During the construction of the reinforced concrete pad footings,

reinforcements were added on top of the reinforced concrete cages to create
stumps. Concrete will be poured into the formwork and the formwork will
be removed once the foundation is completed.

3. The formworks for the concrete columns are then fixed and concrete will be
poured into the formworks. The formworks will be removed after the concrete
has cured.
4. A similar process will take place after the columns on the first floor is
completed. The reinforcements will be extended, and after the beams and
first floor slab are completed, formworks will then be fixed.

The
image
shows
the
extended
reinforcements for the construction of
columns on the first floor. The ground
floor columns, beams and first floor slab
are completed.

The image shows the columns found on

site. Completed columns on the ground
floor support the first floor slab, and the
formwork of the columns on the first
floor are also visible.

5. Concrete will then be poured into the fixed formworks to construct the
columns. Concrete buckets as well as triangular-shaped wooden planes were
used to pour small volumes of concrete into the wooden frames when
constructing the columns.
2. Once
the ground beams and ground floor slabs are completed,
reinforcements will be extended to construct the columns.

the

The
image
shows
workers
using
triangular-shaped wooden planes to
pour concrete into the formworks.

The image shows the reinforcements after their extension.

The image shows the completed ground
floor slab, with the reinforcements before
their extension.

6. Once the concrete has cured, the

formworks will be removed and
the columns are completed.

5.1.4

Wall

Walls found in the 2-storey terrace houses of Elmina Valley Phase EV1A can
be categorized as masonry walls, and in specific, brick walls. There are two
types of bricks which are used for the construction of the houses in Elmina
Valley Phase EV1A, namely red clay brick and cement sand bricks.

ii. Cement sand brick wall

i. Red clay brick wall

The photo shows the cement sand brick wall found on site.

- Cement sand brick is used to construct both internal and external walls of
the 2-storey terrace houses of Elmina Valley Phase EV 1A.

Advantages of Cement sand brick wall

The photo shows the red clay brick wall found on site.

- Sime Darby Developments rules and regulations states that the party walls
of residential houses are to be constructed out of red clay bricks. As such,
party walls of the 2-storey terrace houses were built using red clay bricks.
- The bricks were laid using the English Bond method.

Advantages of Red clay brick wall

- Red clay bricks provide thermal & acoustic insulation .
- Red clay bricks do not require any maintenance cost.
- The high compressive strength of fired clay bricks has been exploited for
millennia to build structures ranging from single-storey huts to massive
public buildings and enormous bridges and viaducts.

Disadvantages of Red clay brick wall

- The cost of red clay bricks brick is higher compare to other bricks like cement
sand brick or concrete brick.

- The cost of cement sand bricks are lower compared to red clay bricks as they
can be easily made in a short period of time.
- Cement sand bricks provide good sound insulation.

Disadvantages of Red clay brick wall

- Cement sand bricks are not fire proof bricks and it cannot withstand
high temperature. The bricks will crack if they come in contact with high
temperature like fire.
- Cement sand bricks are also much heavier than red clay brick.

2
3

Tan Yan Jie

033906

5.1.5

Staircase
The staircase found at the 2-storey terrace houses of Elmina Valley Phase EV
1A can be classified as concrete straight staircase.

The images above shows the timber formworks which were fixed for the construction of the staircase.

3. Reinforcement
- Reinforcement bars are carefully bent at the necessary height and length
and positioned into the formwork.

Construction process of staircase on site

1. Measure the dimensions of your stairs:
- Firstly, the total rise of the stairs, which can be
found by measuring the total height from the
planned base to the higher level/floor, was
measured.
- The run of the steps was then measured by finding the distance between
the frontmost and backmost part of the stairs.
- The width of the stairs was measured by calculating the distance between
the leftmost and rightmost bounds of the planned steps of the stairs.
2. Building and Assembling Formwork:
- The formwork was made by using plywood or framing timber. The side forms
are cut according to the tread and riser calculations.
Joiats
Wall
string

Decking
Riser
board
Riser
cleat

4. Preparing Concrete:
- Sufficient and well mixed mortar was prepared using portable cement mixer.

5. Pouring concrete:
- The process started from the bottom and the concrete was poured one step
at a time. The mortars are spreaded evenly and spade was used to
remove the trapped air bubbles.

24

Tan Yan Jie 033906

5.1.6
Process
6. Add finishing:
- A simple wood float was used to clean and smoothen the surface of the
1. Ground Beam
mortar.

of superstructure construction on site:

2. Ground Floor Slab

7. Curing:
- The steps were sprayed with curing compound and covered with burlap. Once
the concrete has hardened for a week, the plywood formwork was then
be removed.

8. Installing the handrails:

3. Column

4. First Floor Beam

5. First Floor Slab

6. First Floor Columns

7. Roof Beams

8. Walls

- The stair railings were positioned onto the staircase at the location in which
they will be installed.
- The position of the railings were marked
- Pilot holes were drilled into the staircase on the marks made.
- The railings were placed into the pilot holes.
- Cement was then poured into the holes to fix the handrails.

The image shows the staircase handrails which were installed on site.

9. Staircase

5.2Super Structure (References)

5.2.2 Ground Beam
- Ground beams are reinforced concrete beams which support walls, joists
and other structures near ground level.
- Ground beams are either standing directly upon the ground or supported
at both ends by piers.

3. Flat Plate Slab

Plain flat plate slab

Flat plate slab with column capital and drop panel

Flat plate slabs are basically slabs supported by the columns without
the help of beams or capitals or drop panels.

The
image shows the
reinforcement
ground beams bars used to construct

The
image
completed
beams
at ashows
construction
site ground

1. Erect the props/supports

2. Fix the soffit of beam
3. Construct formwork for the side of beam
4. Place the steel reinforcement
5. Erect the formwork to side of beam complete with
struts
6. Pour the concrete into the formwork.

5.2.2

Drop Panel

Capital

Column
Flat slab
with
column capital

Flat slab with

column capital
and drop panel

Advantages of flat plate

slabs

Slabs

Concrete slabs are a common structural element of modern buildings. It

is normally horizontal and has a smaller thickness if compared to its span. It
is usually furnished using a flat and strong surface in reinforced concrete
construction.

Types of concrete slabs

1. One-way slab with
beams

Column

- Can be constructed quickly.

- It is flexible in arranging the columns
and
partitions.
- Provide little obstruction to light.
- High resistance of fire.
- Use in multi-storey reinforced concrete

Construction process of
slab:
1. Preparing the site.
2. Improve the soil support
system.
3. Building formwork.
4. Install reinforce bar.
5. Pouring concrete.
6. Consolidation.
7. Finishing.
8. Curing

2. Two-way slab with beams

Classification of Two way slabs:

1. Addition of beams between columns to make two way slabs stronger.
2. Thickening the slabs around the columns.
3. Flaring the columns under the slabs.

5.2.3
Beams and
columns Beams

Construction process of beam

1. Fix the reinforcement bar for concrete beam.

- Beam are the horizontal members of structure and they function to carry
loads.
- Beams are rectangular in cross-section.
- Beams carry the floor slabs or the roof slabs and they transfer all the
loads including its self-weight to the columns or walls.

Types of beams
i.

Simply Supported Beam: It is

supported freely at the two ends
on walls / columns

ii. Fixed Beam: Both ends of the

beam are rigidly fixed into the
supports
Wall

2. Fix the formwork for the concrete beam

Stirrups

Fixed Beam

3. Pour concrete and wait it to be cured then remove the formwork

Clear Span
Wall

Effective Span

iii. Continuous Beam: It is

supported on more than two
supports.
It is
economical
formore
any span lengths

Continuous Beam

iv. Cantilever Beam: It

wall or column at one
other end is free. It
zone
at
the
top
compression zone at
side.
Wall

is fixed in a
end and the
has tension
side
and
the bottom

Cantilever Beam
Tension Side
Compression
Side

v. Overhanging Beam: Its end extends beyond the wall or column support

Columns
A vertical structural member that functions to transmit the load from
ceiling/roof slabs and beams, including its self-weight to the foundation.

i. Steel columns

ii. Timber columns

iii. Concrete columns

Overhanging Beam

Wall

Wall

Overhang

Types of fail modes of columns

5.2.3

Walls

- A wall is a structure that defines an area, carries a load, or provides shelter

or security.
- They are part of the 3 planes in architecture (along with 2 other planes,
which are the overhead (roof) plane and the base (floor) plane that
defines the 3 dimensional volume of mass and space.
- The purpose of walls in buildings are to support roofs, floors and ceilings,
enclose a space as part of the building envelope, to give buildings their form
along with roofs and to provide shelter and security.

i. Long
Column
or
Slender:
Type
of
column that fails by
elastic buckling, where
it occurs at compressive
stresses
within
the
elastic
ranges called
long column.

ii.
Short
Column: A very
stocky
column
which will not
fail
by elastic
buckling. It will
crush
and
squash due to
general yielding
and compressive
stresses

Intermediate
columns: It will fail
by inelastic buckling
when
a
localized
yielding
occurs. This will be
initiated
at
some
point of weakness
and crookedness.

Construction process of concrete columns

Function of walls
- Thermal Insulation
- To provide protection from natural elements such as weather and animal threats
- To divide and separate the areas within the building to create interior spaces.
- Act as sound barriers
- As fire walls to attenuate the spread of fire from one building unit to another.
- To improve the building appearance.
- To provide privacy

1. Fix the reinforcement

bar for the concrete
column.

2. Fix
the
formwork
for
the
concrete
column.

3. Pour concrete and

wait for it to be
cured
then
remove
the
formwork.

Strength and stability of walls

Resistance to:
- Stresses set up by its own weight
- Superimposed loads
- Lateral pressure (for example, wind)
- Overturning by lateral force
- Buckling caused by excessive slenderness

Types of walls

Materials of walls

- Load bearing / Non Load Bearing

- External / Internal

Load bearing wall

Load bearing walls carry and distribute the load of a building from roof and
floor from above (and lateral load) to the structures or foundations situated
below the building.
A load bearing wall is part of the structure of the building as it holds the
building up. They are usually made of concrete, brick or block, hard
materials which have to stand the test of time and heavy weights.
- Pre Cast Concrete Wall
- Retaining Wall
- Masonry Wall
- Pre Panelized Load Bearing Metal Stud Walls
- Engineering Brick Wall (115mm, 225mm)
- Stone Wall
As the height of the building increases, required thickness of walls and
resulting stress on foundation will also increase and cause it to be
uneconomical.

Non-Load bearing wall

A. Concrete walls
i. Cast in-situ reinforced concrete shear wall systems
ii. Pre-cast concrete wall systems

Characteristics
- Usually used as load bearing walls
- Texture and appearance can be controlled by the use of formworks
admixtures and additives formworks, admixtures and additives
- Often used in high-rise buildings in Malaysia
- Often used in government projects in Malaysia, as part of the
industrialized building system (IBS)
- Offers greater speed of construction and control of quality

i. Cast in-situ shear wall systems

A non-load bearing wall is only a partition that divides the various spaces
of a building to create rooms. These walls do not carry any structural load
except for their self-weights and wind load which acts on the structure (for
example, column, slab or beam).
- Hollow Concrete Block Wall
- Faade Brick Wall
- Hollow Brick Wall
- Brick Wall (115mm, 225mm)

A. Concrete Walls
B. Masonry Walls
C. Dry Walls
D. Glass Walls
E. Curtain Wall System

Non-Load
Bearing
Walls

Non-Load
Bearing
Walls

Load Bearing Walls

Buildings with cast-in-situ reinforced concrete shear walls are

widespread in many earthquake-prone countries and regions. Shear wall
buildings are usually regular in plan and in elevation and shear walls are
the main vertical structural elements of the buildings with a dual role of
resisting both the gravity and lateral loads. Wall thickness varies from 140
mm to 500 mm, depending on the number of stories, building age, and
thermal insulation.
Reinforcement requirements are based on building code requirements
specific for each country. In general, the wall reinforcement consists of
two layers of distributed reinforce requirements.

Load Bearing Walls

Construction process of cast in-situ reinforced concrete shear wall

systems using timber formworks
1. Preparation of
timber
formwork

2. Completion of
steel bars and
erection
of
required
size
formwork to

3. Closing
of
formwork,
concrete
is
poured and left
to cure

4. Completi
on

Benefits of Precast Concrete Wall Panels

- The sandwich construction technique used with the precast concrete walls
provides increased stability and improved sound insulation, as well as
greater protection from potential hazards such as fires.
- Precast concrete panels also provide energy-saving advantages. Because the
concrete wall panels are separated by a layer of thermal insulation, the
precast concrete wall panel system results in enhanced energy performance,
which can help to lower overall costs.
- Superior strength and durability
- Provides excellent protection against impacts from explosions, vehicles
and projectiles
- Ease of installation

Advantage of using shear wall method of construction

- Speed in erecting and dismantling forms
- Good appearance
- Greater control of accuracy and workmanship
- Creates a smooth, high quality finish capable of receiving direct decoration
with the minimum of preparation
- Tornadoes, hurricanes and earthquake resistance

ii. Pre-cast concrete wall systems

Precast concrete wall systems can be comprised of a variety of shapes, and
wall types. Typically, precast concrete wall systems fall into three basic
categories: solid, sandwich and thin-shell. These can be penalized and
erected in either a horizontal or vertical position and used on all types of
structures from residential to commercial, institutional to industrial. Wall
panels can be designed as nonloadbearing or loadbearing, carrying floor and
roof loads, as well as lateral loads.

Solid Walls

Solid wall panel simply refers to walls being made of solid concrete as
opposed to including integral insulation. These wall systems require some
form of insulation and an interior wall/finishing system to complete the
building enclosures.

Sandwich Walls
Insulated sandwich wall panels can be strictly
architectural, strictly structural, or a combination of
both. The difference between typical panels and
insulated sandwich wall panels is that the latter are
cast with rigid insulation "sandwiched" between two
layers, or wythes, of concrete. The insulation
thickness can vary to create the desired thermal
insulating property ("R" value) for the wall.

The structural behavior is either:

- Composite in which the wythes are connected using ties through the
insulation that fully transfer loads. The structural performance is then
based on the full thickness of the panel
- Non-Composite in which the wythes are connected using ties through
the insulation, which limits performance to the individual capacities of each
wythe.

Thin-Shell and GFRC

Thin-shell wall panels consist of a thin, outer-wythe
of concrete typically ranging between 1.5 and 3
inches in thickness. This is connected to a "back-up"
system, usually constructed of steel framing or
studs, or sometimes concrete. The back-up system is
what connects the wall panel to the structural system
of the building and often provides the furring for
interior finishes, such as drywall to be attached.
Many of these systems can also incorporate a layer
of rigid insulation between the exterior wythe of
concrete and the back-up system.

Methods of Attachment of Precast Concrete Members:

Types of bricks

1. Weld Plates
The

most common method of

attachment of precast members is
by use of steel weld plates.
Typically, the precast members
have embedded plates that can
be used as welding surfaces for
loose connecting plates or angles

Non- Modular bricks- actual dimensions

Embedded plate
Loose plat field-welded to Em Embedded plate

Three-inch
Grout fill
Rebar

2. Rebar and Grout

Used typically with slabs, reinforcing
bars are spliced into slabs and
grouted in place.

Precent Slab

Standard

Modular bricks- Nominal dimensions

Standard Modular

B. Mansory Walls

Oversize

Economy 8 or Jumbo closure

Engineer

Beam or Wall

- Stone masonry
- Clay/cement brick walls
- Concrete/ cement block walls

Double

Roman

Norman

Norwegian

Characteristics
- One of the oldest materials, and the most common material for
walls construction in Malaysia
- Durable, good sound and fire insulation properties as well as thermal insulation

Economy 12 or Jumbo utility

Triple

SCR

6 Jumbo

8 Jumbo

- Offers great flexibility in form and appearance.

Common types of bricks/ blocks:

Clay Brick

Smooth
surface facing
brick

Cement sand

Autoclaved aerated
concrete block

6 Norwegian

Calcium silicate brick

Concrete block

Terminology and bonds

Brick on edge (shiner, bull stretcher)

Soldier- A brick laid vertically with the long narrow side of the brick
exposed. Sailor- A brick laid vertically with the broad face of the brick
exposed

Brick jointings

Flush

Bucket Handle Weather Struck

Recessed

Weather Struck
and cut

Construction of bricks wall

Step 1: Preparing the Wall
1. Purchase the right amount of
bricks.

3. Drive level wooden stakes into

your trench.

4. Mix and pour concrete up to the

top of the guideposts.

5. Make your guideposts, or

gauging rods

Step 2: Building The First Row

1. Lay your first row of bricks in
the foundation for a dry run

2. Clamp a string on your first guideline.

3. Lay the first 1/2 inch of mortar along

the base of the foundation.

4. Press the first brick into the mortar 5. Lay mortar down for the next
2-3

6. Butter the end of the next brick with

mortar and press it into place.

bricks.

7. Press the brick lightly into the 1/2" of mortar you've laid down so that it is level
with the first brick

Step 3: Building Additional Rows

1. Move your guideline up to the next
marker.

5. Fill in the entire bottom row.

from

2. Cut a brick in half with a firm

tap from the pointed end of a
hammer

6. Continue building your wall

the ends inward.

8. Scrape away any excess mortar as

your work

9. Keep adding bricks until the row is

finished.

3. Start the second row with 1/2 a

brick on both ends.

4. Mortar and place one full brick on

top of your ends.

Step
4:any
Finishing
1.
Fill in
missing patches of mortar
the
Wall
along the wall.

2. Use a brick jointer to indent the

mortar professionally

Plaster and skim coat

C. Dry wall/ stud framing system

- Skim coating is the process of applying a layer of muddy plaster compound

Partition board wall system

Drywall is a construction material used to create walls and ceilings. It's also
used to create many design features, including eaves, arches and other
architectural specialties. It's quick and easy to install, incredibly durable,
and requires only simple repairs when damaged. In the commercial building
world, drywall is used to wrap columns to conceal steel beams and is an easy
and inexpensive way to top off masonry walls above ceilings. Drywall is also
used to add fire resistance at walls and ceilings, containing the spread of fire
so people can evacuate safely during an emergency.

to rough or damaged ceilings and walls to either smooth or repair them.

- Plastering should be done after curing on the brick masonry.

- Cement and fine aggregate mix ratio should be

1:6 (1 Cement: 6
fine aggregate) for internal plastering,1:4 for externa lplastering.
- Never do a plastering beyond 12 or 15mm thickness on a brickwall.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Stiffeners
- Stiffeners are used to provide lateral support to masonry walls.
- Vertical stiffener- per 3 m height.
- Horizontal stiffener- per 4m length/ width
phase 1

5.
6.
7.

phase 2

Characteristics
Non-load bearing
Relatively simple and easy to be installed
Good light and fire insulating properties as it is an ablative material
Good sound and thermal insulation properties. The sound and thermal
insulation properties can be improved by the addition of mineral fibre
insulation
Type of partition board and stud backing system can be varied to suit
different requirements
Susceptible to water damage and moulding
Susceptible to damage by external forces as it is hollow

phase 3

Installation process of drywall

1.
2.

Estimate the number of drywall sheets required to cover the wall.

Cutting
Measuring

Sequential core filling with reinforcing

Stiffener can be connected to the floor above or stand alone

T-square

Diagonal view
Wall stiffener- Open-ended blocks used to build around stiffener
Cross walls

Keyhole saw

3.

Hanging
Scre
w

Start attaching your drywall sheets to the

wood or metal studs used to frame your space.
You should hang sheets horizontally when
working with wood studs, while metal studs
work better with vertical installations. This is
because wood studs are more likely to warp
and deflect over time. Hanging the sheet
horizontally allows each sheet to be in contact
with
more
studs
and
helps
minimize
deflection. Generally speaking, it can be
more difficult to screw into metal studs.
When using wood studs, you should also
apply a drywall adhesive to the face of the
studs before hanging your drywall in order to
further minimize deflection. To attach the
drywall to the studs, use a screw gun and
drywall screws, making sure you hit the
studs. Screws should be placed about every
four inches.

5. Wait for 24 hours for the mud to dry to begin sanding.

6. Use a pole sander and 120-grit sandpaper to lightly sand the mud you
applied earlier. You've finished sanding when you can't see any tape or mud
bulges on the walls' surface, and when a level applied to the wall shows it
is smooth and even. Wear a mask and goggles while sanding to prevent
damage to eyes and lungs.

Framing system of drywall

Double
orplate
single op

Wood studs

Perimeter
board

Fiel
d
4. Finishing
Finally, you'll tape, sand and finish the drywall.
This involves applying three layers of mud,
one layer of drywall tape, and a whole lot of
sandpaper. First, use a 6-inch finishing knife
to spread joint compound along each seam.
This first layer is called the tape coat, and
should be about four inches wide, centered on
the joints in your drywall sheets. Next, apply
drywall tape along the joints. The mud you
applied will hold it in place. Your second coat
of mud is called your block coat. Use your 6inch finish knife to apply a second coat of mud
on top of your drywall tape. Use just enough to
seal the drywall tape in place. The final coat is
called the skim coat. A 10-or 12-inch knife
should be used to apply a third coat of mud.
Take your time on this coat to spread the
mud thinly away from the seams to provide a
smooth, level surface.

gypsum

Horizontally
applied
gypsum board shows paper
bound edges at right
angles
to
framing
members. field, perimeter,
edged, ends and joints are
indicated

Bottom plate

Insallation of
partition

of

Vertical
kneel Roof
kneel

Horizont
al kneel

Floor kneel

Skirting line

D.Glass wall

E. Glass curtain walling

Curtain walls are classified by their method of fabrication and installation in
two categories: stick built and unitized systems.

Characteristics
1.
Allows transparency yet retains the strengths of typical walls
2.
Able to act as walls for large spans of faade areas
3.
High cost compared to other traditional materials
4.
Requires specialist consultants and contractors
5.
Durable to weathering conditions
6.
Strong but brittle surface

Unitized curtain wall systems

A structural glass wall is made up of tempered
glass sheets suspended from special clamps, or
spider fittings. These fittings are stabilized
against wind pressure by perpendicular stiffeners
and/ or cables and carry the loads of the glass.
Structural glass walls overcome the restrictions of
conventional frames to provide the ultimate all
glass faade.

Structural Glass Walls

A structural glass wall is made up of tempered
glass sheets suspended from special clamps, or
spider fittings. These fittings are stabilized
against wind pressure by perpendicular stiffeners
and/ or cables and carry the loads of the glass.
Structural glass walls overcome the restrictions of
conventional frames to provide the ultimate all
glass faade.

Stick systems
Stick systems consist of the vertical curtain wall
frame (mullions), horizontal curtain wall frames
(transoms), glass or opaque panels that are
installed and connected piece by piece. These
parts are usually
fabricated and shipped to the job site for
installation. It has the advantage that it is
economical and the
construction sequence is flexible. Disadvantages
are the lengthy installation time and high
dependence on site workmanship to ensure
acceptable quality.

Spider fittings
Structural glass assemblies

Glass Fin
Cantileve
r top only
Cantileve
r top and
bottom

Pinjointe
d
stabalize
r

Propped
Cantilever

Balance
beam

Composite panel walling system

-

There are a wide range of possible infill panels for curtain wall systems, including:
Vision glass (which may be double or triple glazed, may include low-e
coatings, reflective coatings and so on).
Spandrel (non-vision) glass.
Aluminium or other metals.
Stone veneer.
Fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP).
Louvres or vents.

Movement due to wind load

Composite panel walling system

Panels are often composites, with the facing materials bonded to, or
'sandwiching' insulation. Frame and panel designs are very complex, as they
need to perform multiple functions, such as:
- Transferring loads back to the primary structure of the building.
- Providing thermal insulation and avoiding cold bridging and condensation.
- Providing fire, smoke and acoustic separation. This is particularly difficult at
joints between the curtain wall system and interior walls and floors.
- Creating a barrier to water penetration.
- Accommodating differential movement and deflection.
- Preventing panels from falling out of the frame.
- Allowing for opening windows.
- Preventing the accumulation of dirt.

4. Double quarter
landing
staircase

7. Spiral sraircase

5. Winder landing staircase

6. Double winder
landing staircase

5. Circular staircase

Aluminium framing
Aluminium framing is used for the vast
majority of curtain walling applications, primarily
for its excellent strength to weight ratio and its
ability to be extruded in complex shapes.
Aluminium is 66% lighter than steel, as such, it
is also far less susceptible to brittle fractures.

Construction process of concrete straight staircase:

5.2.4

Staircase

A staircase is a system of steps by which people and objects may pass from
one level of a building to another.

Types of staircase
1. Straight
staircase

2.Quarter landing staircase 3. Half landing

staircase

1. Measure the dimensions of your stairs:

- Firstly, the total rise of the stairs, which can be found by measuring the total
height from the planned base to the higher level/floor, has to be measured
- The run of the steps was then measured by finding the distance between
the frontmost and backmost part of the stairs.
- The width of the stairs was measured by calculating the distance between the
leftmost and rightmost bounds of the planned steps of the stairs.

2. Building and Assembling Formwork:

- The formwork can be made by using plywood or framing timber. The side
forms are cut according to the tread and riser calculations.

6. Add finishing:
- Use a simple wood float to clean and smooth the surface of the mortar.
7. Curing:
- Spray the steps with curing compound and cover it with burlap. Once the
concrete has hardened for a week, the plywood formwork can then be
removed.

Joiats
Wall
string
Decking
Riser
board
Riser
cleat

8. Installing the handrails:

3. Reinforcement
- Reinforcement bars are carefully bent at the necessary height and length and
positioned into the formwork.

- The stair railings were positioned onto the staircase at the location in which
they will be installed.
- The position of the railings were marked
- Pilot holes were drilled into the staircase on the marks made.
- The railings were placed into the pilot holes.
- Cement was then poured into the holes to fix the handrails.

4. Preparing Concrete:
- Produce sufficient and well mixed mortar with portable cement mixer.
5. Pouring concrete:

Start from the bottom and pour one step at a time. Make sure the
mortars are
spreaded evenly. A spade should be used to remove the trapped air bubbles.

6.0 Doors and Windows

6.1 Doors
- Doors and doorways provide access from the outside into the interior of
a building as well as to act as a passage between interior spaces.

- Doorways should be large enough for ease of movement and to accommodate

movement of furnishings and equipment.
- All doors should be evaluated for their ease of operation, durability under
anticipated frequency of use, security provisions as well as light, ventilation and
views that are offered by them.
Two Panel

Types of doors
Trim/Casing

Top Rail

Jamb

Flus
h

Four
Panels
Half Moon

Two
Panels
Half Lite

2/3 Lite

Full Lite

Hinge Stile

Weather Strip
Lock Site

Six Panels

Panel
Lock Rail

Mid Rail
Center Stile Strike Plate

Bottom Rail

Door Bottom Shoe

Lock Set
Threshold

Sill

Single Side Panel Right-Hand

Swing
Single Side
Panel Left-Hand Swing
Two Side Panels

Double Door One side Fixed

- Door frames used in the construction of the 2-storey terrace houses of

Elmina Valley Phase EV1A are generally aluminium door frames

Figure above shows components of door

The photo shows the aluminium door frames which were used during the construction of
the 2-storey terrace houses of Elmina Valley Phase EV1A.

Figure above shows components of door knob

Advantages of aluminium door frames

6.2 Windows

- Slim profile
- Durable
- Narrow sight lines
- Low maintenance
- Light yet strong
- Compared with vinyl, fiberglass and wood frames, aluminium conducts
heat and cold the least well

- Windows are key architectural elements that provide a bridge

between the inside and the outside by:
i. Admitting light
ii. Controlling ventilation
iii.Influencing thermal comfort.
- As such, the form and position of windows are key aspects of
internal design.

Construction process of aluminium door frames

1. The location of the2.

doors are measured
and marked. A few
layers of bricks are
then placed
beside
the markings.

Weather
Seal
Locker

The
door
frame
is3.
inserted into the marked
position. The jamb of the
door is nailed into the
masonry wall for support.
Bricks are then continued
to be laid.

Pre-cast concrete lintel

is bind with mortar
and placed on top of
the door head. Lintel
is constructed so that
no extra vertical force
is exerted on the door
frame.

Doorjamb

Receive

Glazing Gasket
Handl
e Hing
Side
Hing

Shims

Trimme
r stud
Shims

Sash
Pane

Head

Trimme
r stud

4. For timber door frame: The

wall is plastered and the
main frame is installed. For
aluminum

Frame

Closing

Bottom Bead

Door
jamb

door frame: Mortar is filled in5. Shims are places on the hinges' side to form
the space between the gap a continuous gap in between. The hinge is
and masonry wall before the then nailed into the side door jamb.
wall is plastered.

Figure above shows components of Windows

Types of Windows

Double Hung

6. Casing is installed to ensure cracks and flaws in the joining are hidden.
Slider

Twin Double Hung

Picture with Double hung

Types of
Windows

There are two types of windows available in the 2-storey

terrace houses of Elmina Valley Phase EV 1A, namely up hang
windows and casement windows.
i. Up hang windows

Liftout

Bay
Slider

3 Liftout Slider with colonial

Inserts

Hopper

2 Lite
Casement

Awning
Fixed Over
Awning

Casement

- Up hang windows are often placed above or below

other windows to add architectural interest, light
and ventilation to a room while keeping the rain out.
- Up hang windows are often used in combination with
large stationary windows to provide a constant views
and air flow.

Advantages of up hang windows:

Bow

Eyebrow

Circletop

Fixed
window over
awning
Garden
Octagon

Construction process of windows

1.
Position
sub-frameusing
aluminium plate

- Up hang windows are hinged at the top and

swing outward from the bottom. They glide open and
shut with the turn of one easy-to-reach handle.

the
the

2.

Check
the
alignment
of
the sub-frame

Full Circle

Quater Arch

- Versatility: Due to the variety of styling options and

the ability to be installed higher than other types of
windows,
up hang windows provide greater flexibility in
designing the dcor of a building.
- Weather-proof: Up hang windows open out from the
top and provide protection from the rain when opened.
They allows little to no leakage from rain when the
windows are opened, and as such the user can enjoy
fresh air even when the weather is bad.
- Privacy: Up hang windows can be installed higher than
various types of windows. As such, they are able to
provide
natural
light
and
ventilation
without
compromising the users privacy.

A
4. Seal the 3.
anchor
head
5. Placing main frame
n the wall with protection tape on
onthe
theframe
sub-frame. Use
and the joints with
c
millet to knock the
h
finishing frame
o

6. Finish the wall with

sealant.

r
t
h
e
s
u
b
f
r
a
m
e
i
n
t
o
t
h
e

r
o
u
g
h
o
p
e
n
i
n
g
u
s
i
n
g
n
a
i
l

ii. Casement windows

Figure above show ilustration of casement

windows

Photo above shows the location of casement windows on site

Casement windows are windows that are hinged on the side and the sash opens horizontally opposite the hinge. This
type of window allows for full ventilation from top to bottom of the window opening and the extended sash can catch the
breeze and direct it into the house for better air flow.
Advantages:
- Wide openings: Casement windows open completely, allowing a nice breeze into your home
- Superior Security: Locks on casement windows are embedded into the frame. This provides enhanced safety and security.
-Easy operation: Casement windows open easily with a crank, making them ideal for hard to reach areas.

Summary
In conclusion, this project really played its part in allowing students to
experience, document and analyse the construction process through their own
eyes. Through this project, students were able to conduct their own site visit to
their chosen construction site and to fully understand the sequence and
coordination of construction at site. The site visit conducted proved to be an
important learning process for architecture students as practical site visits
conducted were able to allow students to have a clearer understanding of the
topics which were covered in lectures. The exposure of students to
construction methods and technologies in relation to their respective site
contexts were able to allow students to broaden their horizons and to
demonstrate their understanding and knowledge of the construction process in
a systematic and professional manner.
For our group, we conducted two site visits respectively. We conducted our first
site visit to Elmina Valley Phase EV1A. Residential buildings built on site are 2storey terrace houses and we were able to observe, experience and document
several aspects of the construction process on site, namely site and safety,
plants and machineries, site layout, foundation, superstructures, doors and
windows as well as roofs. Through our site visit, weve learnt that site and
safety plays a huge role in the construction site as every safety measures
were carried out to ensure the workers safety on site at all times. Moreover,
we were able to personally observe and document the different plants and
machineries used to construct the 2 storey terrace houses on site. Plants and
machineries were further divided into various categories, namely earthmoving
and excavating equipment, lifting and erecting equipment, mixing and grading
equipment, transporting vehicles, construction equipment and many more.
Moreover, weve also learned that a well-planned site layout is able to increase
the productivity of the construction process. A well planned and organised
construction site like Elmina Valley Phase EV1A is able to ensure a smooth
transition from one location to another within the site, avoiding unnecessary
injuries and directing workers to their respective working zones efficiently. The
type of foundation available on site is shallow foundation, and specifically
reinforced concrete pad footings. In addition to that, after conducting our site
visit, we were able to understand the complete construction process for the
superstructures. After the foundations were constructed, the reinforcements
will be extended for the construction of columns. Ground beams will be
constructed on top of foundations and this process will be flowed by the
construction of ground floor slabs. Columns and beams will later be
constructed and after the framework of the entire building is completed, walls
will be erected to enclose the spaces. The walls found on site are masonry
walls, namely red clay brick walls and cement sand brick walls. Roofs present
on site are generally gable roofs and they are easily recognized by their
triangular shapes.
In addition to that, weve conducted our second site visit to Lot 120, Mukim
Lunas, Daerah Kulim, Kedah Darulaman to obtain an understanding of the
process of setting out and earth works. As Lot 120, Mukim Lunas, Daerah
Kulim, Kedah Darulaman is a newly developed construction process, we had

the privilege of accessing the site to document the process of setting out and
earth works.

References:
Books:
Allen, E., & Allen, E. (1985). Instructor's manual and slide script to accompany Fundamentals of building construction: Materials and methods. New York:
Wiley. Allen, E., & Iano, J. (1985). The professional handbook of building construction. New York: Wiley.
Allen, E., & Iano, J. (2004). Fundamentals of building construction: Materials and methods. Hoboken, NJ: J. Wiley & Sons.
Allen, E., Iano, J., & Allen, E. (2004). Exercises in building construction: Forty-five homework and laboratory assignments to accompany Fundamentals of building construction.
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Allen, E., Thallon, R., & Iano, J. (2002). Fundamentals of residential construction. New York: J. Wiley.
Barry, R. (1970). The construction of buildings. Vol. 2. Crosby Lockwood.
Barry, R. (1981). The construction of buildings Vol. 3: Single storey frames, shells and lightweight coverings. London:
Granada. Barry, R. (1996). The Construction of buildings. Vol. 4. London: Blackwell.
Barry, R. (n.d.). The construction of buildings: Volume 1. London : Granada, 1980.
Best, R., & Valence, G. D. (2002). Design and construction: Building in value. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Bisharat, K. A. (2004). Construction graphics: A practical guide to interpreting working drawings. Hoboken, NJ: J. Wiley &
Sons. Bulkeley, B., & Hart, B. (2005). Basic building & construction skills. Frenchs Forest, N.S.W.: Pearson Education
Australia.
Chew, M. Y. (2001). Construction technology for tall buildings. Singapore: Singapore University Press, National University of
Singapore. Ching, F. D., & Adams, C. (2001). Building construction illustrated. New York: Wiley.
Chudley, R., & Greeno, R. (1999). Construction technology. Harlow: Longman.
Chudley, R., & Greeno, R. (2001). Building construction handbook. Woburn, MA: Butterworth Architecture.
Chudley, R., & Greeno, R. (2008). Building construction handbook. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Chudley, R., Greeno, R., & Chudley, R. (1999). Advanced construction technology. Harlow:
Longman. Construction technology. (1999). Alva: Northwest Technology Center.
Cooke, B. (2011). Construction practice. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell.
Cooke, R. (2007). Building in the 21st century. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Pub.
Emmitt, S., & Gorse, C. A. (2010). Barry's introduction to construction of buildings. Chichester, U.K.: Wiley-Blackwell
Pub. Emmitt, S., Gorse, C. A., & Barry, R. (2005). Barry's introduction to construction of buildings. Oxford: Blackwell
Pub.
Greeno, R. (2007). Introduction to building. Harlow: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Greeno, R. (2007). Mitchell's introduction to building.
Grundy, J. T. (n.d.). Construction technology. London: Edward Arnold.
Heavy equipment operations. (2005). Upper Saddle River, NJ.: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Heavy equipment operations. (2012). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Levy, S. M. (2010). Construction process planning and management: An owner's guide to successful projects. Amsterdam: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Mehta, M. (1997). The principles of building construction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Millais, M. (2005). Building structures: From concepts to design. London: Spon Press.
Plank, R., Blanc, A., & McEvoy, M. (1993). Architecture and construction in steel. London : Ascot: Spon ; Steel construction
institute. Riley, M., & Cotgrave, A. (2004). Construction technology. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Rounds, J. L., & Segner, R. O. (2011). Construction supervision. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Sarkar, S. K., & Saraswati, S. (2008). Construction technology. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Schittich, C., Helfrich, E., Green, P., Sffker, G., & Thrift, P. (1999). Glass construction manual. Basel: Birkhuser.
Spence, W. P., Kultermann, E., & Spence, W. P. (2011). Construction materials, methods and techniques: Building for a sustainable future. Australia: Delmar, Cengage Learning.
Taranath, B. S. (1988). Structural analysis and design of tall buildings. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Online sources (Websites)
2016. (2014, August 14). Window parts & diagrams. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.hometips.com/how-it-works/window-parts.html
666, admin_. (2013, July 29). Concrete slab floors. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.yourhome.gov.au/materials/concrete-slab-floors
A. (2015). Construction process of Pad Footing. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kMvKAdALKFU
Advantages and Disadvantages of a Flat Concrete Roof | DoItYourself.com. (2012). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.doityourself.com/stry/advantages-anddisadvantag- es-of-a-flat-concrete-roof

Application, B. (n.d.). Enclosure. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.highconcrete.com/products/systems/enclosure/

Building construction details. (2015, December 3). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.slideshare.net/cocongkening/building-construction-details
By clipping, or turning the point down, the roof becomes more resistant to wind damage. They also provide more space than a traditional hip roof. The higher pitch offers more living
space, while providing better reinforcement. Jerkinhead roofs give architectural interest to any home. (2016). Top 15 Roof Types & Their Pros & Cons - Read Before you Build! RoofCalc.net - Roofing Cost Calculator. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.roofcalc.net/top-15-roof-types-and-their-pros-cons/
By excavating underneath a structure short lengths of pile can be inserted and jacked into the ground using the underside of the existing structure as a reaction. (n.d.). Foundations.
Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://environment.uwe.ac.uk/geocal/foundations/Fountype.htm
By placing piles directly adjacent to one another, a permanent or temporary retaining wall can be created. These can be closely-spaced contiguous pile walls, or interlocking secant
walls, which depending on the composition of the secondary intermediate piles can be hard/soft, hard/firm or hard/hard secant walls. (n.d.). Designing Buildings Wiki The construction
industry knowl- edge base. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Building_foundations
By Professor Chris Gorse & Ian Dickinson licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution Non- Commercial Share Alike. - ppt download. (n.d.). Advanced Construction
Technology By Professor Chris Gorse & Ian Dickinson licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution Non- Commercial Share. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from
http://slideplayer.com/slide/1567015/ Carter, T. (2014, December 5). Column and beam construction. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.askthebuilder.com/column-andbeam-construction/
Centre for Window and Cladding Technology. (n.d.). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.cwct.co.uk/design/options.htm
Charlie Robinson, Carpentry Lecturer Follow. (2014). Power point foundations L1. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.slideshare.net/fccarpentry/power-point-foundations42264768 Ching, F. D., Mulville, M., & Ching, F. D. (n.d.). European building construction illustrated.
Civil Engineering (Beams,Columns). (2011, June 2). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.slideshare.net/mbrsalman/civil-engineeringbeamscolumns Clay Tile Roofing. (n.d.). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.selfhelpandmore.com/building/roofing/types/clay-tile.php
CONCRETE SHEAR WALL CONSTRUCTION. (n.d.). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://mitigation.eeri.org/files/concrete_shear_wall.pdf
Concrete slabs. (n.d.). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from https://www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au/toolbox/buildright/content/bcgbc4010a/04_struct_members/06_concrete_slabs/page_001.htm
Curtain Wall Fundamentals. (2014, December 3). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://glassmagazine.com/article/commercial/curtain-wall-fundamentals-1413202
Darshan Bavadiya, Architect Follow. (2015). Foundation. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.slideshare.net/darshanbavadiya/foundation51424024 Deakin, E. (n.d.). Underpinning and Pad Foundations - folio. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from
https://folio.brighton.ac.uk/user/ed145/technology-report-1
do-it-yourself-help. (2006). How to build a frame for a new window. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.do-it-yourselfhelp.com/framing_a_window.html Floor System. (n.d.). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from
https://times.taylors.edu.my/pluginfile.php/2364497/mod_resource/content/1/FLOOR SYSTEM.pdf Foundations Explained - Homebuilding & Renovating.
(2016). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from https://www.homebuilding.co.uk/foundations-explained/
Friedman, D. (n.d.). Building Structural ProblemsInspection, Diagnosis, & Repair of Structural Damage to Buildings. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from
http://inspectapedia.com/structure/Building_- Structures.php
Functional
Requirements
of
Building
Elements:
WALLS.
(n.d.).
Retrieved
October
16,
2016,
from
http://www.cityu.edu.hk/CIVCAL/design/frobe/submenus/walls.html Functional Requirements of Building Elements: WALLS. (n.d.). Retrieved October 16,
2016, from http://www.cityu.edu.hk/CIVCAL/design/frobe/submenus/walls.html Functions of Slab and Design of Slab. (n.d.). Retrieved October 04, 2016,
from http://www.aboutcivil.org/slab-definition-functions-design.html
GEM Building Taxonomy. (n.d.). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from https://www.nexus.globalquakemodel.org/gem-building-taxonomy/overview/glossary/precast-concrete--pc
Ground Beams, Ground works, Foundations, The Micropiling Group, Micropiling Southern, Micro Piling Herts Hertfordshire London. (n.d.). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from
http://www.micropiling- group.com/ground_beams.php
Gutter Protection. (n.d.). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.gutter-protection.com/gutter-materials.html
H. (2007). How Drywall Works. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://home.howstuffworks.com/drywall4.htm
H. (2008). How Concrete Roofs Work. Retrieved September 30, 2016, from http:// home.howstuffworks.com/homeimprovement/construction/materials/concreteroofs1.htm Healy, T. How to build stairs. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.wikihow.com/Build-Stairs
J. (n.d.). Build a Brick Wall. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.wikihow.com/Build-a-Brick-Wall
liwei, & profile, V. my complete. (2014, October 1). Beam and slab. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://construction-greatopportunity.blogspot.my/2012/03/beam-andslab.html Load Bearing Wall: Determining and Removing One. (2016). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.explodedhome.com/just-taken-load-bearing-wall/
Ltd, P. E. (n.d.). Metro GlassTech - Great ideas in glass. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.metroglass.co.nz/catalogue/139.aspx
MASONRY WALL SAFETY DURING CONSTRUCTION WORK GUIDE. (n.d.). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from https://www.commerce.wa.gov.au/sites/default/files/atoms/files/masonry_wall_safety.pdf
Mohdasrimohdhasim Follow. (2013). Chapter 10 structure construction. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.slideshare.net/mohdasrimohdhasim/chapter-10-structureconstruction Ochshorn, J. (n.d.). ARCH 2614/5614 Lecture notes. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from https://courses.cit.cornell.edu/arch262/notes/11b.html
OriginalsByEva, B. (2014). Stick Curtain Wall Facade System - Comfortable Home. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://comfortablehome.info/1788-stick-curtainwall-sys- tem-sanxin-facade-technology-limited
Precast Concrete Methods. (2016). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://theconstructor.org/concrete/precast-concrete-methods/422/
PRECAST CONCRETE WALL PANELS. (n.d.). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://precast.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Precast-Concrete-Wall-Panel-Presentation.pdf
Precast Construction | FDArchitects. (n.d.). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://frontdesk.co.in/precast.html#.V-FU4TUqbWw

PUBLICATIONS, H. S. (2010, March 28). Form and pour a concrete slab. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.familyhandyman.com/masonry/pouringconcrete/- form-and-pour-a-concrete-slab/view-all

Rain gutter. (n.d.). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rain_gutter

Roof Shapes. (2016). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from https://www.thisoldhouse.com/ideas/roof-shapes
Shanasri4 Follow. (2012). Foundation design part_1. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.slideshare.net/shanasri4/foundation-designpart1 Steel design pre 1. (2013, September 13). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.slideshare.net/5006/steel-design-pre-1
Steel Frame Vs. Timber Frame. (n.d.). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://ownerbuilderadvice.com/steel-frame-vs-timber-fram
The advantage of using shear wall method of construction. (n.d.). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.pcg-group.com.my/index.asp?p=/static/theadvan- tage-of-using-shear-wall-method-of-construction.html
The Advantages of Steel Decking as provided by Metaldeck. (2016). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from https://www.raisedfloor.co.uk/the-advantages-of-steel-decking/
Truini, J. (2015, September 19). Stairs design: How to build stairs. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from Projects and Plans, http://www.popularmechanics.com/home/how-to-plans/how-to/a2145/4224738/
TYPES OF FOUNDATION. (n.d.). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://slideplayer.com/slide/5683042/
Types of Foundations in Building Construction. (n.d.). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.understandconstruction.com/types-offoundations.html Types of Walls. (n.d.). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.understandconstruction.com/walls.html
Types of Walls. (n.d.). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.understandconstruction.com/walls.html
Unitized Curtain Walls and Their Limitations. (2015, February 9). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://glassmagazine.com/article/commercial/unitized-curtain-walls-and-theirlimitations-1513403 Vijay1230 Follow. (2012). 04 masonry. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.slideshare.net/vijay1230/04-masonry
Wall System. (n.d.). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from https://times.taylors.edu.my/pluginfile.php/2364521/mod_resource/content/1/WALL
SYSTEM.pdf Wall. (n.d.). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wall
WALLS- TYPES, FEATURES AND DESIGN CONCEPT. (2016). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://theconstructor.org/building/buildings/walls-types-features-and-designconcept/819/ WALLS- TYPES, FEATURES AND DESIGN CONCEPT. (2016). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://theconstructor.org/building/buildings/walls-types-featuresand-design-concept/819/ Walls. (n.d.). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.pci.org/design_resources/about_precast/walls/
What are the pros and cons of timber roof trusses? | DoItYourself.com. (2012). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.doityourself.com/stry/what-are-the-pros-and-cons-of-timberroof-truss What is slab?. (2014, August 29). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.iamcivilengineer.com/2014/08/what-is-concrete-slab-classification-of_51.html
Why Choose Concrete Roof Tile? | Enlighten Me. (2014). Retrieved October 16, 2016, from https://enlightenme.com/concrete-roof-tile/
Wilden How, Shop Assistant at F.O.S Follow. (2014, July 11). Building Construction. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.slideshare.net/Welltan/building-construction-36880123
Wood, J. L. (n.d.). Advantages & Disadvantages of a Shed-Style Roof. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.ehow.com/info_12112556_advantages-disadvantages-shedstyleroof.html Wylie, N. How to build a brick wall. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.wikihow.com/Build-a-Brick-Wall
Wylie, N. How to build a brick wall. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.wikihow.com/Build-a-Brick-Wall