Yogeesha H C

Lecture Notes on 15MEF14/24

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

1. What is a Heat Engine? How they are classified? Give examples for the same
A Heat engine is a thermal prime mover that converts the chemical energy of a fuel in to heat
energy by combustion of fuel and utilizes this energy to perform mechanical work. Heat
engines are broadly classified into two categories
1) External Combustion Engines(E.C. Engines) : In these engines, combustion of fuel
takes place outside the engine cylinder. Ex: Steam engines, Steam turbines, closed
cycle gas engine, etc. The EC engines are mainly used for large electric power
generators.
2) Internal Combustion Engines (I.C. Engines): In IC Engines, the combustion of fuel
takes place inside the engine cylinder. Ex: Petrol Engines, Diesel Engines, Gas
Engines, etc. IC Engines are mainly used for transport vehicles.
2. How are IC Engines classified?
i)
According to the type of fuel used
1. Petrol Engines
2. Diesel Engines
3. Gas engines
4. Bi-Fuel Engines
ii)
According to the number of strokes per cycle
1. Four stroke engine
2. Two stroke engine
iii)
According to the method of ignition
1. Spark Ignition engine
2. Compression Ignition engine
iv)
According to the cycle of working
1. Otto Cycle engine (Constant Volume cycle engine)
2. Diesel Cycle engine (Constant Pressure cycle engine)
3. Dual Combustion cycle engine
v)
According to the number of cylinders
1. Single cylinder engine
2. Multi cylinder engine
vi)
According to the arrangement of cylinders
1. Vertical engine
2. Horizontal engine
3. Inline engine
4. Radial engine
5. V-engine
6. Opposed piston engine
vii)
According to the method of cooling
1. Air cooled engine
2. Water cooled engine
viii) According to the method of fuel injection
1. Carburetor engine
2. Air injection engine
3. Airless or solid injection engine
ix)
According to their uses
1. Stationery engine
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Yogeesha H C

Lecture Notes on 15MEF14/24

2. Automobile engine
3. Marine engine
4. Locomotive engine
5. Aircraft engine
3. Explain the following terms with reference to IC engines
i) Bore: It is the inside diameter of engine cylinder
ii) Stroke : It is the linear distance traveled by the piston i.e. it is the distance between Top
Dead Centre and Bottom Dead Centre
iii) Swept Volume (Vs) : It is the Volume swept by the piston as it moves between TDC and
BDC
iv) Clearance Volume(Vc): It is volume of the cylinder above the top of the piston when
piston is at TDC.
v) Compression Ratio : It is ratio of the total cylinder volume to the clearance volume
Vs Vc
Compression Ratio r
Vc
vi) Piston Speed: The average linear speed of the piston is called piston speed and is given by
S = 2 l. N where l- stroke and N speed of the engine.
4. Explain with a neat sketch the principal parts of an IC engine
1) Cylinder: The heart of the engine is the cylinder in which the fuel is burnt and the
power is generated. Its function is to contain the working fluid under pressure and to
guide the piston while reciprocating inside the cylinder. The cylinder is usually made of
Grey Cast Iron or steel alloys in order to withstand the high pressure and temperature
during combustion.
2) Cylinder Head: The top end of the cylinder is closed by a removable cylinder head. The
cylinder head consists of two valves i.e. inlet and outlet valves. It is usually made of
Cast iron or alloys of cast iron
3) Piston: It is close fitting hollow cylindrical plunger moving to and fro in the cylinder.
The main function of the piston is to compress the charge during compression stroke
and to receive the impulse produced by the combustion of the fuel and to transmit the
energy to the crankshaft.
4) Piston rings: These are the metallic rings inserted into the circumferential grooves
provided at the top end of the piston. These rings maintain a gas tight joint between the
piston and cylinder while the piston is reciprocating in the cylinder. They are two sets
of piston rings. One set is called compression rings which press hard against the
cylinder walls forming a tight seal between piston and the cylinder. This prevents the
high pressure gases from escaping into the crankcase. Another set of rings called oil
rings which are used to extract the lubricating oil from the cylinder walls and to send it
back to the oil sump through holes provided in the piston.
5) Connecting rod: It forms a link between piston and the crankshaft. It converts the linear
motion of the piston into rotary motion of the crankshaft.
6) Crank and crankshaft: The crank is a lever that is connected to the end of the
connecting rod by a pin joint with its other end connected rigidly to a shaft called
crankshaft. It rotates about the axis of the crankshaft and causes the connecting rod to
oscillate. The power required for any useful purpose is taken from the crankshaft.

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Yogeesha H C

Lecture Notes on 15MEF14/24

7) Fly wheel: It is heavy wheel mounted on the crankshaft of the engine to maintain
uniform rotation of the crankshaft. It is used as an energy saving device. It stores
energy received during power stroke and supplies the same during other strokes.
8) Crank case: It is lower part of the engine serving as an enclosure for the crankshaft and
also as a sump for the lubricating oil
9) Valves: These are the control devices that allow the air/fuel to enter into the cylinder
and also discharge the burnt gases to the atmosphere. The inlet and outlet valves serve
these purposes. The valves are actuated by means of springs, cam and lever
mechanisms and are made to open and closed so that the charge enters/discharges at the
right time

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Yogeesha H C
15MEF14/24

Lecture Notes on

5. Explain the working principle of four stroke petrol engine (Otto Cycle engine or Constant
Volume cycle engine or 4 stroke SI Engine)

It is also known as Otto cycle or constant volume cycle engine. It requires four strokes of the
piston to complete one cycle of operations in the engine cylinder. The four strokes are as
follows:
1) Suction or charging stroke: In this stroke, the inlet valve opens and the fresh charge
(petrol and air mixture from carburetor) is sucked into the engine cylinder as the piston
moves from TDC to BDC. It continues till the piston reaches BDC. During this travel
of the piston the crankshaft revolves by half rotation. Because of the pressure difference
between the atmosphere and the inside of the engine cylinder, petrol-air mixture will be
drawn into the cylinder from the carburetor. At the end of this stroke, the cylinder will
be completely filled with petrol-air mixture and inlet valve is closed.
2) Compression Stroke: In this stroke, both inlet and outlet valves are closed and charge
is compressed as the piston moves from BDC to TDC. As a result of compression,
pressure and temperature of the charge increases considerably. This completes one
revolution of the crank shaft. Shortly before the piston reaches the TDC during this
stroke, the charge is ignited with the help of a spark plug.
3) Power Stroke (Working stroke or Expansion stroke): During this stroke, both the
valves are closed and because of the combustion of charge, the burnt gases expand. Due
to this expansion, the hot gases exert pressure on the piston and as a result, the piston is
pushed from TDC to BDC. The power impulse is transmitted down through the piston
to the crankshaft. This causes the crankshaft to rotate at high speeds. Thus, work is
obtained in this stroke. At the end of this stroke, the exhaust valve opens which will
release the burnt gases to the atmosphere.
4) Exhaust Stroke: In this stroke, the exhaust valve is open as piston moves from BDC to
TDC. This movement of piston pushes out the burnt gases from the cylinder to the
atmosphere. This completed one cycle of operation and the engine is ready for the next
cycle.

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Yogeesha H C

Lecture Notes on 15MEF14/24

6. Explain the working four strokes diesel engine (Diesel Cycle engine or Constant Pressure
cycle engine or 4 stroke CI engine)

The 4 stroke diesel engine is similar to that of a 4 stroke petrol engine except that a fuel
injector is fitted in place of a spark plug and air only enters into the engine cylinder during
suction stroke. Air alone is compressed during the compression stroke and at end of this stroke,
the fuel injector injects fuel into the hot compressed air. The fuel is then ignited as it comes in
contact with the hot compressed air. Hence these engines are called compression ignition
engines. The working principle of 4 stroke diesel engine is based on Diesel cycle, hence they
are called diesel cycle or constant pressure cycle engines. The four different strokes of the 4
stroke diesel cycle is as under:
i) Suction Stroke: During this stroke, the piston moves from TDC to BDC. The inlet valve
opens and exhaust valve will be closed. The downward movement of the piston creates
a suction in the cylinder and as a result atmospheric air from the air filter is drawn into
the engine cylinder through the inlet valve. When the piston reaches BDC, the suction
stroke ends with closure of the inlet valve.
ii) Compression Stroke: During this stroke, the piston moves from BDC to TDC and both
the inlet and exhaust valves are closed. As the piston moves upwards, the air inside the
engine cylinder is compressed to high pressure and temperature. The compression
process is adiabatic in nature and the compression ratio will be from 15:1 to 22:1. At
the end of this stroke, the fuel is injected into the engine cylinder in the form of fine
sprays by a fuel injector. Combustion of fuel takes place at constant pressure.
iii) Power Stroke: During this stroke, both inlet and exhaust valves remain closed. Due to
the combustion of fuel, the burnt gases expand and exert a large force on the piston.
Due to this, the piston is pushed from TDC to BDC. The power impulse is transmitted
down through the piston to the crankshaft through the connecting rod. This causes the
crankshaft to rotate at high speeds. Thus power is obtained during this stroke. The
expansion gases is adiabatic in nature and when the piston reaches BDC the exhaust
valve opens. A part of the burnt gases escapes through the exhaust valve due to their
expansion. The drop in pressure is at constant volume.

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Lecture Notes on 15MEF14/24

iv) Exhaust Stroke: During this stroke, the piston moves from BDC to TDC and the inlet
valve will be closed and exhaust valve will be opened. As the piston moves upwards, it
forces the burnt gases out of the engine cylinder. When the piston reaches TDC, the
exhaust valve close and the next cycle of suction stroke begins.
Thus in this engine, four operations are completed in two revolutions of the crank shaft or 4
strokes of the piston and the power is obtained during only in power stroke i.e. one power
stroke for two revolutions of the crankshaft.

7. Explain the working of two stroke petrol engine ( 2 stroke SI engine, 2 stroke Constant
volume cycle engine or 2 stroke Otto cycle engine)
In a 2 stroke petrol engine, there are no valves instead the cylinder is provided with ports. The
ports acts as valves and are opened and closed by the moving piston. In 2 stroke engine, all
operations are completed in one revolution of the crankshaft or 2 strokes of the piston. In these
engines the two strokes of the piston are as under:
i) Downward Stroke (Inward Stroke) : At the beginning of this stroke, the piston is at
TDC. At this position, the charge (Air and Petrol Mixture) present in the previous
cycle, is compressed to high pressure and temperature. The compressed charge in the
cylinder is ignited by means of a spark plug. As combustion takes place, the burnt gases
expand and exert a large force on the piston. Due to this, the piston is pushed
downwards from TDC to BDC. The power impulse is transmitted to the crankshaft
from the piston through the connecting rod. This causes the crankshaft to rotate at high
speeds.
The movement of the piston from TDC to BDC uncovers the exhaust port . A part of
the burnt gases escape through the exhaust port. Further downward movement of the
piston uncovers the transfer port and fresh charge enters from the crank case into the
engine cylinder. During the downward movement of the piston, the charge in the
crankcase is compressed by the underside of the piston. The compressed charge from
the crankcase rushes into the engine cylinder through the transfer port driving away the
remaining exhaust gases through the exhaust port. This process of sweeping out the
exhaust gases with the help of fresh charge is called scavenging. The top of the piston
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Yogeesha H C

Lecture Notes on 15MEF14/24

has a projection called deflector that deflects the fresh charge coming through transfer
port to move upwards to the top end of the cylinder.
ii) Upward Stroke or Outward Stroke: During this stroke, the piston moves from BDC
to TDC. During this movement, the piston covers the transfer port, thereby stopping the
flow of fresh charge into the engine cylinder. Further upward movement of the piston
covers the exhaust port and actual compression of the charge begins. In the mean time,
the inlet port is uncovered by the piston and upward moving piston creates suction in
the crankcase thus admitting fresh charge into the crankcase. The compression of the
charge in the cylinder continues till the piston reaches TDC. Thus, one cycle is
completed. In the next cycle, the compressed charge is ignited by the spark plug and the
cycle continues.

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Yogeesha H C

Lecture Notes on 15MEF14/24

8. Compare two stroke and four stroke engines

Basis for comparison
Four Stroke
1. Number of strokes per
4
cycle
2. Number of revolutions
2
of the crank shaft per
cycle
3. Torque fluctuations
High.
Hence
heavy
flywheel is needed
4. Thermal Efficiency
High
5. Mechanical Efficiency
Low
6. Entry and Exhaust of Through Valves
Charge
7. Fuel Consumption
Less
8. Running Noise
Less
9. Power Stroke
One power stroke for two
revolutions of the crank
shaft
10. Weight
Heavy and Bulky
11. Cooling and lubrication Requires lesser cooling and
lubrication
since
combustion takes place in
alternate revolutions of the
crankshaft
12. Uses
Used in cars, jeeps, Buses,
Trucks, Power generators,
etc.

Two stroke
2
1
More Uniform.
Hence
lighter flywheel is sufficient
Low
High
Through Ports
High
More
One power stroke for every
revolution of the crank shaft
Lighter and compact
Requires greater
cooling
and
lubrication
since
combustion takes place in
every revolution of the
crank shaft
Used in light vehicles such
as motor cycles, 3 wheelers.
Lawn movers,
marine
engines, etc

9. Compare Petrol Engine and Diesel Engine (Constant Volume Cycle Engine and Constant
Pressure Cycle Engine) (Otto Engine and Diesel Engine) (SI Engine and CI engine)
Basis for comparison
1. Cycle of operation
2. Fuel used
3. Ignition of charge
4. Supply of fuel
5. Thermal efficiency
6. Initial cost
7. Running cost
8. Weight
9. Noise and vibration
10. Compression ratio
11. Starting of the engine
12. Uses

Four Stroke
Otto Cycle
Petrol
Using a spark plug
Using a carburetor
Lower
Less
More
Light and compact
Less
Varies from 6:1 to 10:1
Easily started even in cold
conditions
Used in light vehicles such as
cars, motor cycles, etc

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Two stroke
Diesel cycle
Diesel
Self ignition
Using a fuel pump and injector
Higher
More
Less
Heavy and bulky
High
Varies from 15:1 to 22:1
Difficult to stat in cold
conditions
Used in heavy duty vehicles
such as buses, trucks, and
heavy machinery

Yogeesha H C

Lecture Notes on 15MEF14/24

10. Mention the advantages and disadvantages of two stroke engines over four stroke engines
Advantages of 2 Stroke Engines
A 2 stroke engine has the twice the number of power strokes than a four stroke engine
at the same speed. Hence theoretically power developed in 2 stroke engine is double
than the four stroke engine.

The weight of the 2 stroke engine is less than four stroke engine because of the lighter
flywheel due to more uniform torque on the crankshaft

The work required to overcome friction of the suction and exhaust is saved
Since there are no mechanical valves and valve gears, the construction is simpler

It occupies less space

Less maintenance since less number of moving parts
The 2 stroke engine is much easier to start
Initial cost of the engine is less
Disadvantages of 2 Stroke engines
Thermal efficiency is less

Since the firing takes place in every revolution, the time available for cooling is less,
which results in overheating of the piston and other engine parts.

Consumption of lubricating oil is more

Incomplete scavenging results in mixing of fresh charge with the exhaust gases which
will reduce the power output and thermal efficiency.

Since the transfer port opened for only short duration, it is likely that less quantity of
charge may be admitted into the engine cylinder reducing the power output

For a given stroke and clearance volume, the effective compression ratio is less

Running cost will be more as the fuel consumption is more as compared to 4 stroke
engine

11. Explain the following terms in connection with IC Engines

a) Mean Effective Pressure:
It is the hypothetical pressure which is said to be acting on the piston during power stroke.
5
2
It is expresses in bar. 1 bar = 10 N/m
The Indicated Mean Effective pressure of the engine is obtained from the indicator diagram
or p-v diagram of the engine.
The Indicated Mean Effective Pressure is given by
Sa
Pm

l
Where S = Spring Value of the spring used in the indicator diagram
A = Area of the indicator diagram
l = length of the indicator diagram
b) Indicated Power: It is the total power developed inside the engine cylinder. It is given by
kPmlan
IP

1000 60
Where k number of cylinders in the engine
Pm Indicated Mean Effective Pressure in
2
N/m l Stroke length of the piston in metres

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Yogeesha H C

Lecture Notes on 15MEF14/24

2
a = Area of the cylinder = d
4
n = number of working or power strokes per
minute n = N/2 for Four stroke engine
n= N for two stroke engine where N Speed of the engine
Derivation of Indicated Power
Work Developed by the cylinder in one stroke
= Mean force acting x Stroke
= mean effective pressure x area x stroke
= P m .a. l N-m
Power developed
=
Work done in one cycle x number of cycles per minute
Pm.l a.n
=
N-m/min

=
=

P .l.a.n
m

1000x60

P .l.a.n
m

1000x60

KN-m/s

KW

c) Brake Power : It is the net power available at the end of the crankshaft. The power available
at the end of the crankshaft is measured by applying the brake and is therefore called brake
power.
2NT
BP

KW
1000x60

where N = Speed of the engine

T = Torque of the rotating crank shaft
The torque is measured using either a belt dynamometer or rope brake dynamometer.
In case of Belt dynamometer
T = (T1-T2) R
Where T1 = Tension in the tight side of the belt in N
T2 = Tension in the slack side of the belt in
N R = Radius of the pulley in meters
In case rope brake dynamometer
T = (W-S) R
Where W = Suspended weight in N
S = Spring balance reading in N
R = Effective Radius of the brake drum
= (D+dr)/2 where dr = diameter of the rope, D- diameter of pulley in m
d) Friction Power : It is the amount of power lost due to friction of the moving parts inside the
engine cylinder. It is the difference between Indicated power and brake power expressed in
KW.
FP = IP - BP
e) Mechanical Efficiency
It is the ratio of brake power to the indicated power
f) Thermal Efficiency
It is the ratio of power output to the heat supplied by the combustion of fuel. If the power
output considered to be indicated power then it is called indicated thermal efficiency. If the
brake power is considered then it is called brake thermal efficiency.

Nagarjuna College of Engineering & Technology, Bangalore

Yogeesha H C

Lecture Notes on 15MEF14/24

IPx3600
mf CV
BPx3600
Indicated Thermal Efficiency =
mf CV
Where mf = mass of the fuel consumed in kg/hr
CV = Calorific Value fuel in KJ/kg
g) Specific Fuel Consumption: It is the amount of fuel needed to provide a given power for a
given period. If it is based on Indicated power it is called Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption
(ISFC) and if it is based on BP then it is called Brake Specific Fuel Consumption(BSFC)
Indicated Thermal Efficiency =

ISFC

mf

and BSFC
BP

mf

kg/Kw-hr IP

where mf Fuel consumed in kg/hr

12. Explain why cooling is required for IC Engines
Due to the combustion of fuel inside the engine cylinder, intense heat is generated. It has been
experimentally found that about 30% of the heat generated is converted into mechanical work.
Out of the remaining 40% of heat is carried away by the exhaust gases. The remaining part of
the heat, if left unattended will be absorbed by the engine cylinder, cylinder head, piston, and
valves. The overheating of these parts causes thermal stresses in the engine parts, which may
lead to their distortion, seizure of the piston, burning of the valves and valve seats and reduces
the volumetric efficiency. In order to avoid the above said adverse effects, it is very essential to
provide some cooling system for an IC engine. Two types of cooling methods will be used in
IC engines, i.e. Air Cooling and Water Cooling.

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