1

Design for manufacturing and

Assembly
Design for manufacturing and assembly are simple guidelines formulated
to get the below benefits
It simplifies the design
It simplifies the production processes and decreases the product cost
It improves product quality and reliability (because if the production
process is simplified, then there is less opportunity for errors).
It decreases the assembly cost.
It decreases the assembly time.
It reduces time required to bring a new product into market.
1.1. INTRODUCTION

TO MANUFACTURING PROCESS

What is Manufacturing?

The English word manufacture is several centuries old. The term

manufacture comes from two Latin words, manus (hand) and factus
(make). As per oxford English dictionary manufacture refers to make or
produce goods in large quantities, using machinery.

Classification of manufacturing processes

Manufacturing processes can be classified as (Refer Figure M1.2.3)
processing operation and assembly operation.
In processing operation the work material is transformed from one
state to other advanced state. Through this operation value is added to
the work material by changing the geometry; shape properties,
appearance etc. of the starting work material. Usually processing
operations are performed on individual component. But in some cases like
aerospace industry, the processing operations are performed on
assembled items also.
In assembly operation two or more components are joined to create a
new entity. The new entity is called assembly, subassembly based on its
state in the product. If the entity is an intermediate state of the product, it
is called subassembly. Some other terms are also referred based on the

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Engineering Design II

joining process. The assembly created by welding operation is called weld

met.

Figure M1.2.1: Definition of manufacturing in terms of technology.

Figure M1.2.2: Definition of manufacturing in terms of economic value

Basic Manufacturing Processes

It is described as the manufacturing processes which create or add value
to a product. The manufacturing processes can be classified as:
Casting, foundry, or molding processes
Forming or metalworking processes
Machining (material removal) processes
Joining and assembly
Surface treatments (finishing)
Rapid prototyping
Heat treating
Other
Other
manufacturing
operations
include
inspection,
testing,
transportation, automated material handling and even packaging. In
casting, the metal is heated sufficiently to make it into liquid and then

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poured into molds of desired shapes. Various machining operations are

turning, drilling and milling. Joining processes include welding, soldering,
brazing and adhesive bonding. The process of heat treating is carried out
to enhance various properties and include annealing and strengthening
processes for metals and glasses. Surface processing includes cleaning,
coating and thin film deposition, electroplating, anodizing etc.
1.2. DESIGN

CONSIDERATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The following important recommendations are need to be considered
while designing the sand casted products.
Shrinkage: As the molten metal cools and solidifies in the mood, the
natural shrinkage occurs. The dimension of the casted product gets
reduced as compared with the mold cavity. The amount of shrinkage
depends upon the type of metal. In order to compensate the shrinkage
allowance for outer dimension, the size of the pattern is made over size
and for inner dimension like hole; the pattern is made under size. It has
been observed that shrinkage happens towards the material side. Table
M2.1.2 shows shrinkage of various metals commonly cast in sand mold.

Metal
Gray cast iron
White cast iron
Ductile cast iron
Malleable cast iron
Aluminum alloys
Yellow brass
Gunmetal bronze
Phosphor bronze
Aluminum bronze
Manganese bronze

Allowance
(%)
0.83-1.3
2.1
0.83-1.0
0.78-1.0
1.3
1.3-1.6
1.0-1.6
1.0-1.6
2.1
2.1

Table M2.1.2: Shrinkage Allowance for Metals used in Sand Moulds (Source:
Design for Manufacturability Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)
Table: M2.1.3 Draft angle for outside surface for sand molded casting
(Source:
Design for Manufacturability Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)
Parting line: The parting line is a continuous line around a part that
separates two halves of the mould. Straight parting lines are mor
e economical than the stepped parting lines as shown in the Figure
M2.1.2.

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Engineering Design II

Figure M2.1.2: Recommended straight parting line

Draft: For easy removal of pattern from the molding sand, some degree of
taper or drafts are provided. With the provision of little or no draft, there
are chances that the pattern may damage the mold rather than slipping
out smoothly. Various factors responsible for selecting the proper drafts
are: method of moldings and drawing of the pattern, pattern material,
surface smoothness and degree of precision. Often risers are provided to
compensate the shrinkage. Figure M2.1.3

Figure M2.1.3: (a) Pattern withdrawal problem for no draft (b) smooth
withdrawal of pattern
from Mould
1.3. INTRODUCTION TO ASSEMBLY

WHAT IS ASSEMBLY?
Assembly is the process of putting parts together. The working definition
of assembly is The aggregation of all processes by which various parts
and subassemblies are built together to form a complete, geometrically
designed assembly or product (such as a machine or an electric circuit)
either by individual, batch or a continuous process. Hence, assemblies
are the outcome or product of the assembly process.
THE ASSEMBLY PROCESS
The assembly process is the placement, joining and fastening of one or
more parts in or on another. The process is carried out through manual
means however; automatic equipment are used for mass production.
Fixtures are used to hold one or more parts conveniently during the
operation.

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Even though, assembly work is performed at individual workbenches,

often conveyors are used to move parts or assemblies in process from one
workstation to another. In the mass production industries, a conveyor
moves an assembly part to a number of workstations and at each of which
certain parts are added. This is the common assembly line. Almost all
household and commercial products including electronic products such as
televisions, computers, etc., are to some degree mechanical assemblies.
CHARACTERISTICS AND APPLICATIONS
Mechanical assemblies mean holding multiple parts together by a variety
of means namely fasteners such as screws, rivets, bolts, pins, wire
staples, spring clips, and other parts that have the function of holding
other pieces together such as welding, brazing and soldering and
adhesive bonding. Holding operation may be achieved either by the
tightness of fit or by the interlocking of the assembled parts themselves.
Parts assembled in such assemblies may vary from two to thousands (as
in case of automobiles). Parts with varying materials such as metal, wood,
rubber, paper, plastics, ceramics, or a combination of these materials can
be assembled. Almost all household and commercial products including
electronic products such as televisions, computers, etc., are to some
degree mechanical assemblies.
EXAMPLES OF COMMON ASSEMBLY
1. An electric motor is an assembly of stationary parts of the stator and
the subassembly that turns a rotor
2. An automobile which consists of engine subassembly, body
subassembly, wheel etc.
3. A furniture which consists of different pieces of wood, metal parts,
fabrics
4. Computer that consists of numerous electronic circuit, cabinet, etc.
5. Aircraft assembly
EXAMPLES OF ASSEMBLIES AND ITS EXPLODED VIEW
Example 1
Figure M7.1.1 shows the example of a wheel assembly of a car. Figure M7.1.2
shows the exploded view.

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Engineering Design II

Figure M7.1.1: Wheel assembly of a car

Figure M7.1.2: Exploded
view of Wheel assembly
Example 2
Figure M7.1.3 shows the example of rack and Figure M7.1.4 shows its
exploded view.

Figure M7.1.3: Rack assembly

Figure M7.1.4: Exploded view of Rack

assembly

Example 3
This example shows the Plummer block (Figure M7.1.5) assemblies and its
exploded view as shown in Figure M7.1.6.

Figure M7.1.5: Plummer block

Plummer block

Example 4

Figure M7.1.6: Exploded view of

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This example shows the Brake calliper (Figure M7.1.7) assemblies and its
exploded view as shown in Figure M7.1.8.

Figure M7.1.7: Brake Calliper

Figure M7.1.8: Exploded view of Brake

Calliper

ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF ASSEMBLY

Assembly of manufactured goods accounts for over 50% of total production
time and 20 % of total unit production cost as shown in the Figure M7.1.9.
Again the average breakdown of assembly cost is shown in Figure M7.1.10.

Figure M7.1.9: Total unit production cost

assembly cost in production

Figure

M7.1.10:

Statics

of

GENERAL TAXONOMIES OF ASSEMBLY OPERATION AND SYSTEMS

The assembly task includes two basic categories: Part mating and part
joining. In part mating two or more parts are brought into contact or
alignment with each other. Part joining means that after the parts are
mated; fastening is applied to hold them together.
Mating task includes: (1) peg in hole (2) hole on Peg (3) multiple peg in
hole and (4) stacking. Joining or fastening task involves (1) (2) fastening
screws (3) retainers (4) press fits (4) snap fits (5) welding and related
metal based joining methods (6) adhesives (7) crimping and (8) riveting.
ASSEMBLING A PRODUCT
The main activity of assembly involves:
1. Marshaling parts in the correct quantity and sequence

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Engineering Design II

2. Transporting parts and partially assembled items

3. Presenting parts or subassemblies to the assembly work stations
4. Mating parts or subassemblies to other assemblies
5. Inspecting to confirm correct assembly
6. Testing to confirm correct function
7. Documentation of the processes operations
1.4. DESIGN FOR ASSEMBLY
Assembly is an important stage in product development and accounts for
one third of the company labor. Reducing the number of parts and making
the assembly easier and faster can simplify a product. In addition to the
cost of assembly operation, designing for assembly has many other
benefits and few are listed below.
1. When a product is simplified, it becomes easier to assemble in the
factory and to disassemble when maintenance, repair, or disassembly for
recycling is required.
2. Simpler assemblies often can be brought to market sooner because of
fewer parts to design, procure, inspect, and stock with less probability that
a delay will occur.
3. Reducing the number of parts requires fewer engineering and
production-control documents, lower inventory levels, reduced need for
inspection and quality-control documents, fewer setups, less materials
handling, and probably, reduced purchasing workload.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
In order to find various alternatives for smooth assembly operation, a
product designer should be able to visualize how the parts can be put
together and what the difficulties in putting parts together are. The
designer is expected to understand the various assembly methods and
different tools, fixtures, and gauges that will be used during assembly. The
assembly having the fewest numbers of parts and the least costly
fasteners is considered to be the best one.
Assembly design of each component should be such that a minimum
number of manufacturing and assembly operations are required. The
usual procedure is to use the assembly or sub assembly by putting them
to the main assembly with lesser cost than putting complex individual
parts one by one. Most of the design suggestions that follow are
applicable to assemblies fastened by the purely mechanical methods
mentioned above as well as to those that are welded, soldered, brazed,
and bonded.
MINIMIZING THE NUMBER OF PARTS

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The basic approach in design for assembly is to reduce the number of

parts without disturbing the functionality of the part. Some important
principles to reduce the number of parts are as follows:
1. Combine parts
This includes integrating the functions of several parts into one part.
Integration of several parts has been demonstrated below through various
examples.
1.
a. Incorporate hinges: By incorporating hinges in many plastics
parts (if the plastic material is flexible and the wall section is thin), parts
can be integrated together. Many storage containers are made with
integral hinges. Both injection molding and thermoforming are used in this
design approach. A typical example is shown in Figure
M7.2.1.

Figure M7.2.1: Integral living hinge

1. b. Use of integral springs: Springs can be incorporated in metal
and plastic parts and also in other materials such as fiber. Figure M7.2.2
illustrates the principle.

Figure M7.2.2: Spring function in the lever to eliminate the need for a
separate coiled spring
1. c. Use of snap fits. Screw-type and other separate fasteners can be
replaced with integral snap-fit elements, tabs, or catches. Such an
example is shown in Figure M7.2.3.

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Engineering Design II

Figure M7.2.3: Snap-fit principle to attach the cover

1. d. Use of guides, bearings, covers, etc. In certain manufacturing
processes, use of these elements (guides, bearings, covers, etc.) in the
basic parts often reduces the number of components significantly.
1. e. Mount electrical and electronic components in one location,
and consolidate components as much as possible.
Additional guidelines for combining specific parts are provided below.
1. Bent tabs or crimped sections are found to be less costly and
recommended instead of using separate fasteners to hold several parts
together. (Refer Figure M7.2.4.)

Figure M7.2.4: Bent tabs, rivet-like extensions, and crimped sheet metal
members to avoid separate fasteners
2. It is recommended to use combined fasteners.
3. Threaded holes and nuts are to be avoided. Use of self-tapping screws
is preferred over threaded holes as it is more costly to make precision hole
with internal screw thread. Avoid using separate attached label, instead
use cast or molded-in identification
4. Some of the fasteners can be replaced by the use of integral locators,
hooks, or lips.
(Refer Figure M7.2.5)

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Figure M7.2.5: Lips or other hooking elements in the basic parts

5. Threaded or other fasteners can be eliminated by the use of press fits,
integral tabs, or rivets. Press fits with flexible or grooved components are
normally less expensive and as effective as precision-machined parts.
Connection of parts is to be made keeping an eye on the feasibility of
connection by raising the following questions.
1. When the product is being used, does the part move with respect to
mating parts?
2. Must adjacent parts be made of different materials?
3. If parts were combined, would assembly of other parts or field service
be made more difficult or unfeasible?
It is probably not feasible to combine the parts if the outcomes of these
questions are yes. Otherwise the part is a good candidate to be
combined with others. A simple example has been demonstrated in Figure
M7.2.1 on this line. Further, Figure M7.2.6 explains the large number of
functions that have been consolidated into a few parts in a common
everyday product (finger nail clipper).

Figure M7.2.6: Finger nail clipper

2. Make an outright reduction in the number of parts
The fasteners can be reduced by using smaller number of heavier
fasteners.
3. Make a major or full-product redesign
When the assembly is redesigned, it is sometimes possible to achieve the
function supplied by a separate component by another method. One
example would be the replacement of a flanged and bolted pipe system
with a threaded pipe system.
4. Use a different technology

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Engineering Design II

Often with drastic change in design, it is possible to achieve the same

function by some other methods. For example, when a mechanical device
is replaced by an electronic micro circuit.
OTHER MAJOR GUIDELINES FOR ASSEMBLY IMPROVEMENT
General Recommendations
1. Use standard fasteners and other parts. It is recommended to use few
sizes and styles to reduce the total number. Minimizing the varieties is
also important. The subassembly which is usable in several products is to
be standardized.
2. If the subassembly process is different from the final assembly process
then it is recommended to use subassemblies; particularly modular
subassemblies. Modular assembly provides quality and reliability
advantages together with serviceability advantage.
3. It is recommended to avoid too many sub-assemblies. This will add to
the overhead in the form of additional floor space, inventory and
manufacturing specifications and also increase the manufacturing
throughput time.
4. Parts need to be designed such that they cant be inserted incorrectly.
5. It is recommended to avoid the use of flexible parts, if possible,
because positioning and handling the part to a proper location consumes
more time. Further, such parts are also susceptible to tangling.
6. Open-end slots are preferable to holes or closed slots if the design
permits and the part can be contained. This would permit shafts or other
mating parts to be assembled from the top (or side) instead of endways.
7. Use layered top-down assembly. Design the part in such a way that
parts can be added from the top, not from side or bottom. If top down
assembly is not possible design the part in such a way that it can be
assembled in a single step translation.
8. If the space is limited for doing the assembly operation avoid adding
simultaneous addition of several parts to the main assembly.
9. Design parts to be self-aligning. (See Figure M7.2.7)

Figure M7.2.7: Self-aligning features in the right side

10. Eliminate adjustments as much as possible.

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11. Recommended to use chamfered shape openings of holes and slots

whenever possible to help with the insertion of mating parts. Taper is put
on the parts that are to be inserted to the other part. (Refer Figure M7.2.8)

Figure M7.2.8: Funnel-shaped openings and tapered ends to facilitate

insertion of parts
12. If the assembly quantities are large, it is recommended to use
fasteners that fed themselves to hoppers, strips or other automatic
feeding methods.
13. Parts need to be designed so that they can be handled easily. This
may involve adding grasping element or projection to the part.
14. Slots or oversized hole are recommended on one of the parts for
taking care of misalignment when mating parts have through holes.
15. Situations in which one has to manually hold the part till all other parts
are assembled are to be avoided. This creates quality problem as well as
additional assembly time and cost.
16. Loosest fit possible between mating parts is recommended to use,
unless it will affect the product function.
17. Internal mechanisms are to be kept accessible.
18. Threaded fasteners are to be avoided as these take more time for
assembly. Assembly time can be reduced by the use of push-on fasteners
instead of threaded fasteners, if snap fits are not feasible. (Refer Figure
M7.2.9)

19. It is recommended to design small parts so that they can be inserted

in as many ways as possible, from both ends.(Refer Figure M7.2.10)

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Engineering Design II

20. Recommended to use plastic molding or zinc die casting to hold metal
parts together. (Refer Figure M7.2.11)

Figure M7.2.10: Design of small parts for inserting many possible ways

Figure M7.2.11: zinc die casting to hold metal parts

21. If possible, right and left-hand parts and subassemblies should be
made identical, thereby avoiding the need for extra part designs with
separate inventories, etc. (Refer Figure M7.2.12)

Figure M7.2.12: Combine right and left hand features

22. The use of components that can tangle when in a mass prior to
assembly is to be avoided. For example, hook like projections should be
avoided, surfaces should be smooth, and holes and slots should be
avoided. (Refer Figure M7.2.13)

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Figure M7.2.13: Design of parts to avoid entangle

23. It is recommended from a manufacturing cost standpoint to use fewer
large fasteners instead of a larger number of small fasteners.
24. Subassemblies of loosely held and flexible parts that can be damaged
or entangled in handling are to be avoided if possible. Under unavoidable
situation, fixtures should be provided to facilitate assembly and holding
boards used to facilitate handling.
25. Snap rings are considered to be an inexpensive way to fasten parts;
particularly when freedom of movement is desired, as in the case of
rotating shafts. A separate retaining ring is often more economical than
the use of a headed pin because considerable machining can be
eliminated. (Refer Figure M7.2.14)

Figure M7.2.14: Snap ring to act as holder

Rivets
Rivets are used to provide strength and performance to a joint. The design
rules that need to be referred for the economical use of rivets are listed
below.
1. Sufficient space around the rivet location is to be provided for the
movement of standard rivet gun location and prevent the marring of the
work piece as shown in Figure M7.2.15.

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Engineering Design II

Figure M7.2.15: Provide sufficient room for rivet-clinching tools

2. Eyelets and tubular rivets are recommended whenever they provide
sufficient holding power for the application. Tubular and semi-tubular
rivets and eyelets require much lower clinching forces and can be hopperfed, inserted, and set automatically on inexpensive equipment. (Refer
Figure M7.2.16)

Figure M7.2.16: Tubular and semi tubular rivets and Bifurcated are
preferred
3. When two work pieces are to be joined, the hole diameter must be
correct. The recommended diametric clearance is 5 to 7 percent. If the
rivet hole is too large then the rivet will buckle during clinching, which will
create a loose and weak joint.
4. If one side of the assembly is not accessible blind rivets are to be used.
But blind rivets are more expensive than the conventional rivet.
5. In case of riveting thick materials, buckling of rivets can be avoided by
counter boring the rivet holes. (Refer Figure M7.2.17.) Counter bores are
to be made wide enough to permit access of the riveting tool.

Figure M7.2.17: Use wide counter bores for riveting thick components to
avoid buckling the rivets

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6. A minimum and maximum edge distance has to be maintained from the

edges of the parts being joined. Holes should be between 1.5 to 8 stock
thicknesses from the edge. This provides good support for the riveting tool
and ensures that the edges are held together. (Refer Figure M7.2.18.)

Figure M7.2.18: Recommended rivet-to-edge dimensions

7. Rivets of proper length are to be used to avoid incorrect clinching. (See
Figure M7.2.19) The recommended rule-of-thumb for clinching allowances
C is as follows: solid rivets, 200 percent of shank diameter; semi-tubular
rivets, 50 to 70 percent of shank diameter; and full tubular or bifurcated
rivets, and 100 percent of shank diameter.

Figure M7.2.19: Proper rivet length is important

8. While joining pieces of different thickness, it is preferable to upset the
rivet against the thicker, stronger material. (See Figure M7.2.20)

Figure M7.2.20: Upset rivets against the thicker, stronger material

9. In case of joining soft or fragile materials with rivets, it is desirable to
use metal washers to distribute the force of upsetting and prevent
damage to the weak part. (Refer Figure M7.2.21)

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Engineering Design II

Figure M7.2.21: Metal washers distribute the force of upsetting

10. When joining a weaker material (such as leather, plastic, or wood) to a
stronger material (such as sheet steel or aluminum) with a blind rivet, it is
best to use a large head that bears against the weaker material and to
clinch against the stronger material.
11. Adequate tool clearance is to be provided in case of blind rivets for the
clinching tool on the side from which the rivet is placed. If the space is
limited, it is advisable to rivet from the other side.
12. Blind rivets, though they do not have the strong axial forces of
conventional rivets, still should not be set against insufficiently supported
surfaces. (Refer Figure M7.2.22)

Figure M7.2.22: Use of blind rivet

13. It is sometimes feasible to have rivet-type fastening by incorporating
integral lugs on one of the assembled parts. This eliminates the need for
rivets as separate parts. (Refer Figure M7.2.4).
DESIGN FOR FASTENERS
The commonly used threaded fasteners are screws, bolts, and machine
screws. A list of recommendation for using threaded fasteners is given
below.
1. Drive screws are recommended for moderate strength. Assembly and
hole-machining costs are reduced in this case.
2. The screw head plays significant role while driving the screws.
Commercially available various type screw heads are shown in Figure

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M7.3.1. Hexagonal head and the cross-recess (Phillips) head have been
found to be more common due to less susceptible to driver slippage and
marred surfaces.

Figure M7.3.1: Various screw-head styles and driving provisions

3. Machine screws are recommended in the applications where mating
parts are subjected to misalignment. In such case the points that act as
guides and help in avoiding cross threading. Dog and cone points have
been illustrated in Figure M7.3.2

Figure M7.3.2: Dog and cone-pointed screws for misalignment of holes

Figure M7.3.3: Screw and washer assemblies reduce assembly time
4. Screw and washer assemblies are recommended to reduce assembly
labor.
5. Self-tapping screws are preferable to conventional screws as they
eliminate tapping operations on the parts to be joined. Figure M7.3.4
shows various types of thread cutting and thread-forming screws.

Figure M7.3.4: Self-tapping screws to avoid tapping operation

6. Use of spring nuts are recommended if the torque requirement is not
high. Spring nuts are inexpensive, easier to assemble, and sometimes
stays in place even when the screw is not engaged or not tight.

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Engineering Design II

7. Allowance for the access to screw fasteners by using efficient driving

and tightening tools should be provided. For example use powered screw
drivers if possible. If not, the design should allow of hand-powered socket
wrenches. Open-end and box-end wrenches should be used only for
holding a bolt head while the nut is being tightened.
8. Slotted nuts and cotter pins are to be avoided if possible.
9. If production quantities are small it is better to employ separate nuts to
hold fastening screws than to tap screw threads into the base part. For
high-production applications, the tapping operation often will prove to be
more economical.

SUMMARY

SHORT QUESTIONS

1.
EXERCISE PROBLEMS

2.
3.