The following equations are used to calculate various stress allowable:

o Expansion Allowable=(0.72) (Sy)

o Sustained Allowable=(0.75) (0.72) (Sy)
o Occasional Allowable=(0.8) (Sy)
o Operating Allowable=(0.9) (Sy)

Pressure elongation of pipe line is also important along with expansion elongation and
need to be taken care. Caesar II automatically does this whenever you select B 31.4 code.

There is nothing like liberal stress in B 31.4

The modelling procedure is similar. Whenever material is selected the Sy value

automatically filled from Caesar database. However you have to input the Design
multiplication factor (Fac) value additionally. Fac value indicates whether the pipe is
restrained, such as long or buried, or unrestrained. Fac should be 1.0, 0.0, or 0.001.

o This value should be one for pipe under complete axial restraint. This value should be one
when the pipe is fully restrained, such as buried for a long distance.
o The default value for Fac is 0.0.
o When Fac is 0.001, this indicates to CAESAR II that the pipe is buried but that the soil
supports have been modelled. This causes the hoop stress component, rather than the longitudinal
stress, to be added to the operating stresses if the axial stress is compressive.

Some parts of the lines are buried or underground and some parts are aboveground. So
you need to understand the soil pipe interaction for buried parts. Soil properties need to
be taken from Civil/Geotechnical team while performing stress analysis of underground
piping.

For underground piping there should be some minimum depth of cover as per B 31.4
depending on location of pipeline.

The main objectives of stress analysis is to ensure

A. Structural Integrity (Design adequacy for the pressure of the carrying fluid,Failure against
various loading in the life cycle and Limiting stresses below code allowable.)

B. Operational Integrity (Limiting nozzle loads of the connected equipment within allowable
values, Avoiding leakage at joints, Limiting sagging & displacement within allowable values.)
C. Optimal Design (Avoiding excessive flexibility and also high loads on supporting structures.
Aim towards an optimal design for both piping and structure.)
To meet these objectives several load cases are required during stress analysis. This article will
guide all the beginners with the methodology to build several load cases which will be required
for stress analysis.
In this article we will use following notations for building load cases:
WW=water filled weight of piping system,
HP=Hydrotest Pressure,
W=weight of pipe including content and insulation,
P1=Internal Design pressure,
T1=Operatingtemperature,
T2=Maximum temperature,
T3= Minimum temperature,
WIN1, WIN2, WIN3 AND WIN4: wind loads acting in some specific direction,
U1, U2, U3 AND U4: uniform (seismic) loads acting in some specific direction.
While analysis at a minimum the stress check is required for the below mentioned cases:
a. Hydrotesting case: Pipelines are normally hydrotested before actual operation to ensure
absence of leakage. Water is used as the testing medium. So during this situation pipe will be
subjected
to
water
weight
and
hydrotest
pressure.
Accordingly our first load case in Caesar II will be as mentioned below
1.

WW+HP

HYD

b. Operating case: When operation starts working fluid will flow through the piping at a
temperature and pressure. So accordingly our operating load cases will be as mentioned below:
2.
3.
4.

W+T1+P1
W+T2+P1
W+T3+P1

OPE
OPE
OPE

for operating temperature case

for maximum system temperature case
for minimum system temperature case

c. Sustained Case: Sustained loads will exist throughout the plant operation. Weight and
pressure are known as sustained loads. So our sustained load case will be as follows:
5.

W+P1

SUS

d. Occasional Cases: Piping may be subjected to occassional wind and seismic forces. So to
check
stresses
in
those
situations
we
have
to
build
the
following load cases:
6.
direction
7.
direction
8.
direction
9.
direction
10.
direction
11.
direction
12
direction
13
direction

W+T1+P1+WIN1

OPE

Considering wind from +X

W+T1+P1+WIN2

OPE

Considering wind from -X

W+T1+P1+WIN3

OPE

Considering wind from +Z

W+T1+P1+WIN4

OPE

Considering wind from -Z

W+T1+P1+U1

OPE

Considering seismic from +X

W+T1+P1-U1

OPE

Considering seismic from -X

W+T1+P1+U2

OPE

Considering seismic from +Z

W+T1+P1-U2

OPE

Considering seismic from -Z

While stress analysis the above load cases form load case 6 to load case 13 is generated only to
check loads at node points.
To find occasional stresses we need to add pure occassional cases with sustained load and then
compare with code allowable values. Following sets of load cases are built for that purpose.
14.
L6-L2
OCC
Pure wind from +X direction
15.
L7-L2
OCC
Pure wind from -X direction
16.
L8-L2
OCC
Pure wind from +Z direction
17.
L9-L2
OCC
Pure wind from -Z direction
18.
L10-L2
OCC
Pure seismic from +X direction
19.
L11-L2
OCC
Pure seismic from -X direction
20.
L12-L2
OCC
Pure seismic from +Z direction
21.
L13-L2
OCC
Pure seismic from -Z direction
22.
L14+L5
OCC
Pure wind+Sustained
23.
L15+L5
OCC
Pure wind+Sustained
24.
L16+L5
OCC
Pure wind+Sustained
25.
L17+L5
OCC
Pure wind+Sustained
26.
L18+L5
OCC
Pure seismic+Sustained
27.
L19+L5
OCC
Pure seismic+Sustained

28.
29.

L20+L5
L21+L5

OCC
OCC

Pure seismic+Sustained
Pure seismic+Sustained

Load cases from 22 to 29 will be used for checking occasional stresses with respect to code B
31.3 allowable (=1.33 times Sh value from code). Use scalar combination for load cases 22 to 29
above and algebraic combination for others as shown in figure attached below:

e. Expansion Case: Following load cases are required for checking expansion stress range as per
code
30.
31.
32.
33.

L2-L5
L3-L5
L4-L5
L3-L4

EXP

EXP
EXP
EXP
for complete stress range

The above load cases (from 30 to 33) are used to check expansion stress
The above mentioned load cases are minimum required load cases to analysis any stress system.
Out of the above load cases the load cases mentioned in point number 1, 5, and 22-33 are used
for stress check. And load cases mentioned in point number 1 to 13 are used for checking
restraint forces, displacements and nozzle load checking.
Few additional load cases may be required for PSV connected systems, Rotary equipment
connected systems.
Seismic and Wind analysis may not be required every time. So those load cases can be deleted if
the piping system does not fall under the purview of seismic and wind analysis by project
specification. However to perform wind and seismic analysis proper related data must have to be
entered in Caesar II spreadsheet (Will be discussed in my future posts).
If the stress system involves use of imposed displacements (D) and forces (F) then those have to
be added with the above load cases in the form of D1, D2 or F1, F2 as applicable.
It is a better practice to keep
1. Hydro and sustained stresses below 60% of code allowable
2. Expansion and occasional stresses below 80% of code allowable
3. Sustained sagging below 10 mm for process lines and below 3 mm for steam, two phase and
flare lines

4. Design/Maximum displacement below 75 mm for unit piping and below 200 mm in rack
piping.