Hydrology & Dams

How is cyclone formed?

Ans. Cyclone in formed in low pressure zone of approximately circular circular
area where wind flow towards the center in antic curie direction in northern
hemisphere and in southern hemisphere wind where flows towards the center
in clockwise direction. It in accompanied by cloud precipitation and sometimes
with violent destructive wind.

Define Transpiration?
Ans It is that portion of water which after circulation through the plant
structure goes to atmospheric in the form of vapor from the surface of leaves,
branches etc.

Define Potential Evapotranspiration?
Ans When sufficient moisture is freely available to completely meets the need
of the vegetation fully covering an area the resulting evapotranspiration is
called potential evapotranspiration (PET)

Define an Arch Dam?
Ans It may be defined as a solid wall curved in plan standing across the entire
width of river valley in a single span. It is made of cement concrete.

How do you classify streams of the basis of run off characteristics?
Ans. 1.Perennial stream: - It is a one which always carries some flow. There
is considerable amount of ground water flow through the year.

Intermittent stream: - It has a limited contribution from the ground water.
During wet season the water table is above the streams bed and there is a
contribution of the base flow to the stream flow.


Ephemeral stream: - It is one which does not have any base flow contribution.
The annual hydrograph of such river show a series of short duration spikes
marking flash flows in response to storms. Ephemeral stream does not have
any well defined channel.

What are the major assumption is unit Hydrograph theory?
Ans. The rainfall is of uniform intensity with in its specified location.
1) The effective rainfall is uniformly distributed throughout the whole
area of drainage basin
2) The base of time duration of hydrograph of direct runoff due to
effective rainfalls of unit duration is constant. Base period of
hydrograph of different rainfall intensities remains same
approximately
3) The ordinates of same DSR hydrograph due to net rains of different
intensities but some duration are proportional
4) A unit hydrograph reflects all the characteristics of the basin.

What is probable maximum Flood?
Ans. It is the extreme flood that is physically possible in a region as a result
of severe most combinations including rare combination of meteorological
and hydrological factor.It is used in situations where the failure of the
structure would result in loss of life and catastrophic damage and as such
complete security from potential flood in sought.

What is Directrix ?
Ans. A parabola is set of all points in a plane which are an equi-distance away
from a gives point and given line. The point is called focus of parabola and line
is called directrix.


Difference between Low Dam & High Dam ?

Ans. Low Dam
1) A low is the one is which the height H is less then the eq (h =



). So

that maximum compressive stresses is not greater than allowable stress.

2) For limiting height of low dam H =

. 


High Dam
1) If the dam height is more than the (

) then it is high dam.



2) For such a dam the section will have to be given extra slopes to the u/s &
d/s sides, below the limiting height.

What are water stops/ water bar?
Ans. They are used is R.C.C aqueduct are, also required to be provided in the
transverse as well as horizontal joints in concrete adjacent to U/S face of dam.
The openings of the vertical transverse joints as well as of longitudinal
horizontal joints in a dam body if not properly sealed with water stops will
provided passage for seepage of water through the dam body. To stop this
leakage water stops consisting of metal strips, rubber, PVC are installed across
joints adjacent to U/S face.
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How base flows separated from surface runoff in unit hydrographs?

Ans. Base flow is the delayed flow that reaches a stream essentially as ground
water. Many times delayed interflow is also included under this where as the
surface run off the major part of rainfall flows as a thin sheet of water.

Different types of precipitation
Ans. Cyclonic precipitation

Convective precipitation In this types of precipitation a packet of air
which is warmer than the surrounding air due to localized heating rises
because of its lesser density

Orographic precipitation The moisture masses may get lifted up to higher
altitudes due to presence of moisture.

Define S curve unit hydrograph?
Ans. If it is desired to develop a unit hydrograph of duration m D where m is
fraction, the method of superposition cant be used. A different technique
known as the S curve method is adopted is such cases & this method is
applicable for rational values of m. It is also called s hydrograph which is
hydrograph produced line by a continuous effective rainfall at a constant rate
for infinite period.

Define hyetograph & write its uses?
Ans. It is a graph of rainfall intensity in mm/hr of a series of rainfall against
time occurring in a particular catchment. It is also called rainfall hyetograph. It
is used for hydrological analysis of the catchment for estimation of design
storm for prediction of flood, estimation of runoff and derivation of unit
hydrograph.


What is flow net ?

Ans. Laplacian equation represents two sets of curves intersecting each other
as orthogonally. One sets of line is called stream line and other set in called
equipotential lines. The resultant flow diagram showing both the set of curves
is called a flow net.

Why shear key is provided in a concrete gravity dam?
Ans. Where foundation condition are such that undesirable differential
settlement or displacement between adjacent concrete blocks occur shear
keys are formed in transverse joints or transverse vertical joints between
section to shear from one section to adjacent one & make the dam art as
monolithic structure. There shear keys between the transverse joints are
seldom provided on good foundation & in U shaped valley as will justify two
dimensional.

Define infiltration capacity?
Ans. The maximum rate at which a given soil at given time can adsorb water is
defined as the infiltration capacity. It is designated as fp& is expressed as m in
units of cm/h.
The infiltration of can be expressed are
f = fpwhen i fp i- intensity of rainfall
f=I

when i <fp

The infiltration capacity of a soil is high at the beginning of storm and has an
exponential decay as time elapses.


Define phreatic line?

Ans. Phreatic line is defined the line within the dam section below which there
are positive hydrostatic pressure in the dam. The hydrostatic pressure on the
phreatic line is equal to the atmospheric pressure and hence equal to zero.
Above phreatic line there is zone of capillary saturation called capillary fringe
in which the hydrostatic pressure is negative. It is also called line of seepage.

Describe the use of intensity duration curve?

Ans. An intensity duration frequency area is a graphical representation of a
probability that a given average rainfall intensity will occur rainfall intensity
(mm/hr), rainfall duration and rainfall.

What are the various types of arch dam ?

Ans. There are three types of Arch dams

1) Constant Radius Arch Dam
2) Constant Angle Arch Dam
3) Variable Radius Arch Dam

What are the various components of hydrologic cycle. Write water Balance
equation?
Ans. Transportation component
1) Precipitation
2) Evaporation

3) Transpiration
4) Infiltration
5) Runoff
Storage component
1) Storage on the land surface
2) Soil moisture storage
3) Ground water storage

What are the various method of determining averages of rainfalls?
Ans.
1) Arithmetic mean method
2) Thiesin polygon method
3) Isohytal/Isohyetal method

What are the factors affecting surface runoff?
Ans.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)

Types of precipitation
Intensity of precipitation
Duration of rainfall
Direction of storm movement
Climatic of condition
Area of catchment
Type of soil


What are the various components of earth dam?

Ans. Impervious core
1)
2)
3)
4)

Pervious shell
Rock toe
Slope protection
Transition filter
Describe uses of Rainfall frequency Analysis?

Ans.
1) It is useful for estimation of frequency of Rainfall
2) It is based on theory of statistics & probability hence provider maximum
data


What are the advantages of Buttress dams?
Ans.
1) It require less construction material
2) As the water resisting deck is declined the vertical component of water
pressure helps in stabilizing dam
3) The ice pressure has no significance in this dam, because it tends to slide
over the u/s face.
4) This dam can be constructed on a weak foundation
5) It is a suitable for wide valley
6) The hollow space between buttress can be utilized for storage.


What are the utilities of phreatic line in earth dams?

Ans.
1) It give us a divide line between the day & submerged soil
2) It represents the top stream line & helps in drawing the flow net
3) It helps us to ensure that it does not cut d/s face of dam. It is extremely
necessary for preventing softening of dam.

Distinguish Between hyetograph &hydrograph ?
Ans. Hyetograph
1) It is plot of the intensity of rainfall against the time interval
2) It is derived from the mass curve and usually represented as a bar chart.
Hydrograph
1) It is graphical representation of flow parameters against time. It is the
response of a given catchment to a rainfall input. It consist of surface
runoff, interflow & base flow
2) They are derived from method like Snyders method (S-curve)

Name Major Forces acting in gravity dam?
Ans. 1.Water pressure

Self wt. of dam

Uplift pressure
Pressure due to earthquake
Ice pressure
Wave pressure


Silt pressure

Wind pressure

Enumerate major resisting forces in a gravity dam?
Ans.
1) Overturning
2) Sliding
3) Compressive /crushing
4) Tensile

What will be maximum possible height of dam (safe dam) having elementary
profile?
Ans. Hmax= f/Yw (Sc-C+1)
Sc = specific gravity of concrete
C = constant (ACC to USBR)
Yw = unit wt. wt of water
f = allowable stress

Write down an expression for the discharge passing over an spillway?
Ans. Q = C. Le He3/2
Q = discharge
Le = Effective length of spillway crest
C = coefficient of discharge which depends upon various factors such as
relative depth of approach
He = total head over the crest including the velocity head.


At what height the hydrodynamic pressure due to earthquake acts above

the base of line ?
Ans. Hydrodynamic pressure Pe = 0.555 .Kn. Yw. H2
It acts at the height of 4H/3 above the base

Enumerate the various types of buttress dam?
Ans.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Deck slab type

Multiple arch type
Multiple dome type
Massive head type
Columnar buttress type

What is evaporation & what are factors affecting evaporation?

Ans. Evaporation is the process in which a liquid changes to the gaseous state
at the free surface below the boiling point through the transfer of heat energy.
Factors: 1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

Vapors pressure at water surface and above

Air & water temperature
Wind speed
Atmospheric pressure
Quality of water
Size of water body


What are the catchment characteristics affecting the run off.

Ans.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Area of catchment
Shape of catchment
Elevation of catchment
Slope of catchment
Orientation of catchment

1)
2)
3)

Uses of phreatic line ?

It represent the top stream line & hence help us is drawing the flow net
It give us a divide line between the dry and submerged soil
The seepage line helps us to ensure that it does not cut the d/s face of dam.
What is Buttress dam?

Ans. A Buttress dam is that dam in which stability of dam against external
forces is obtained by transferring the water pressure to the supporting
Buttress. In this Buttress are used to support the vertical slab which hold the
water. They are constructed with reinforced concrete. Spread footing are
provided. Its main components are buttresses (solid wall of specified
thickness) foundation.

What are the assumptions considered in the stability analysis of a gravity dam?
Ans.
1) Dam is considered to be composed of a number of cantilever each of which
is 1m thick and each of which acts independent of other.
2) No wads are transferred to abutment by beam action.
3) The foundation and the dam behave as a single unit.

4) The materials in the foundation and body of dam are isotropic and within
elastic limit.
5) The stress developed in the foundation and of dam are within elastic limit.
6) No movement of foundation are caused due to transfer of load.

What is precipitation?
Ans. Water in the form of rainfall, snowfall , hail, frost and dam when reaches
the earth from atmosphere is called precipitation. For precipitation to form
atmosphere must have sufficient moisture, nuclei acid.

Define intensity of rainfall?
Ans. Intensity of rainfall is defined as the rate of rainfall measured in mm or cm
per hour.

Define interception?
Ans. When it rains over catchment not all the precipitation falls directly on to
the ground. Before it reaches the ground a part of it may be caught by the
vegetation and subsequently evaporated. The volume of water so caught is
called interception.

Define infiltration?
Ans It is the flow of water into the ground through the soil surface or it is a
process in which the rain waters enters the surface strata of soil end moves
downwards to join the ground water. On the way it first fulfill the moisture
requirements of unsaturated zone of soil.


What is meant by gravity dams?

Ans A gravity dam is that dam in which stability of dam against external forces
i.e. water pressure, earthquake etc. is achieved by weight of dam itself. It is
most common one & requires less maintenance. It may be constructed with
masonry or concrete.

What is earth dams?
Ans Dams constructed of earth or soil sometimes combined with rockfill are
earth dams. Earth or backfill embankments are constructing by excavating and
partly building the embankments above the ground surface. It is a non rigid
type of dam.

What are a spillways& its functions?
Ans It is a hydraulic structure constructed to dispose of surplus flood water
from the reservoir. It is designed in such a way that water level rarely rises
above F.R.L. It may be provided in the body of dam or on the periphery of the
reservoir basin away from the dam structure.
It serves functions:1. It provides structural stability to dam during floods.
2. It passes the flood water over it without allowing the water level to rise
above HFL.

Name various types of spillways ?
Ans 1. Overfall spillway
2. Chute spillway
3. Side channel spillway
4. Saddle spillway

5. Emergency spillway
6. Shaft or glory hole spillway
7. Siphon spillway

Q Name different types of earthen dam?
Ans 1. Homogenous earthen dam
2. Zoned earthen dam
3. Earth dam with core wall
4. Rolled fill dam
5. Hydraulic fill dam
6. Heterogeneous dam

Methods of recording rainfall data?
Ans 1. Arithmetic mean method
2. Thiess Polygon Method
3. Isohyetal Method

How do you check the adequacy of Rain gauge stations?
Ans. Number of rainfall station i.e. Rain gauge station for an area to gives
necessary average rainfall with certain percentage error can be obtained from
statistical consideration. Following are steps in the estimation.
1) Calculate Total rainfall
PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + ..+ Pn [n = total number of existing rainfall in the
catchment]
2) Calculate mean Rainfall


Pm =

3) Calculate sum of the squares of all rainfall of the gauges

P2 = P21 + P22 + P23 + ..+ P2n

4) Calculate sum


  2


5) Calculate the square of standard deviation

2 = 2 =   2 /n-1
6) Calculate the coefficient of variation
CV=

 


7) Optimum number of rain gauge N that would be necessary to estimate

average rainfall within percentage error P is


N= ( )2


For error less than equal to 10%., N is given

as



N = ( )2


8) Additional number required = (N-n)

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