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PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA
-.
-
"
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Spiny-skinned animals possessing calcareous o s s i c l e s
embedded i n t h e dermis and spines p r o t r u d i n g from the
surface: t h i s creates an i n t e r n a l skeleton.
They are r a d i a l l y symnetrical i n the a d u l t phase and a r e
characterized by having f i v e rays, o r m u l t i p l e s o f f i v e
(pentamerous).
This penta-symnetry i s most apparent i n
s t a r f i s h and Least apparent i n sea cucunbers.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
+
I Mouth
1 Short oesophagus
1 Thin w a l l stomach
l a r g e Cardiac stomach
small aboral P y l o r i c
I From the P y l o r i c a tube passes i n t o each r a y
1 I n each r a y arm i t d i v i d e s i n t o two branches
hepatic cecae from here
I many Lateral pouches e x i s t .
I Above the stomach i s a slender i n t e s t i n e
1 s p l i t s i n t o two branched pouches, the r e c t a l
i n t e s t i n a l cecae
1 Anus
-r
-r
stomach
arm.
called
and
FOOD
S t a r f i s h eat almost any animal matter, and are a l s o
carnivorous on oysters, mussels, barnacles, clams etc.
SMALL FOOD passes d i r e c t l y
p e d i c e l l a r i a o r tube feet.
to
the
mouth
via
the
INTERNAL SYSTEM
INTERNAL TRANSPORT
An endoskeleton o f calcareous p l a t e s o r o s s i c l e s i s bound
together by muscles and connective tissue.
Amoebocytes (coelomocytes) a s s i s t
i n the transport o f
n u t r i e n t s and wastes.
RESPIRATION
--
EXCRETION
=
-
G i l l s l i t s i n the pharynx
ORIGINS
D i p l o b l a s t i c animals (u
coelenterates) may be the
most ancestral c o n d i t i o n since i t Lacks a middle Layer,
the mesoderm. Higher animals a1 1 have a mesoderm and
t r i p l o b l a s t i c . From the mesoderm muscular, s k e l e t a l and
c i r c u l a t o r y systems are formed. There a r e two types of
embryonic formation which allows f o r t h e development of
t h i s Layer. I n echinoderms, chaetognaths,
hemichordates and chordates the mesoderm a r i s e s from
pouches growing outwards from the w a l l s o f the gut.
These pouches remain i n the a d u l t as closed body
c a v i t i e s . I n a l l other animals t h e mesoderm formation
a r i s e s as s o l i d masses o f c e l l s budded o f f from an area
near the p o s t e r i o r end o f the body, and the body c a v i t y
a r i s e s by cleavage w i t h i n the mass o f the mesodermal
c e l l s . This mesodermal development occurs i n molluscs
and annelids, with the arthropods having a h i g h l y
modified p a t t e r n o f development. A c l a d i s t i c
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n would separate the echinoderms and
chordates ( i n c l u d i n g hemichordates) as being the major
d e v i a t i o n with the r e s t of the i n v e r t e b r a t e s developing
independently.
From t h i s theory the d i v i s i o n o f
echinoderms and hemichordates from the other
invertebrates i s r e f l e c t e d by t h e i r p a t t e r n o f
cleavage, method of g a s t r u l a t i o n , and Larval
development. This theory suggests t h a t chordates
evolved d i r e c t l y from the most p r i m i t i v e metazoans, but
t h i s would imply t h a t the middle body Layer, a t r u e
body cavity, mouth and anus a l l evolved separately i n
the echinoderms and protochordates and the other
invertebrates.
Resemblances between the lower chordates and same
invertebrates have been the basis f o r several other
theories o f chordate o r i g i n s .
Annelid theory. Annelids and chordates are both
b i L a t e r a l l y symnetrical and segmented, w i t h segmental
excretory organs, a well-developed coelom, and
Longitudinal blood vessels.
I n v e r t i n g an annelid would
place i t s nerve chord dorsal t o the d i g e s t i v e t r a c t ,
and the path o f blood flow would resemble t h a t o f
chordates; however, the mouth would then be dorsal,
u n l i k e a chordate, and other dorsoventral r e l a t i o n s
would be altered. Annelids, moreover, have no
s t r u c t u r e s suggestive of the notochord o r g i 11 s l i t s .
Arthropod theory. Based on the steady progression o f
forms from the simple invertebrates t o hunans as the
most advanced L i f e forms. According t o the theory the
arthropod-chordate theory, an arthropod became i n v e r t e d
so t h a t the dorsal heart and v e n t r a l nerve cord became
the chordate's v e n t r a l heart and dorsal nerve. The
same problems o f t h i s theory e x i s t as t h a t f o r the
annelid theory.
Arachnid theory. Arachnids are thought t o have
descended from an annelid ancestry. However, t h i s
theory has the same problem o f the v e n t r a l nerve cord
r e q u i r i n g the reversal o f dorsal and v e n t r a l surfaces.
The segmentation i s s t i l l wrong, t h e r e i s no traces o f
the notochord and i n t e r n a l g i l l s . The arthropod's
j o i n t e d Legs could not have evolved i n t o the f i s h ' s
fins.
Echinoderm theory. s i m i l a r i t i e s o f the echinoderms t o
the chordates include the indeterminate and r a d i a l
cleavage. The t o r n a r i a Larva o f hemichordates and the
b i l a t e r a l b i p i n n a r i a Larva o f echinoderms a r e both
minute and transparent, w i t h almost i d e n t i c a l external
1
4
=
7)
8) The b r a i n becomes r e g i o n a l l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d as t o
s t r u c t u r e and function; the cerebral hemispheres and
cerebellum enlarge, e s p e c i a l l y i n higher forms; there
are 10 o r 12 p a i r s o f c r a n i a l nerves i n t h e head t h a t
serve both motor and sensory function, i n c l u d i n g t h e
paired organs of special senses (smell, sight, and
hearing plus e q u i l i b r a t i o n ) ; from the nerve cord a p a i r
of spinal nerves serves each p r i m i t i v e body somite; an
autonomic nervous system regulates i n v o l u n t a r y
functions o f i n t e r n a l organs.
9) A series o f endocrine glands (thyroid, p i t u i t a r y ,
e t c ) provides hormones, transported by t h e blood
stream, t h a t regulate b o d i l y processes, growth, and
reproduction.
opening
NERVOUS SYSTEM
The b r a i n i s p r i m i t i v e , dominated by f o r e b r a i n w i t h a
Large p a i r o f o l f a c t o r y Lobes. The cerebral
hemispheres are attached t o a diencephalon, and there
i s a v e n t r a l l y attached broad infund.ibulun and above i t
a pineal structure. The midbrain possesses a l a r g e
p a i r o f o p t i c Lobes, and t h e h i n d b r a i n has rudimentary
cerebellun. There are ten p a i r s o f c r a n i a l nerves.
Body i s c y l i n d r i c a l w i t h a L a t e r a l l y compressed t a i l
possessing a caudal f i n . The s k i n i s without scales,
but has an epidermal gland which produces the slimy
secretions. There i s a row o f sensory p i t s forming a
Lateral Line. The mouth i s h i g h l y modified and
consists o f s u c t o r i a l disc, a mouth t h a t i s h e l d open
by a r i n g o f c a r t i l a g e , bordered by sensory p a p i l l a e
and horny l1teethl1 Like structures. From t h e mouth
protrudes a p i s t o n - l i k e tongue. There are a p a i r o f
eyes, s i n g l e nasal opening and seven g i l l s l i t s . The
anus i s on t h e v e n t r a l surface j u s t behind the
urogenital opening.
SKELETAL SYSTEM
A notochord p e r s i s t s throughout. The a x i a l skeleton i s
composed o f small c a r t i l a g i n o u s neural arches, with the
head supported and protected by a c a r t i l a g e s k u l l .
A
c a r t i l a g e branchial basket p r o t e c t s t h e g i l l s . There
i s stout c a r t i l a g e i n the tongue.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Short segmented muscles which appear t o have a IgZgg
shape i n s i d e view. A l t e r n a t e contractions produce
rhythmic Lateral movement o f t h e f l a n k s which propel
the animal forward. Radial muscles surround the mouth
and r e t r a c t o r muscles occur i n t h e tongue.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Oral d i s c and i t s horny t e e t h attach the Lamprey t o
other f i s h . The tongue rasps i n t o the f l e s h o f the
f i s h using i t s r e t r a c t o r muscles. The d i g e s t i v e system
consists o f an oesophagus, a v e n t r a l pharynx, no
d i f f e r e n t i a t e d stomach, a Long s t r a i t i n t e s t i n e which
has i n t e r n a l s p i r a l l y arranged f o l d s (typhlosole) which
increases surface area f o r absorption. The d i g e s t i v e
system terminates i n an anus. A Liver i s present i n
association w i t h t h e d i g e s t i v e system.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Consists o f heart, a r t e r i e s , veins and Lymphatic
sinuses. The heart Lies i n the p e r i c a r d i a l c a v i t y and
consists o f an a t r i u n which receives blood and
v e n t r i c l e which pumps blood.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Seven p a i r s o f g i l l pouches which open i n t e r n a l l y i n t o
the pharynx and e x t e r n a l l y v i a the g i l l s l i t s . There
are numerous g i l l filaments supplied w i t h c a p i l l a r i e s .
Gaseous exchange occurs as water passes through the
g i l l pouches. Water i s drawn i n t o the g i l l pouch
through t h e g i l l s l i t s (an adaptation t o a p a r a s i t i c
L i f e r e q u i r i n g t h a t the mouth be attached t o a host).
The Larval Lamprey ( c a l l e d an amnocoete) i s not
p a r a s i t i c , and water passes through t h e mouth and over
the g i l l s ( t h e p a t t e r n t h a t occurs i n bony f i s h ) .
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
Linked with t h e reproductive system (= urogenital
system).
The kidneys L i e along t h e dorsal wall o f the
body. U r i n e passes v i a a u r i n a r y duct i n t o the g e n i t a l
sinus which opens t o the e x t e r i o r v i a a urogenital
Movable jaws
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Paired appendages
Two p a i r s o f Lateral f i n s
t
t
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
MWTH
Teeth derived from modified p l a c o i d scales,
replacement teeth develop continuously
F l a t tongue adhere t o the f l o o r o f the mouth.
On the sides o f t h e wide pharynx are openings
Leading t o separate g i l l s l i t s and spiracles.
Short oesophagus leading t o a "Jl1 shaped
stomach which ends w i t h a c i r c u l a r sphincter
muscle ( p y l o r i c valve)
I n t e s t i n e f o l l o w s and i s connected t o a cloaca
and anus.
I n t e s t i n e contains a s p i r a l valve, which i s
covered by a mucous membrane which slows down
the food and increases absorptive surfaces.
L i v e r has two Long Lobes, secretes b i l e v i a a
duct and a conspicuous g a l l bladder exists.
Pancreas Lies between t h e stomach and the
intestine, i t s duct j o i n i n g the l a t t e r j u s t
below the b i l e duct.
A r e c t a l gland attaches d o r s a l l y a t the
junction o f the i n t e s t i n e and the cloaca and
removes excess s a l t from t h e blood.
Skeleton i s made o n l y o f c a r t i l a g e
P l a c o i d scales o n l y
Separate g i l l c l e f t s
I t i s l i n e d w i t h a smooth membrane: t h e
peritoneun and t h i s covers the organs.
EXTERNAL FEATURES
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
HEAD
t
t
t
t
t
Two n o s t r i l s
L a t e r a l eyes without e y e l i d s
Five oval g i l l s l i t s open a n t e r i o r l y t o each
pectoral f i n
S p i r a c l e ( g i l l c l e f t ) opens behind each eye
BODY COVERING
Diagonal rows o f minute p l a c o i d scales, each backward
p o i n t i n g and covered wi.th enamel over a base p l a t e o f
dentine.
SKELETON
P r i n c i p a l a r t e r i e s are:
t
C a r t i l a g e r e i n f o r c e d w i t h limy deposits
A x i a l skeletons: s k u l l / v e r t e b r a l c o l m , w i t h
each vertebra having a spool shaped centrun,
concaved a t both ends, a neural arch housing
t h e nerve cord. The notochord p e r s i s t s i n
spaces between t h e vertebrae.
t
t
t
b
t
t
Paired e x t e r n a l / i n t e r n a l c a r o t i d s -. head
Paired subclavians -. p e c t o r a l f i n s
Coelic -. stomach, l i v e r , i n t e s t i n e
Anterior mesenteric -. spleen and p o s t e r i o r
intestine
Posterior mesenteric -, t o r e c t a l gland
Renal and gonadic -. t o kidneys/reproductive
organs
Paired i l i a c s -. p e l v i c f i n s
MIDBRAIN
P r i n c i p a l veins
F
b
b
Paired renal p o r t a l
kidneys
Paired postcardinal + p a r a l l e l i n g the kidneys
Paired Lateral abdominal veins
e i t h e r side o f
t h e body c a v i t y
Jugular and a n t e r i o r cardinal veins (sinuses)
r e t u r n blood from the head region
Blood from t h e d i g e s t i v e t r a c t flows v i a the
hepatic p o r t a l v e i n and i s f i l t e r e d through the
l i v e r and then i s c o l l e c t e d i n the hepatic
veins which are connected t o the sinus venosus.
+
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
F
HINDBRAIN
b
b
F
b
b
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
SEXES ARE SEPARATE
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
b
SENSE ORGANS
b
Two n o s t r i l s ( o l f a c t o r y sacs)
Eyes:
I1Ear"
Lateral
Line
SUBCLASS ELASMOBRANCHII
ORDER CLADOSELACHIDA
ORDER XENACANTHIDA
E a r l y f r e s h water
sharks
* Extinct *
ORDER GALEOMORPHA
L i v i n g sharks
Mollusc feeding forms
Nurse sharks
Modern sharks
(great whites)
Tiger sharks
S i x - g i l l e d sharks
ORDER SQUALOMORPHA
ORDER BATOIDEA
NERVWS SYSTEM
More advanced than the lamprey.
FOREBRAIN
b
F
b
b
b
Two o l f a c t o r y sacs
Large o l f a c t o r y t r a c t s + o l f a c t o r y Lobe
Paired cerebral hemispheres on t h e diencephalon
Dorsal p i n e a l body
Ventral infundibulun and hypophysis
Ancestral sharks,
appeared i n t h e
Devonian. Paired f i n s
but no claspers.
* Extinct *
SUBCLASS HOLOCEPALI
S h a r k - l i k e but w i t h crushing
tooth plates. Most forms are
extinct.
ORDER CHIMAERIDA
Chimaeras o r r a t f i s h ,
Flap o f s k i n covering
the separate branchial
slits.
Skeleton c h i e f l y o f bone ( c a r t i l a g e i n
Vertebrae a r e many and
p r i m i t i v e sturgeons).
d i s t i n c t ; t a i l u s u a l l y homocercal (even-sized
above and below caudal vertebrae).
Primitive
f i s h o f t e n have heterocercal t a i l s (caudal
vertebrae bend upwards) R e l i c t s o f a notochord
many s t i l l p e r s i s t .
Respiration i s by p a i r s o f g i l l s on bony g i l l
arches contained w i t h i n a comnon chamber on
each side o f the pharynx and covered by a bony
operculun. Usually possess a swim bladder
which sometimes has a duct connecting t o t h e
pharynx. I n some f i s h t h e swim bladder i s a
Lungfish),
t r u e Lung (Dipnoi f i s h :
i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e e a r l i e s t f i s h had Lungs.
b
PHYLOGENY OF OSTEICHTHYES
Divided i n t o
SUBCLASS SARCOPTERYGII
Divided i n t o
F i n - r a y f i s h = SUBCLASS ACTINOPTERYGII
Lobe-finned = SUBCLASS SARCOPTERYGII
ORDER CROSSOPTERYGII
SUBORDER COELACANTHINI
SUBORDER RHIPIDISTIA
(These were t h e
ancestors t o t h e
tetrapods)
ORDER DIPNOI (Lungfish)
CROSSOPTERYGII
These were the most comnon f i s h i n t h e Devonian times.
Generally these f i s h were aggressive, predacious f i s h ,
t h a t were ancestral t o the tetrapods (amphibian and
above groups).
They had already become r a r e by the
Carboniferous times and w i t h one exception were e x t i n c t
by the close o f the Palaeozoic.
The coelacanths are stub-nosed. small iawed f i s h which
although once though t o be e x t i n c t are-now known t o be
the only Living Crossopterygian species.
I n 1939 a
Coelacanth species was found o f the coast o f South
A f r i c a (East London). This species has been c l a s s i f i e d
i n the genus Latimeria and represents the closest f i s h
r e l a t i v e t o the tetrapods (four-Legged animals).
Latimeria i s a h i g h l y specialized deep sea f i s h , whose
d i s t a n t ancestors would have evolved towards t h e
tetrapod structure. Coelacanths are very u n l i k e the
Crossopterygians o f t h e Devonian times t h a t evolved
towards the amphibian condition. These Devonian
Crossopterygians possessed a s k u l l which had a passage
that Linked the n o s t r i l w i t h the roof o f i t s mouth.
ALL tetrapods have t h i s feature and confirm t h a t these
f i s h were on the evolutionary Line t h a t Lead t o the
f i r s t Land vertebrates ( t h e amphi bians represented by
an animal c a l l e d Eusthenopteron).
COELACANTH CHARACTERISTICS
b
Fleshy f i n s
No p i n e a l foramen
CHONDROSTEI
(most p r i m i t i v e forms)
HOLOSTE I
( i n t e r m e d i a t e forms)
( = NEOPTERYGII)
TELEOSTEI
CHONDROSTEI
These were abundant i n t h e Palaeozoic and a r e sometimes
r e f e r r e d t o as Palaeoniscoids. They were g e n e r a l l y
small f i s h w i t h u p t i l t e d (heterocercal) t a i l s and
scales covered w i t h ganine ( = ganoid scales).
DIPNOI CHARACTERISTICS
b
Cosmoid scales
Fleshy f i n s
Reduction i n o s s i f i c a t i o n o f bone
Functional Lungs
SUBCLASS ACTINOPTERYGII
HOLOSTEI
Over e v o l u t i o n a r y time t h e a c t i n o p t e r y g i a n f i s h Lost
the various Layers o f t h e scale, w i t h time i t f i n a l l y
came t o c o n s i s t s o f o n l y bone. I n p r i m i t i v e
a c t i n o p t e r y g i a n f i s h t h e r e were f u n c t i o n a l Lungs (and
even i n one L i v i n g f i s h today) but otherwise these have
been m o d i f i e d i n t o h y d r o s t a t i c organs (swim bladders)
which c o n t r o l t h e buoyancy o f t h e animal).
From an
e a r l y stage these f i s h had Large eyes, and probably
(m),
b
b
b
L i g h t r e f l e c t i n g and produce a l i g h t
s c a t t e r i n g (Tyndall Blue) which a c t i n g
with yellow pigments produces a green
coloration.
Melanophores:
I n t h e l a t e Palaeozoic amphibians f l o u r i s h e d
(Carboniferous t o e a r l y Permian). E a r l y amphibians
were put i n t o a subclass Lepospondyli, and were f a i r l y
small and s i m i l a r t o modern salamanders. This group
even includes forms t h a t have reverted t o l o s i n g t h e i r
Limbs. Another group o f amphibians became very Large
animals (up t o 3 m i n length and were c a l l e d
Labyrinthodonts), and were probably ancestral t o t h e
amphibians o f today. The most p r i m i t i v e f o s s i l
amphibians c e r t a i n l y belong t o t h e Subclass
Labyrinthodontia and include an animal c a l l e d
Ichthyostegalia, f o s s i l s o f which were found i n
Greenland. These animals possessed a Long f i s h - l i k e
t a i l and were very s i m i l a r t o t h e Crossopterygian fish,
except they were t h e f i r s t amphibian t o walk on Land.
M o d i f i c a t i o n f o r t r a v e l , p l u s maintaining
swimning.
Change i n s k i n t o f a c i l i t a t e respiration.
Replace g i l l s with lungs
Changes i n t h e c i r c u l a t i o n system permits
r e s p i r a t i o n by lungs and skin.
Sense organs t h a t are Land/water compatible.
VERTEBRA
Up t o 100 i n t h e anurans
250 i n t h e c a e c i l i a n s
PELVIC GIRDLE
(u
frogs) have
Those amphibians w i t h Lungs
few i n t e r n a l p a r t i t i o n s t h a t are vascularized.
Consequently t h e Lungs are not very e f f i c i e n t .
I n aquatic species lungs serve as h y d r o s t a t i c
organs being i n f l a t e d when the animals are
f l o a t i n g ( t h e r e i s Lung reduction i n some
Salamanders).
The s k i n o f a l l amphibians i s h i g h l y
vascularized and t h i s permits some aquatic
species t o remain submerged f o r Long periods
and even hibernate i n ponds.
b
REPRODUCTION
b
The
LARVAE
b
METAMORPHOSIS INVOLVES
I'
3)
Development o f t h e p r o t r u s i b l e tongue.
4)
Emergence o f t h e f o u r Limbs ( p a i r e d
appendages).
5,
6)
7)
CLASS REPTILIA
These include the f o l l o w i n g L i v i n g ORDERS:Lizards & snakes
Turtles & tortoises
Crocodiles & a l l i g a t o r s
Tuatara (Sphenodon)
ORDER SQUAMATA
ORDER CHELONIA
ORDER CROCODILIA
ORDER RHYNCHOCEPHALIA
BODY COVERING
These were t h e f i r s t group o f vertebrates adapted f o r
l i f e i n d r y places. Their d r y horny s k i n and scales
r e s i s t Loss o f moisture.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
1)
Body i s covered w i t h d r y c o r n i f i e d s k i n w i t h
scales o r scutes, there are few surface glands.
Two p a i r s o f limbs each t y p i c a l l y w i t h f i v e
toes ending i n horny claws. They are s u i t e d
f o r running, crawling o r climbing.
Limbs may
a l s o be paddle-shaped as i n marine t u r t l e s and
are reduced i n some Lizards, and are absent i n
t h e snakes.
3)
4)
')
Twelves p a i r s o f c r a n i a l nerves
7)
*)
F e r t i l i z a t i o n i s i n t e r n a l v i a copulatory
organs; t h e eggs are Large with much y o l k and
have e i t h e r a Leathery o r Limy s h e l l (may be
r e t a i n e d i n body o f some snakes and Lizards
u n t i l the young hatch from t h e i r eggs)
SKELETON
b
9,
b
b
Dry s k i n
Limbs which permit r a p i d running locomotion.
Greater separation o f oxygenated and
unoxygenated blood.
Complete o s s i f i c a t i o n o f the skeleton.
Eggs s u i t e d t o development on Land w i t h
membrane and s h e l l s t o p r o t e c t the embryo
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
b
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
F l a t tongue
Coiled small i n t e s t i n e
Larger rectun
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
-r
-r
forelimbs
-r
body
COLORATION
VENOUS SYSTEM
A n t e r i o r vena cava
C o l l e c t s from
neck, head 8
forelimbs
reproductive
organs 8
kidney
Hepatic p o r t a l
digestive
tract
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Paired n o s t r i l s
I n t e r n a l nares
P a l a t i n e valve, prevents water entering
Glottis
Larynx ( c a r t i l a g i n o u s w i t h p a i r e d vocal cords)
Tubular trachea r e i n f o r c e d w i t h c a r t i l a g e
Divides i n t o two short bronchi
Lungs spongy w i t h greater p a r t i t i o n i n g
ureter
cloaca
Narrows i n t o a s p i n a l cord
SPHENODON (TUATARA)
b
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
Two f l a t l o b u l a r kidneys
LIZARDS
b
SNAKES
b
SENSES INCLUDE
b
O l f a c t o r y c e l l s i n nose
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
b
Paired gonads
CLASS AVES
CHARACTERISTICS
.
b
b
b
b
BODY COVERING
b
b
b
b
b
b
CONTOUR FEATHERS
b
EXTERNAL FEATURES
b
FEATHERS
FILOPLUMES
b
BRISTLES
b
FEATHER COLORATION/PATTERNING/MOULT
b
SKELETON
b
D e l i c a t e compared t o t h a t o f mamnals.
- two
the t h i r d d i g i t i s t h e longest (composed o f
segments)
-
The p e l v i c g i r d l e i s broad: u n i t e d w i t h a
synsacrum, t h a t i s widely opened v e n t r a l l y ,
p e r m i t t i n g the passage o f large eggs.
The p e l v i c g i r d l e consists o f an a n t e r i o r
iliun, a p o s t e r i o r ischiun, a slender v e n t r a l
pubis where these three bones meet, and a
socket where the acetabulun receives the head
o f the femur.
b
-- Tibiotarsus
Femur
-
SLender/incomplete F i b u l a
Fused tarsometatarsus
Patella: h e l d i n Ligaments before femurtibiotarsal
Four toes: three i n f r o n t and one behind.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
A Large t h o r a c i c c a v i t y formed from r i b s which
p r o t e c t s t h e i n t e r n a l organs and provides a
A h e p a t i c - p o r t a l system exists.
t
Trachea: r e i n f o r c e d w i t h h o o p - l i k e c a r t i l a g e
that i s p a r t l y calcified.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
- Air
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
- Contraction o f
Short pharynx
Tukrlar/muscular oesophagus
Stomach: s o f t a n t e r i o r proventriculus
HEART
t
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
t
No bladder
.#
b-
ENDOCRINE GLAND
b
;.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
This causes a s l i g h t negative (Low) pressure on
the upper surface i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e lower
surface.
MALE
b
FEMALE
b
U n l i k e a fixed-wing a i r c r a f t , t h e a i r f o i l can
be changed i n b i r d s by muscular actions.
The outerpart o f t h e major f l i g h t feathers
( t r a i l i n g edge) are s e m i f l e x i b l e and can be
separated, c r e a t i n g s l o t s which reduce t h e
turbulence and avoid a s t a l l when there i s a
high angle o f attack. ( s i m i l a r t o f l a p s i n
f i x e d wing a i r c r a f t ) .
b
SUBCLASS PROTOTHERIA
ORDER MONOTREMATA
b
CLASS MAMMALIA
b
'
EVOLUTION
b
The d i s t i n c t i v e mamnalian c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t
evolved w i t h these e a r l y m a m l s included an
endothermic physiology w i t h associated
homeothermic a t t r i b u t e s such as i n s u l a t i n g
hair, increased c i r c u l a t i o n e f f i c i e n c y , more
e f f e c t i v e Locomotion, v i v i p a r i t y and greater
parental investment i n t h e i r young.
MAMMAL IA
PROTOTHERIA (monotremes)
- THERIA
-- METATHERIA
(marsupial
EUTHERIA (placental)
in
MARSUPIAL REPRODUCTION
b
The p a t t e r n i s very d i f f e r e n t t o t h a t o f
placentals.
SUBCLASS THERIA
INFRACLASS METATHERIA
ORDER MARSUPIALIA
These are t h e pouched animals and are represented by
some 250 L i v i n g species. Many o f these species show a
strong anatomical resemblance t o placental animals,
except f o r t h e i r mode o f reproduction.
b
A t h i n s h e l l p r o t e c t s t h e o w n from t h e
responses o f the uterus t o the f a t h e r ' s
antigens. This p r o t e c t i o n i s b r i e f and t h e
young are born w i t h i n 10 t o 12 days o f the
s h e l l breaking down.
EIGHTEEN ORDERS
INSECTIVORA
DERMOPTERA
MACROSCELIDA
SCANDENTIA CHIROPTERA
PHOLIDOTA
TUBULIDENTATA
EDENTATA
PRIMATES
ROOENTIA -
- -
LAGOMORPHA
CETACEA
CARNIVORA
PROBOSClDEA
HYRACOlDEA
SIRENlA
PERISSODACTYLA
ARTIODACTYLA SlRENIA
small, p r i m i t i v e
insect-eating
f l y i n g Lemurs
elephant shrews
t r e e shrews
bats
phol idota
aardvarks
edentata
Lemurs, t a r s i e r s ,
monkeys, a p s , hunans
gnawing animals except
r a b b i t s and hyraxes
rabbits
whales, dolphins and
porpoises
modern meat-eating
elephants
hyraxes
seacows, manatees and
dugongs
odd-toed ungulates
even-toed ungulates
seacows, manatees and
dugongs
ORIGINS
b
<
absent).
the e a r l y Cenozoic.