Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
September 2010
5th edition
Focus on reading
Compiled and authored by Rubena St. Louis and Silvia Pereira
with Gilberto Berros and Noela Cartaya
Includes selections contributed by
various teachers in the Departamento de Idiomas.
Departamento de Idiomas
Universidad Simn Bolvar
Apartado 89.000
Caracas 1080A, Venezuela
(212) 906-3780 phone
Fonts used in the book: Arial Narrow 24 pt for chapter headings; Arial Narrow 18 pt and 16 pt for
headings and subheads; Century Schoolbook 11 pt for the body copy.
The materials in this book have been written and/or selected for their value in helping university
students become better readers of science and technology English texts. Credit for selections is
given to the respective copyright holders. Please get in touch with us if you think credit is due for
any particular section.
This handbook is solely intended for compulsory academic use in the courses ID-1111 and ID-1112.
It is optional for ID-1113. Commercialization outside the USB is strictly prohibited.
Table of contents
Table of contents ................................................................................................ i
Ingls tcnico y cientfico: Objetivos.................................................................... 1
Objetivo general.....................................................................................................1
Descripcin del curso .............................................................................................1
Objetivos especficos de ID-1111: ..........................................................................1
Objetivos especficos de ID-1112: ..........................................................................2
Objetivos especficos de ID-1113: ..........................................................................3
Introduction....................................................................................................... 5
Focus on reading ................................................................................................ 7
Focus on reading strategies ................................................................................ 9
How many of these reading strategies do you use? ............................................12
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Introduction
Welcome to our First Year Reading Program, the purpose of which is to help you
become an effective reader.
This handbook was prepared to be used in the first and second First Year English
courses, that is, in ID-1111 and ID-1112. In the third trimester, the handbook is
optional and may be used by students who were directly placed in ID-1113 to
review basic concepts and terminology that has been covered in the previous two
terms.
Heres a breakdown of what you will find in this guide:
Focus on Reading
Focus on Reading Strategies
Focus on Skimming and Scanning
Focus on the Topic, Main Idea and Details
Focus on Text Organization
Focus on References
Focus on Inferences
Focus on Vocabulary
Focus on Compound Nouns
Focus on Guessing Meaning from Context
Focus on Linking Words
Focus on reading
The reason for writing a text is to communicate ideas. In your reading of scientific
and technical texts, knowing how the text is structured will help you to
understand what the writer has in mind, i.e., his/her purpose for writing. Most
academic writing is structured in the following way: an introduction where the
author states the topic to be discussed, a statement on the problem, etc.; the body
of the text, made up of several paragraphs, where the writer develops the main
idea stated in the introduction; and the conclusion which is a summary of the
content of the article and in which the writer may give his own opinion on the
subject or make predictions for the future.
In order to communicate his ideas, a writer will use and structure language in
different ways. He will use different functions of the language. For example, when
discussing New procedures in cloning the writer might first explain what
cloning is by defining the term. He may then go on to classify this scientific
term within the procedures used for the reproduction of species. The writer might
also give a short chronological summary of the events leading up to the
discovery and application of the new technique. Then he may proceed to explain
the steps to be taken, i.e., the process involved using description. He may then
compare and/or contrast this procedure with previous ones. This new technique
will undoubtedly lead to changes in our society and so the writer might discuss
the reasons the technique might be used and its consequences, i.e., the causes
and their effects, in the future. He may go further on and make predictions
based on this knowledge. Finally, the author may want to convince you that
cloning will be good for society and will give arguments, or reasons, to support
his claim. It is then up to you, the reader, to decide if these arguments are based
on facts or are only the writers opinion or a hypothesis that he has which has
not been tested. So, depending on the authors purposeto narrate, describe,
explain or persuade, he will use the language in different forms.
To communicate his ideas, the writer must put them on paper in a coherent
manner so that you, the reader, can understand them. The different sentences
which make up a paragraph and the paragraphs themselves are linked together
in a logical manner through the use of connectives, like and, but, because,
which also focus the readers attention on specific information in the text. To
avoid repetition or words or even ideas, the writer also uses pronouns such as
that, it, and they. In this guide, these are called references.
Finally, the topic the writer wishes to discuss is referred to as the topic of the
text and the central idea is known as the main idea. The writer develops the
main idea throughout the paragraphs with details which add information to the
main idea. It is important that you recognize the main idea of the text, of the
individual paragraphs, and be able to extract the relevant details which support
the main idea.
These aspects of the text will be explained in more detail in this reading guide
and there are exercises for you to practice recognizing and producing these
patterns. But lets look first at the way you the reader interact with the text.
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Using the headlines of this article, think about all that you know about fast food,
obesity and diabetes. Here youre using strategies 1 & 2
If youre not sure what fast foods are, use the picture given. What other examples
of fast foods do you know? Strategy 3
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Quickly read the text. Were you given any new information that you did not
know? Strategy 4
Was there any part of the article that you didnt understand? Was it because you
did not understand special terms or because of unknown vocabulary? Did you
have to read it more slowly or several times? Strategy 6
What information did you underline? Did you do so because you thought the
information was important? Strategy 7
Did you underline information that answered a question you had asked yourself
while reading? Strategy 5
Can you summarize the information in your own words? Strategy 8
These are just a few reading strategies that you can use. Now, take the following
survey to find out the strategies you are using at present and those that you can
use in the future to make you a better reader.
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S = Sometimes
N = Never
There are many different ways of doing things. Have you noticed
that some people manage to get all their studying done on time and others dont?
Being a good student doesnt only depend on what you know, but how you go
about learning it!!
So, how do you read? Take a look at the strategies in this survey. How many of
them are you conscious of doing while you read? Take another look at those that
you should be using. Try them and see the result for yourself!!
Strategy
A S N
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Exercise 1:
Take some time and read through these steps to faster reading. Underline or
highlight what you consider to be the most important information. After reading,
summarize what youve learnt by putting the information on the graphic
organizer provided.
Step 1: Preview
When you read, do you start in with the first word, or do you look over the whole
selection for a moment? Good readers preview the selection first. This helps to make
them good, and fast, readers.
Read the Title: The first thing to do when previewing is to read the title of the
selection. Titles are designed not only to announce the subject, but also to make
the reader think. What can you learn from the title? What thoughts does it bring to
mind? What do you already know about this subject?
Read the Opening Paragraph: If the first paragraph is long, read the first
sentence or two instead. The first paragraph is the writers opportunity to greet
the reader. He may have something to tell you about what is to come. Some
writers announce what they hope to tell you in the selection. Some writers tell why
they are writing. Some writers just try to get the readers attention, they may ask a
provocative question.
Read the Closing Paragraph: If the last paragraph is long, read just the final line
or two. The closing paragraph is the writers last chance to talk to his reader. He
may have something important to say at the end. Some writers repeat the main
idea once more. Some writers draw a conclusion: this is what they have been
leading up to. Some writers summarize their thoughts; they tie all the facts
together.
Glance Through: Scan the selection quickly to see what else you can pick up.
Discover whatever you can to help you read the selection. Are there names,
dates, numbers? If so, you may have to read more slowly. Are there colorful
adjectives? The selection might be light and fairly easy to read. Is the selection
informative, containing a lot of facts, or conversational, an informal discussion
with the reader?
Step 2: Read for Meaning
When you read do you just see words? Are you so occupied reading words that you
sometimes fail to get the meaning? Good readers see beyond the words, they read
for meaning. This makes them faster readers.
Build Concentration: You cannot read with understanding if you are not
concentrating. Every readers mind wanders occasionally; it is not a cause for
alarm. When you discover that your thoughts have strayed, correct the situation
right away. The longer you wait, the harder it becomes. Avoid distractions and
distracting situations. Outside noise and activities will compete for your attention if
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you let them. Keep the preview information in mind as you read. This will help to
focus your attention on the selection.
Read in Thought Groups: Individual words do not tell us much. They must be
combined with other words in order to yield meaning. To obtain meaning from the
printed page, therefore, the reader should see the words in meaningful
combinations. If you see only a word at a time (called word-by-word reading),
your comprehension suffers along with your speed. To improve both speed and
comprehension, try to group the words into phrases which have a natural
relationship to each other. For practice, you might want to read aloud, trying to
speak the words in meaningful combinations.
Question the Author: To sustain the pace you have set for yourself, and to
maintain a high level of comprehension, question the writer as you read.
Continually ask yourself such questions as What does this mean? What is he
saying now? How can I use this information? Questions like these help you to
concentrate fully on the selection.
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to understanding the message. Sometimes the author gives you obvious signals.
If he says There are three reasons . . . , the wise reader looks for a listing of the
three items. Other less obvious signal words such as moreover, otherwise,
and consequently tell the reader the direction the writers message will take.
Relate as You Read: As you read the selection, keep the information learned
during the preview in mind. See how the ideas you are reading all fit into place.
Consciously strive to relate what you are reading to the title. See how the author
is carrying through his attempt to piece together a meaningful message. As you
discover the relationship among the ideas, the message comes through quickly
and clearly.
Above text taken from Spargo, E. (1989). Timed Reading. Chicago: Jamestown Publishers.
Step 1
Step 4
Good Readers
Step 3
Step 2
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Exercise 2:
Skimming
Passage 1. Skim this newspaper article. You should finish in less than 60
seconds. Then answer the questions.
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Passage 2. Skim the following passage in 30 seconds. Then, read each question,
and circle the correct answer.
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Exercise 3:
Scanning
Now, lets turn to scanning. Scanning is very high-speed reading. When you scan
a text, you usually have a question in mind so you dont read every word, but look
for the words that can answer your question. Lets practice scanning. First read
the question, decide on the information you need and then quickly go through the
text to find the answer.
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Supporting
ideas
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When the topic sentence comes in the middle of the paragraph, the supporting
sentences act as an introduction and then as support for the main idea. This type
of paragraph is known as an introduction, a main idea and supporting
sentences.
Introduction
Main idea
Supporting
ideas
(details)
Finally, the topic sentence may be found at the end of the paragraph. Here the
details are used to reinforce the main idea. This type is called reasons leading
to a conclusion. Look at the paragraph
Introduction
Detail
Main idea
However, there are times when there is no topic sentence and the paragraph is
just a list of equally important statements. Here the reader must find the
main idea. Look at this paragraph.
Unusual grimaces are normally the first sign that something is wrong. Next, affected
people become more and more absent minded and begin to display involuntary
gestures, especially when under psychological or physical stress. As the disease
progresses, the dancelike movementswhich may be confused with drunkenness
occur more frequently and become disabling. People lose their capacity to perform
simple, everyday tasks and show impairments in intellectual abilities such as
planning. In the later stages, depression and aggressivenessand, in the most
severe cases, dementia and psychosistake over, reducing a formerly healthy, vital
family member, friend or co-worker to a miserable, bedridden shadow.
From The enigma of Huntingtons disease (Scientific American, December, 2002, p. 93).
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Sledding is no longer just a winter sport. In fact, its even becoming a popular sport in
deserts. Desert sledders just head for a sand dune. They slide on plastic saucers,
pieces of wood or just on their own two feet. No matter which kind of sled is used, a
great part of the fun is tipping over into the sand. And deserts arent the only places
where there are sand dunes. Many beaches have them, too. So, if theres a dune
near you, why not try sand sledding? One of the best things about it is that you wont
get cold.
If we ask ourselves what is being discussed, we can say that its sledding. So the
topic of the passage is sledding. The key words in the text are sand and sled.
If we ask ourselves What is the author trying to tell us about sledding the
answer would be that sledding can also be done on sand. The author gives
several examples of places with sand, like deserts and beaches, adding more
detail to the general idea of sledding. So, the main idea of the text is sledding can
be done on sand.
Lets look at another example.
Chances are youve never seen a California condor, and you probably never will.
These giant birds are becoming extinct. They are disappearing because of people. As
people use more and more of the land for farms, roads and buildings, land was taken
away from wildlife. The forests where the condors lived have been used up. Some of
the birds died from poisons that farmers used to try to kill other animals. Fewer baby
condors are born each year. Though they are now protected, many people fear that
by the year 2000 all the condors will be gone.
Which of the following options is the main idea?
A. People have caused the extinction of many animals.
B. People used up the forests in which the California condor lived.
C. The California condor is becoming extinct.
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The phrase many animals in option A makes this statement too broad. The only
animal mentioned in the passage is the condor. The statement in option B tells us
nothing about the danger of extinction. So its too narrow. Option C is the main
idea of the passage because it is the most important point made about the condor.
All the facts and details support this idea.
Now, lets practice by doing these exercises.
Exercise 4:
Read the following paragraphs. Check () the best topic. Write too narrow or
too broad after the other topics.
The first people to grow coffee beans lived in the Middle East. The Persians, Arabs
and Turks were drinking coffee many hundreds of years ago. Then, in the 1600s,
Europeans learned about coffee. They quickly learned to like it. Soon there were
coffee houses in many European cities. Europeans took coffee with them when they
traveled to new countries. That is how people in other parts of the world learned about
coffee. Now coffee is very popular in North and South America, in Africa and in parts
of Asia.
The history of coffee
European coffee houses
Popular drinks
Coffee
All around the world large cities have the same problem. That problem is air pollution.
Mexico City has very bad air. The air there is dirty and very unhealthy. Cars are one
reason for the dirty air. Many Mexicans now own their own cars and drive in the city.
The factories in the area also cause air pollution. These factories put a lot of smoke
into the air. It is not easy to clean up the air in a large city. The government has to
make new laws and everyone has to help.
Mexico Citys air pollution
How factories cause air pollution
Life in Mexico City
Air pollution
Exercise 5:
Read the paragraphs below and underline the topic sentence. In the space
provided, explain how you decided on this particular sentence.
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predict the future. Airplanes do not have a row of seats numbered 13 and buildings
omit a thirteenth floor. Black cats, broken mirrors and spilled salt create fear and
anxiety in many people. And ouija boards continue to be a popular pastime.
2. From Italian we get such words as balcony, cavalry, miniature, opera and
umbrella. Spanish has given us mosquito, ranch, cigar, and vanilla. Dutch has
provided brandy, golf, measles and wagon. From Arabic we have borrowed
alcohol, chemistry, magazine, zenith and zero. And Persian has loaned us
chess, checkers, lemon, paradise and spinach. It is clear that English is a
language that borrows freely from many sources.
3. There are four different tides, depending upon the position of the sun and moon in
relation to the earth. When the sun and moon are in direct line with the earth, they
exert their greatest gravitational force, causing abnormally high or spring tides.
When the sun, moon and earth are at right angles to each other, the gravitational
force is weak, causing abnormally low or neap tides. Between these two extremes
are high or perigee tides when the moon is closest to the earth and low, or apogee
tides when the moon is farthest from the earth.
Exercise 6:
Select the main idea of the passage from the options given.
1. One of the fastest swimmers of the seal family is the leopard seal, which is found in
the Antarctic seas. This animal is a powerful predator that preys on penguins and
other, smaller seals. Penguins are the fastest of all the swimming birds, so the chases
between penguins and leopard seals may reach speeds of twenty to twenty-five miles
per hour. Leopard seals also hunt penguins by leaping out of the water and capturing
25
them as they stand at the edges of ice floes. The explorers of the South Pole had a
healthy respect for the leopard seal, which could mistake a human for a penguin and
is said to have attacked unwary explorers.
The main idea of the paragraph is that ___.
A. the leopard seal is a powerful predator that hunts penguins and
other seals
B. seals are fast and powerful hunters
C. the leopard seal is one of the fastest swimming seals
2. Shrews are famous for an appetite that is quite out of proportion to their size. These
small but fearless mammals are very active and need to eat constantly in order to
survive. They prey mainly on insects of all sizes and shapes, which they hunt by
crawling and wriggling under old logs, through the leaf litter of the forest floor and
even, in a few species, by diving into the water. One member of the shrew family, the
white-toothed pygmy shrew, which is found throughout the African continent, is the
smallest of all living mammals. This tiny predator rarely reaches two inches in length
(from its nose to the base of its tail) and can squeeze through the tunnels created by
large earthworms. It is so small and secretive that it has rarely ever been seen by
humans.
The main idea of the paragraph is that ___.
A. shrews are small but active predators
B. shrews are constantly hunting insects
C. small mammals eat constantly
3. Vitamin E can be found in a number of foods. Vegetable oils, margarine, eggs and
liver are especially good sources. This vitamin plays a role in the prevention of certain
blood disorders. It helps to prevent cell membranes from being destroyed by
substances that build up around the membranes and cause them to break down.
These substances tend to increase in quantity as a person grows older. For this
reason, vitamin E has been suggested as a remedy for the effects of aging. However,
doctors and researchers are still studying the vitamin to find out if there is any real
connection.
The main idea of the paragraph is that ___.
A. vitamin E may help to reverse the aging process
B. vitamin E, which is found in certain foods, prevents some blood
disorders and the destruction of cell membranes
C. the healthiest remedies can often be found in natural substances
4. Whether you are right-handed or left-handed is decided by your brain. The human
brain is divided into sections that control the functions of the body. One part of the
brain, the cerebrum, controls the muscular movements of the body. The cerebrum is
split into two halves, which are mirror-images of each other. One half controls the
right side of the body, and its twin controls the left side. Nerve messages travel along
pathways to reach the brain. These paths cross in the spinal cord, and therefore the
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sensorimotor areas of each side of the cerebrum control the opposite sides of the
body. So the right side of the cerebrum controls the left side of the body, and vice
versa. In most people, the left side of the brain dominates the right side. It is because
of this that most people are right-handed. So in people who are left-handed, the right
side of the brain is dominant.
The main idea of the paragraph is that the ___.
A. brain is a complex organ that controls the body.
B. nerve pathways to the brain cross in the spinal cord
C. brain controls whether you are right-or left-handed.
Exercise 7:
The information that the writer uses to support his main idea is known as the
details. These are more specific than the topic or the main idea. Can you
recognize the statements which can be labeled details in the exercise below?
Quickly read the four statements in each group. Label each statement: T (=Topic),
MI (=Main idea) or D (=Detail).
Group 1
A. Electrical failure is a constant concern to both engineers and ground
control. ___
B. Problems with the NASA programme. ___
C. Technical problems have consistently delayed progress in the NASA
space programme. ___
D. Fuselage leaks caused postponement of the latest shuttle flight. ___
Group 2
A. The technique involves inserting genetic instructions into the bacteria
which follow the instructions. ___
B. Producing human insulin. ___
C. Humulin is the first substance made by gene-splicing approved by the
US government for human use. ___
D. The instructions involve creating the two necessary ingredients
to make insulin. ___
Above exercise taken from The Heinemann TOEFL Preparation Course, Kathleen Mahnke & Carolyn B. Duffy, Heinemann
International, 1992
Exercise 8:
In textbooks, you will find a lot of details which are sometimes very difficult to
remember. You must learn to differentiate between major and minor details and
only remember those that are significant in supporting the main idea. All details
are not of equal importance as they depend on what point the author is making
and what information is essential to develop, explain or prove that point. For
example, in a passage about communication by sound, the reason a bird sings
would be important but the age at which the bird learns to fly would be a minor
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detail. To determine which details are of major or minor significance, identify the
authors main point and then ask yourself the following questions:
What details are needed to explain or prove the main point?
What details are just included to make the passage more interesting?
Study the paragraph below and the way in which it is divided. The paragraph
was taken from an article on hair growth.
1. The good biological news is that in the most common types of thinning, hair follicles
dont die. In classic male-female pattern hair loss (androgenetic alopecia), for
instance, follicles become miniaturized and their growing phase abbreviated; they
then produce extremely short, fine hairs. Even guys who are bald still have little hairs
on the top of their head, explains Bruce A. Morgan of Harvards Cutaneous Biology
Research Center. In a rarer condition, alopecia areata (affecting nearly 2 percent of
people), the follicles growth phase ends prematurely under autoimmune attack,
causing hair to fall out in patches or, in extreme cases, all over the body. But, again,
the follicles survive.
From Save the hairs! by Mia Schmiedeskamp. Scientific American, June 2001, p. 76.
Each major detail in turn has minor details which support it:
Extremely short,
fine hair is
produced.
Only 2 % of
people affected.
Now do the same for the second paragraph. Find and underline the main idea and
write the letter D next to the details which support it.
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2. Treatment for alopecia areata typically focuses on quelling the wayward immune
system, but treatment for male- and female-pattern hair loss must increase the size of
Lilliputian follicles as well as hair length. Minoxidilintroduced as Rogaine in 1988
was the first drug approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for this purpose
and is the only one licensed for use in both sexes. Scientists still debate how
minoxidil, which is applied topically, produces thicker, longer hairs; perhaps it
increases blood supply, better nourishing the follicles, or perhaps it alters cellular
concentrations of substances that regulate hair growth.
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We will discuss these and other patterns later on in more detail under the
heading of Focus on Rhetorical functions.
For now, lets look at a sample text and decide on the organization the writer has
used.
There are many ways to build a fire. The basic rule to remember is that you set a
match to tinder. You light the tinder, and the tinder makes the kindling burn. The heat
from the burning kindling makes the larger firewood burn.
The following method usually works well. Place two logs together with tinder between
them. Paper, twigs and bark are good for tinder. Next, place above the tinder a small
handful of dry twigs or split softwood kindling. Then place small, dry logs over this
base. Generally, no more than four logs are needed to make a good fire. To keep the
fire going, push the ends of the logs into the flame from time to time. Add new logs to
keep a flaming fire burning. Before adding logs, rake coals toward the front of the
grate. Add the new logs at the rear of the fireplace. There they will reflect light and
heat into the room.
1. In the first paragraph, the author arranges details by ___.
A. order of importance
B. spatial order
C. cause and effect
D. contrast
2. In the second paragraph, the author arranges details by ___.
A. simple listing
B. comparison
C. cause and effect
D. time order
3. Tinder is the first material used in building a fire because it ___.
A. is easy to find
B. gives off large amounts of heat
C. is less expensive to use than kindling
D. catches fire very easily
How has the author organized the information? Lets look at the details. In the
first paragraph, each sentence tells the way in which one part of the fire makes
the other burn. The pattern used here is cause and effect. On the other hand, in
the second paragraph, the author gives the steps for building a fire. Here, he is
using time order to describe a process. Finally, in the last paragraph, find the
details which support the statements. If you look back over the text, you will find
that the author says paper, twigs and bark make fine tinder and that these burn
easily.
Now, lets practice topic, main idea and text organization by doing the following
exercise.
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Exercise 9:
Read the paragraphs carefully and then select the best option from the ones
given. Remember to ask yourself What is being discussed? to find the topic,
What is important about this topic? to find the main idea, and What
information supports the main idea? to get the details.
1. Most gemstones used in jewelry must be cut to reveal their full brilliance. In ancient
times, a gemstone was treasured for its surface color rather than for its brilliance.
Therefore, gems were merely polished and left in their natural state. The oldest type
of gem cut that is still in use today is the cabochon, or rounded cut, introduced by the
Romans. The cabochon was used for colored stones, such as the emerald, ruby,
sapphire and garnet, but it is now used for starstones, cats eyes, opals and imperfect
stones. The art of faceting a gemstone, or cutting several flat surfaces on a gem,
originated in India in the 15th century. The first faceted gems were diamonds that had
been cut to disguise any flaws. In the early 17th century, the rose cut was invented. It
revealed the fiery brilliance of a diamond for the first time and is still the standard cut
for the diamond.
1. The topic of this paragraph as a whole is ___.
A. the mining of precious stones
B. gem cuts introduced by the Romans
C. the surface color of gems
D. the cutting of gemstones
2. The paragraph is organized as ___.
A. a broad statement followed by support
B. reasons leading to a conclusion
C. introduction, main idea and supporting sentences
D. a list of equally important statements
3. The author supports the main idea with ___.
A. arguments in favour of using the cabochon cut
B. expert advice about buying diamonds
C. details about the history of gem cutting
D. a comparison of precious and semiprecious stones
2. Many forces have been at work for a long time changing the face of the land upon
which we live. These forces are the weather; water, both in the ground and on its
surface; and living things. By living things we mean plants, animals, insects, worms
and the very tiny creatures called bacteria, which make up for their smallness by their
large numbers. If it were not for these forces, the land would be nothing but solid rock.
It would not be able to support life. The work of all these forces on the Earths surface
is called erosion. One of these forces, however, running water, as in rivers, has done
the most to change the surface of the land.
1. In this paragraph the topic that the author discusses is ___.
A. landslides and rockslides
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3. To start a fire without matches, you can use sunlight, sparks, or the heat of friction.
First find some dry tinder. Shelter the tinder from the wind and dampness. Some good
tinders are lint from cloth, rope or twine, dry bark, powdered wood, birds nests and
wood dust made by insects under the bark of dead trees. To start the fire with
sunlight, use a camera lens, a lens from a binocular or a lens from a flashlight. The
lens will focus the rays of the sun on the tinder and produce heat. To strike a spark,
use flint and steel. Strike the steel against the flint. Let the sparks fall into the tinder.
There are two methods of making heat from friction. The bow and drill method is a
good one. Make a strong bow strung with a shoelace or string. Use it to spin a dry,
soft shaft in a small block. This forms a black dust that will catch on fire. Use the wood
friction method as a last resort. For this method, rub two sticks together as fast as
possible until friction causes fire.
1.What is the topic of this selection?
A. Surviving in the woods
B. Starting a fire without matches
C. Planning for a camping trip
D. Keeping dry on a hike
2. The author develops the main idea by ___.
A. explaining how fires burn
B. proving that fire can be dangerous
C. suggesting ways to start a fire
D. warning the reader against traveling alone
3. The best title for the paragraph is ___.
A. The Many Uses of the Camera
B. How to Cook on a Campfire
C. Matchless Campfires
D. Play It Safe with Matches
33
34
Pens and pencils are never there when I need them (_______________). I
try to keep a pen near the telephone so that I will use it when the phone
rings. But it is never there when I need it (_______________). The
situation was getting so bad that I decided to do something about it. I
bought a large cupboard with a number of shelves. I then put ten boxes
on them (_______________). I put a label on each box:
one (_______________)
I
labeled
Pens
and
Pencils,
another (_______________) I labeled Tools, another Needles and Pins.
I also bought an address book and put it in the corner of the cupboard.
Before this, I always lost all the addresses and phone numbers I needed.
Now I felt very proud of myself. But things did not change. Pens began to
disappear, and one day I found my hammer under the bed. There was
only one solution. I locked the cupboard and put the key on top of
it (_______________). The cupboard was always locked and I was the only
one who knew where the key was. Then I lost it (_______________) . . .
Exercise 10:
Part A. Read the paragraphs below. Find out what the underlined pronouns refer
to. Look for the underlined pronouns and write their referent in the line provided.
1. In the United States, about 10 million computers are thrown away every year!
Because most unwanted computers are sent to a dump, they (1) have caused a
problem. The computer industry and the government are working on ways to solve
it (2). They (3) have concluded that there must be changes in the way computers are
built. They (4) must be made in ways that will allow their parts to be recycled. These
parts include the electronic parts, the glass screen of the monitor and parts of the
printer.
1. they ____________________
3. they _____________________
2. it
4. they _____________________
____________________
____________________
4. they
_____________________
2. he
____________________
5. them
_____________________
3. them
____________________
6. they
_____________________
35
Part B. Read the story. Then decide what part of the text each underlined
pronoun refers to.
APPOINTMENT IN SAMARRA
Somerset Maugham
There was a merchant in Baghdad who sent his (1) servant to the market to buy
provisions and in a little while the servant came back, white and trembling, and said,
Master, just now when I was in the market-place, I (2) was jostled by a woman in the
crowd and when I turned, I saw it was Death that jostled me. She (3) looked at me
and made a threatening gesture. Please lend me your (4) horse and I will ride away
from this city and avoid my fate. I will go to Samarra and there Death will not find me.
The merchant lent him his horse and the servant mounted it (5) and he dug his (6)
spurs into its flanks and as fast as the horse could gallop he went.
Then the merchant went down to the market-place and he (7) saw Death standing in
the crowd and he came to Death and said, Why did you (8) make a threatening
gesture to my servant when you saw him this morning? That was not a threatening
gesture, Death said. It was only a start of surprise. I was astonished to see him in
Baghdad, for I had an appointment with him (9) tonight in Samarra.
1. his refers to:
A. the servant
B. the merchant
C. Baghdad
D. the market
B. the merchant
C. the reader
D. the market
B. the merchant
C. Death
D. Baghdad
B. the merchant
C. the horse
D. the woman
B. the merchant
C. Death
D. the horse
B. the merchant
C. the horse
D. the woman
B. the merchant
C. the market
D. the woman
B. the merchant
C. Death
D. the horse
2. I refers to:
A. the servant
3. She refers to:
A. the servant
4. Your refers to:
A. the servant
5. it refers to:
A. the servant
6. his refers to:
A. the servant
7. he refers to:
A. the servant
8. you refers to:
A. the servant
36
9. him refers to
A. the servant
B. the merchant
C. Death
D. the woman
Thomas Jeffersons liberal views of democracy were first proposed in his draft of the
Bill of Rights in 1776. Unfortunately, the Virginia Convention used only the preamble
of this draft in the more conservative document that they accepted, which had been
drafted by George Mason. Much of what Jefferson wanted was, however, obtainable
as ordinary legislation and when he took his seat in the new legislature, it was with a
view of putting through a definite program of reforms. In this he had the support of
such men as Mason, George Wythe, and James Madison, against the strenuous
opposition of such leaders of the old order as Edmund Pendleton and Robert
Nicholas Carter. These men had much to lose if Jeffersons ideas were carried out.
1. The words this draft in line 3 refer to ___.
A. the draft Jefferson wrote
B. the draft that George Mason wrote
C. the preamble
D. the draft that was accepted
2. The pronoun he in line 5 refers to ___.
A. George Mason
B. Thomas Jefferson
C. a member of the Virginia Convention
D. a member of the legislature
3. The pronoun this in line 6 refers to ___.
A. the implementation of the Bill of Rights
B. the acceptance of Jeffersons original draft
C. putting through a program of definite reforms
D. carrying out Jeffersons liberal views
Taken from The Heinemann TOEFL Preparation Course,
Kathleen Mahnke & Carolyn B. Duffy, Heinemann International, 1992.
Exercise 11:
Besides pronouns, authors also use other types of words and even phrases to
make references. As long as these phrases mean the same thing in the context as
their referent does, they can be used as effective references. Look at the following
example:
The monkeys most extraordinary accomplishment was learning to
operate a tractor. By the age of nine, the monkey had learned to solo on
the vehicle.
37
We know that a tractor is a kind of vehicle: the lexical equivalence between these
two concepts allows the author to use the vehicle as an adequate reference to a
tractor in the context.
Now look at the examples below and identify the referent of the italicized words.
1. They regularly get The Daily Courier. I wouldnt read such a paper.
2. She wrote a short novel in 1989. That very book was to bring her fame
some years later.
3. Gerry Nichol and Bob Smith were at the conference. The former gave an
outstanding demonstration of his new theory. The latter, though, failed
at convincing the audience about his latest results.
4. Dr. Lees project got ten thousand dollars on grant money. Prof. Greens
received a similar amount.
Examples adapted from Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., & Svartvik, J. (1972).
A grammar of contemporary English. London: Longman.
38
Focus on inferences
Now that weve looked at the way the author communicates his or her ideas
through main ideas and details and their organization in the text, lets turn to
information that is not explicitly stated. Sometimes the author of a text does not
state an idea directly, but you, the reader, can understand that the idea follows
logically from what the writer does say. The inference is suggested from the
facts. Lets look at this example:
Mrs. Jones put on her rain coat and rain hat and picked up her umbrella
before she went out.
We know that ____________________________________________________________
We can infer that _________________________________________________________
Practice in recognizing logical inferences is important for good reading. You need
to be aware of the inferences you make while reading and learn to check them
automatically for support. Ask yourself What can I logically infer from this
information? Be careful, do not make assumptions that are not supported
by the explicit information in the text!!
Lets look at some other examples.
Subsequent technological developments have replaced vacuum tubes by
transistors and then by printed circuits and microchips. Thus, the size of
the modern computers has been greatly reduced, and the speed greatly
increased from the ones that John von Neumann helped to develop.
What can we infer from this paragraph?
A. Transistors, printed circuits and microchips have replaced vacuum
tubes in computers.
39
Exercise 12:
Read the following passages and circle ALL of the statements that can be inferred
from each.
1. A good source of vitamin B is kale. Spinach and escarole are other green leafy
vegetables that provide this essential vitamin. Enjoy your daily salad and youll have
your vitamin B as well.
A.
B.
C.
D.
2. The fossils that have led to this new view of dinosaurs as migratory creatures have
been found in Alaska, Canada, Greenland and the former Soviet Union, as well as in
40
Antarctica and Southern Australia. At the time dinosaurs thrived near the poles;
conditions there were radically different from those today. The planet was warmer,
especially in these polar areas.
A.
B.
C.
D.
3. Fundamental to the theory of plate tectonics is the assumption that while all the plates
seem to be moving at different relative speedsranging from a fraction of an inch to a
maximum of five inches a yearthe whole jigsaw puzzle of plates is interlinked. No
one plate can move without affecting others, and the activity of one can influence
another thousands of miles away. The Atlantic Ocean could not be getting wideras
it is with the spreading of the African Plate away from the South American Plateif
the Pacific sea floor were not being consumed in deep oceanic trenches faster than it
is created at the Pacific ridges. The plates move rapidly by geological standards; two
inches per yearto pick a typical speedup to 30 miles in one million years. It took
only 150 million years for a mere fracture in an ancient continent to turn into the
Atlantic Ocean.
A. As the Atlantic is getting wider, the Pacific Ocean is getting
narrower.
B. Plate tectonics is a complex, interrelated system.
C. Where the Atlantic Ocean is today, there used to be a continent.
D. Geological standards of time are faster than normal standards of
time.
The above exercise was taken from The Heinemann TOFEL Preparation Course, Kathleen Mahnke & Carolyn B.
Duffy, Heinemann International, 1992
Exercise 13:
The following sentences were taken from a text entitled Euthanasia. Carefully
read each one and then circle the option that best expresses the inference that
can be made logically from the information given in the original sentence(s).
Explain your choice.
1. Various physicians oppose euthanasia on the grounds that it is contrary to the Oath of
Hippocrates that all doctors must take. Others suggest that the Hippocratic Oath is
outdated or easily misinterpreted.
The others mentioned in the quote ___.
A. support euthanasia because of the Hippocratic Oath
B. oppose euthanasia because of the Hippocratic Oath
C. dont think that the Hippocratic Oath is sufficient reason to oppose
euthanasia.
I chose this option because __________________________________________
41
3. Dr. Robert Morse, a neurologist in charge of her case, maintained that Karen
Quinland was not brain dead. He referred to the Ad Hoc Committee of Harvard
Medical School Criteria as the ordinary medical standard for determining brain death.
Karen Ann Quinland satisfied none of these criteria. She reportedly did not have a
completely flat EEG, and she did exhibit involuntary muscle activity.
From this paragraph we can infer that ___.
A. Dr. Morse thinks that a person must not be considered alive if that
patient is not brain dead.
B. One of the criteria for being considered brain dead is to exhibit
involuntary muscle activity
C. A person considered brain dead has a completely flat EEG and no
involuntary muscle activity.
I chose this option because: _________________________________________
The above exercise was adapted from Laura Donahue Latulippe, Developing Academic Reading Skills, Regents
Prentice Hall, 1987
Exercise 14:
Now read the following extracts and select the best option.
1. As recently as two or three hundred years ago, visitors from space could have landed
on 90 percent of our planet and human kind would never have noticed it. If one
searches through old newspapers and local records, one can find many reports of
strange incidents that could be interpreted as visits from outer space. A stimulating
writer, Chares Fort, has made a collection of UFO (Unidentified Flying Object)
sightings in his book Lo! One is tempted to believe them more than any modern
reports, for the simple reason that they happened long before anyone had ever
thought of space travel. Yet at the same time one cannot take them too seriously, for
before scientific education was wide-spread, even sightings of meteors, comets,
auroras and so on gave rise to the most incredible stories, as they still do today.
42
2. Animals in the desert have a problem getting water and keeping it. Insect eaters get
their liquid from their food. Many desert animals have an additional source of water
through the breakdown of body fat. Lizards, for example, store fat in their tails much
as the camel stores fat in its hump. Most desert dwellers avoid the drying heat as
much as possible, spending their time in burrows, where the damp earth and the
coolness cut down the amount of evaporation from their breathing. With the exception
of the coyote, which is apt to have its home in the shelter of rocks or in dense
vegetation, nearly all mammals have burrows of one sort or another. All birds seek
whatever shade they can find. Reptiles have an added reason for avoiding the desert
sun. They are cold-blooded creatures that lack the protection of fur, feathers and
other cooling devices. They can be killed by a relatively short exposure to full
sunshine.
As a whole the paragraph suggests that ___.
A. desert animals survive without water
B. desert animals are cold-blooded
C. animals adapt to their surroundings
D. heredity does not affect survival
The opening sentence supports the inference that in a desert ___.
A. animals live short lives
B. water cannot be found
C. rain never falls
D. water is scarce and evaporates quickly
The author suggests that in the desert ___.
A. reptiles are harmful during daylight
B. only birds hunt during the heat of the day
C. coyotes are vegetarians
43
3. Weather routing is, simply, a method of planning a course of travel around and
through bad weather. Generally, it means choosing the course that is shortest in
terms of time and lowest in terms of risk. Weather routing is an instrument of control
and efficiency in navigation, a means to greater safety and speed. In recent years
weather routing has been very much refined, yet as an idea, it is not new. People
have long been helpless before the weather and, like other creatures, have withdrawn
in fear and simply suffered through catastrophes. Those people most exposed
suffered most, and they were mariners. But centuries of ill-tempered skies and quiet
seas taught them both caution and courage. They understood the winds message
and faced with confidence or feared with reason the motions of the sea and sky.
The paragraph suggests that the key to safe travel is ___.
A. understanding the weather and careful planning
B. simple luck and optimism
C. light winds and clear skies
D. a combination of fear and confidence
It can be inferred from the paragraph that weather routing ___.
A. does away with all known dangers
B. is opposed by pilots and navigators
C. is not a guarantee against all risks
D. was practiced by early mariners
It can be inferred from the paragraph that travel becomes safer as ___.
A. people learn not to fear storms
B. the science of weather forecasting progresses
C. people withdraw from their environment
D. mariners caution and courage increases
44
Focus on vocabulary
When you read in English, you will find that there will be a list of basic words
that occur again and again in your textbooks and the articles you may read. You
will need to understand the various definitions of each word and be familiar with
appropriate synonyms that an author might use instead of repeating these words.
In order to know a word well, you should:
Learn how to use your English-English dictionary.
Learn various forms (verb, adjective, adverb, noun) of words.
Learn the words that are related because they come from the same stem (or root).
Here youll study prefixes and suffixes.
Recognise the correct meaning of a word according to the context in which it
appears.
Learn that a word may have different meanings according to its context.
Learn synonyms (words that mean the same thing) and antonyms (words that
have the opposite meaning) of the word.
Identify cognates, words that look similar to Spanish words and mean the same,
and false cognates, words which may look like Spanish but have a completely
different meaning.
Learn how signal words are used in a sentence.
But before starting our study of vocabulary, lets take a look at these strategies.
Youve already taken the reading strategies survey; now its time to turn to
vocabulary learning. This is very important for reading as the more words you
know, the less dependent youll become on the dictionary. So, how do you learn
vocabulary? Do you look up the meaning of unknown words in the dictionary,
45
write down the Spanish equivalent, learn them by heart, make drawings of the
word or do you use the new word in sentences? Take a look at these strategies.
Which ones do you use? Which ones do you think might be useful to you?
Yes
Useful
Check for Spanish cognate (words that look the same in Spanish) ......
Use the pictures to guess and then learn the meaning of the word .....
Use word lists and learn the meaning of the words in them.................
Ask your teacher for a translation of the word into Spanish ................
Ask your teacher to paraphrase or use a synonym of the new word ....
Ask your teacher for a sentence including the new word ......................
Ask your classmates to tell you the meaning of the word .....................
Make a mental picture of the way in which the word is formed ...........
46
Strategy (contd)
Yes
Useful
Continue to study the word even after you think you know it .............
One of the most useful tools for vocabulary learning is the dictionary. Although it
may sound silly, you need to know how to locate words in the dictionary. So lets
start by taking a brief quiz.
The alphabet
Exercise 15:
One of the skills you have to learn when using the dictionary is to find the word
as quickly as possible. For this, you need to know the alphabet. Lets see how
much you know. Take this quiz and find out.
How many letters are there in the English alphabet?
How many vowels and how many consonants are there?
What are the three most common letters at the beginning of words?
Look in your dictionary and see which letters have the most pages.
What are the three least common letters at the beginning of words?
Look in your dictionary and see which letters have the fewest pages.
47
Exercise 16:
To find words in the dictionary, you need to know alphabetical order. Place these
words in the correct order by numbering them. The first one is done for you.
___
___
___
Teacher
Classroom
Course
___
___
___
Student
Test
Learn
___
___
_1_
Textbook
Pencil
Blackboard
___
___
___
Pen
Study
Revision
With a bit of practice your dictionary can become a useful tool. Here are some
things to remember.
First of all, words are found in the dictionary in alphabetical order, so being
able to classify and alphabetize words are important skills for you to develop.
The guide words, the boldfaced words at the top of the pages, allow you to find
words quickly and efficiently. In our sample page, on page 49 the guide words
defective / deg. indicate that the first word you will find on that page is defective
and the last, the abbreviation deg. So if you are looking for the word deflate, you
know you will find it on this page, but not the word desire.
Dictionaries also give the phonetic transcription of words and if you know how
to read phonetically, this can help you learn to pronounce the words correctly.
Look at the way define is pronounced (dI'fain).
Prefixes and suffixes are also indicated. These help you to expand your
vocabulary.
Your dictionary will show you how to separate words at the end of a line. For
example, the word defenselessly can be broken at any one of the points indicated
by hyphens as in the example: de-fense-less-ly. Although in todays world of word
processors this may seem unimportant, it is good for Spanish speakers to know
that Spanish separation rules do not apply.
Words are also classified according to their part of speech, i.e., n (noun),
vt (transitive verb), etc. so its important for you to select the correct part of
speech when looking up a word. Common dictionary abbreviations and parts of
speech will be reviewed later on in this section.
48
Once you have found the word you are looking for, keep in mind that one word
may have several meanings. Good dictionaries usually give sample sentences
using the word. Look at the way the word defense is used on our sample page.
Although dictionaries give synonyms of words, there is always a slight difference
in meaning between them. Some words are more formal than others (seek as
opposed to look for) or words may be used as a different set expression (consider
the use of freedom and liberty). Look at these examples:
Columbus was seeking a new route to the East.
vs
We are looking for a new house.
They are fighting to protect their freedom of speech.
vs
You are at liberty to leave when you want.
Dictionaries can also help you with your spelling and irregular verbs and
plurals are found in the appendix section of most good dictionaries.
Extra, extra important!!! The meaning of the word depends on the context
in which it is used. If you spend too much time looking for words in the
dictionary, you might forget the context and choose the incorrect meaning.
Remember, you are the master and the dictionary, your slave. Learn to use
your dictionary well.
Lets become acquainted with a page from a dictionary, in this case The Oxford
ESL Dictionary by A.S. Hornby and C.A. Ruse, but a similar page from any
dictionary will do.
49
50
Parts of speech
If you quickly look over our sample dictionary page, you will notice that there are
many abbreviations that are related to the part of speech of the word. Lets have a
quick review of the most common ones.
Abbreviation
n
Part of
speech
Noun
Verb
Explanation
This represents a:
person doctor
place London
thing shoe
idea defiance (found on sample page)
This is a word or group of words that indicate an
action is taking place.
The settlers defend their town against invaders.
vt
Transitive
verb
vi
Intransitive
verb
adj
Adjective
adv
Adverb
51
conj
Conjunction
prep
Preposition
pron
Pronoun
Lets look at the sentence below. The word import can be used either as a verb or
a noun.
Japan imports large amounts of oil in order to keep its society running,
but oil is only one of the imports that are necessary to this countrys
economy.
The Random House Dictionary of the English Language (New York, Random
House, 1969), defines import in the following way:
import v.t. 1. to bring in (merchandise, commodities, etc) from a foreign country for sale, use,
processing, or re-export. 2. to bring or introduce from one use, connection or relation to another
(foreign bodies imported into the blood, foodstuffs imported from the farm). 3. to convey as meaning or
information, as by words, statements, actions, etc. (her words imported a change of attitude). 4. to
involve as a necessary circumstance imply (religion imports belief). 5. (Rare) to be of consequence or
importance; concern, v.i. 6. to be of consequence or importance; matter. n. 7. that which is imported
from abroad; an imported commodity or article. 8. the act of importing or bringing in; importation, as
goods from abroad (the import of foreign cars). 9. purport (he felt the import of her words). 10.
consequence or importance (matters of great import).
These are the meanings for import; however, the word has other forms as well.
The adjective for definition 7 is importable, and the adjective for definition 10 is
important. There are other nouns in this group of related words (importer, one
who imports something; and importability, the ability to be imported) and we
can speak of imported goods, taking the past participle form of the verb and
using it as an adjective.
In addition to the different forms (parts of speech) of a word, there are often other
related words (words that come from the same root or stem). Import comes from
52
the root port, which means to carry. Im is a prefix (a word part added before the
stem of a word to change its meaning) that is added to port to change its meaning
from to carry to to carry into. If we change the prefix to ex the word (export)
means to carry out. Other words that are related to import include transport (to
carry across), report (to carry back), porter (a person who carries luggage at a
hotel or train station), and deport (to carry off, to expel from the country).
As you learn more and more words and increase your vocabulary, there are two
ways you can find related words: first, you can look for all of the other forms of
the same word (i.e. the noun, verb and so on); then, you can find the words that
come from the same stem or root, like the examples in the paragraph above.
Finally, once you know the meaning of some words, you can find those that relate
to them because they have a similar meaning (synonyms) or opposite meaning
(antonyms). For example, once you know the meaning of a word like rich, you can
learn its opposite, poor. Authors will substitute synonyms for the words they
originally use to provide variety, so you, the reader, must be able to recognise
these substitutions.
Exercise 17:
Read the selections below on the development of computers. Then fill in the chart
with the appropriate part of speech, meaning and related words of the italicized
word. Use your monolingual English dictionary to help you. The first one is done
for you. How did you identify the part of speech of the italized words?
1. The tools of communication, from pencil and pen to television, are designed to serve
our minds. These devices transmit information or preserve it, but they do not modify it
in any way.
2. The widespread use of machines for information processing is a modern
development. But simple examples of information-processing machines can be traced
back to ancient times.
3. Babbage set out to build a machine that not only would calculate the entries in the
tables but would print them automatically as well. He called this machine the
Difference Engine, since it worked by solving what mathematicians called difference
equations.
4. This was particularly true since Babbages design was grandiose. For instance, he
planned for his machine to do calculations with fifty-digit accuracy. This is far greater
than the accuracy found in most modern computers and far more than is needed for
most calculations.
5. A hundred years passed before a machine like the one Babbage conceived was
actually built. This occurred in 1944 when Howard Aiken of Harvard University
completed the Harvard Mark I Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator.
53
Part of
speech
Noun
devices
Related
words
deviceful (adj)
devicefully (adv)
devicefulness (n)
Synonym(s)
gadget
processing
calculate
accuracy
conceived
obsolete
Exercise taken from Latulippe, Laura (1987). Developing Academic Reading Skills. Regents Prentice Hall.
Selections from the text Development of Computers by Neil Graham
54
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
5. The word reconcile can only be divided in one of the following ways:
A. re-con-cile
B. rec-on-cile
C. re-conc-ile
D. rec-onc-ile
6. What is the plural of the word antenna?
_______________________________
D. electric
A. Nagasaki
B. New Orleans
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
55
Exercise 18:
Write the abbreviation that your dictionary uses for each of the following fields.
Biology
________________
Philosophy
________________
Geophysics
________________
Physics
________________
Mechanics
________________
Engineering ________________
Thermodynamics
________________
Genetics
________________
Mathematics
________________
Chemistry
________________
Now, use your dictionary to look up the italicized words in the sentences below. In
the space provided, write the definition that applies. If the definition applies to a
particular field, as noted in the dictionary, write down the field as well as the part
of speech of the word in the given context. The first one has been done for you.
1. A corollary of this is that when enough is known of the chemistry and physics of vital
phenomena, it may be possible to synthesize living matter.
Word: synthesize
Part of speech:
Verb
Special field:
Chemistry
Definition:
2. Organisms such as cats, clams, and cicadas are clearly recognizable as animals but
sponges, for example, were considered to be plants until well into the 19th century.
Sponges are single-celled organisms which, even today, are called animals by
zoologists, plants by botanists, and protists by others.
Word: sponges
Word: protists
Part of speech:
_________________________________
Special field:
_________________________________
Definition:
_________________________________
Part of speech:
_________________________________
Special field:
_________________________________
56
Definition:
_________________________________
3. Elaborate physical and chemical equipment and substances labelled with radioactive
or stable isotopes are used to trace in detail the paths of metabolism and their
respective quantitative importance to the animal or plant under investigation.
Word: trace
Part of speech:
_________________________________
Special field:
_________________________________
Definition:
_________________________________
4. Complex compounds of one sort may be broken down and their parts recombined in
new ways to yield new compounds.
Word: yield
Part of speech:
_________________________________
Special field:
_________________________________
Definition:
_________________________________
When you read in English perhaps you are used to trying to understand it word
by word, or to translate word by word. What happens? Lets see.
Match the English words in column A with their Spanish equivalents in column B.
A
Hand
Side
Coat
B
abrigo
Mano
Lado
____________________________________
____________________________________
You will see that hand is not always mano, nor coat, abrigo. Look at the above
expressions used within a context.
I hate living in this city but, on the other hand, its the only place where I
can take this specialized course.
I think the wall could use another coat of paint. The old color was a lot
darker that the new one.
When can you translate love by cero? _____________________________________
57
Exercise 19:
Below you will find two columns. Match the sentences in column A with the
corresponding definition in column B. Make sure you take the context into
account.
What does the word drop mean in the following sentences?
A
2. ___
3. ___
5. ___
6. ___
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
A
Rare plants can be found in the
heart of the forest.
She has a kind heart.
I know you have got the queen of
hearts!
He is not working well because his
heart is not in the job.
He sent her a card with a big red
heart on it.
When you exercise your heart
beats faster.
1. ___
2. ___
3. ___
B
a. Complete interest or attention
b. The center of a persons feelings
c. The organ inside the chest that sends
blood round the body
d. A symbol that is used to show love
e. The most central part of something
f.
A playing card
4. ___
5. ___
6. ___
58
1.
2.
3.
4.
A
He began to run home from the
second base.
Greece is said to be the home of
democracy.
She left home at the age of 21.
They only win the home games.
2. ___
B
a. Playing at ones own sports field
b. The place where something began
c. Connected with your own country
d. A place that provides care for people or
animals
e. A place that a baseball player must try to
reach
f. The place where you live with your family
3. ___
4. ___
5. ___
6. ___
A
1. I play baseball on Saturdays.
2. Shall I play the tape for you
again?
3. It was a clever play that won the
football game.
4. The play produced by the Drama
Club was a success.
5. Mary will play the piano in the
concert.
6. The children like to play in the
afternoons.
1. ___
2. ___
3. ___
B
a. To do something to enjoy yourself or to
have fun
b. Move in ones turn in a game
c. To make music with a musical instrument
d. To turn on a record, tape, etc. so that it
produces sounds
e. A story that is written to be performed by
actors in a theater
f. To take part in a sport, game, or match
4. ___
5. ___
6. ___
What have you learnt about word meanings from these exercises?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 20:
Like in the previous exercise, the words below have more than one meaning. In
this exercise, you will see pairs of sentences with the same word missing. Read
59
the sentence and based on its context, choose the right word from the list to fill in
the blank.
bank
change
course
head
note
service
speaker
star
tank
tap
60
Non electronic
devices
stem suffix
prefix
The stem is the central part of the word. It is also known as the root and it gives
the base meaning of the word. We add prefixes and suffixes to the root to make
new words.
Prefixes
A prefix comes at the beginning of a word. It adds more meaning to the stem.
Here are some common prefixes, most of them similar to Spanish ones you
already know.
Prefix
anti-
Meaning
against
Examples
co-
together
ex-
previously,
formerly
inter-
between
mini-
small
mono-
one
multi-
many
post-
after
pre-
before
61
pro-
in favor of
re-
again
semi-
half
sub-
under, less
super-
over, more
trans-
across
mis-
badly, wrongly
out-
more, better
over-
too much
under-
too little
There are some negative prefixes used to express an opposite of the idea
expressed by the stem.
un:
in:
dis:
non:
de:
How do we know which negative prefix to use with a root? We learn each root
word with its appropriate negative form. There is no particular reason we say
unhappy instead of inhappy. At least not a reason that is relevant to discuss in
this course.
Another particularly useful prefix is en, which turns the root word into a verb:
en + danger = endanger (to put in danger)
en + large = enlarge (to make larger)
en + able = enable (to make capable)
62
Suffixes
A suffix comes at the end of a word. For example, we can add the suffix -ment to
the verb state to form the noun statement. Not all combinations are possible. We
can say statement, amusement, punishment, but we cannot add -ment to every
verb. There is sometimes a change in the stem: possiblepossibility.
Abstract nouns
Verb + ment
+ ion
+ tion
+ ation
+ ition
+ ance
+ ence
+ ing
Adjective + ty
+ ity
+ ness
Adj in ent ence
in ant ance
Nouns for people
Verb + er/or
Verb + ant/ent
Noun/verb/adj + ist
Noun + an/ian
Noun + ess
Verbs
Adjective + ize
+ en
Adjectives
Noun + al
+ ic
+ ful
+ less
+ ous
+y
+ ly
Verb/noun + ive
certainty, royalty
stupidity, nationality, security
happiness, illness, blindness
silentsilence, absentabsence
distantdistance, importantimportance
walker, owner, driver, doctor, editor
applicant, assistant, student
journalist, nationalist, tourist
republican, musician, Brazilian
waitress, princess, actress
modernize, popularize, centralize
shorten, harden, brighten, widen
national, industrial, cultural, original
heroic, artistic, energetic
careful, hopeful, peaceful, beautiful
Note: These adjectives end with a single l but the adverb has
two, e.g., carefully
careless, hopeless, powerless
dangerous, famous
healthy, thirsty, wealthy
friendly, monthly
active, effective, expensive
The following are common endings for nouns. If you see these endings on a word,
then you know it must be a noun.
-dom
state or condition
63
condition or quality of
capability: capable+ity means the condition of being capable
flexibility: flexible+ity means the quality of being flexible
-ment
-tion, -sion
act of ; state of
celebration: celebrate+tion means the act of celebrating
-ness
State of
toughness: tough+ness means the state of being tough
-ance, -ence
-er, -or
-ist
-th
Exercise 21:
Part A. In the same way that we cannot make the negative of the Spanish word
posible by adding the prefix des to say desposible in Spanish when we mean
imposible, English requires certain words to be learned by heart. Complete the
sentences by putting the proper negative prefix in the blanks. The prefixes are:
un-, non-, in-, dis-, and mis-.
1. You agree with them, but I _____agree.
2. The surface was not even; it was _____even.
3. The results were not conclusive; they were _____conclusive.
4. He was qualified once, but they _____qualified him.
5. It is sometimes and advantage to live in a city, and sometimes a
_____advantage.
6. Please pay attention if you want to understand my explanation. I do
not want any _____understanding
Above exercise adapted from: McArthur, Tom. Patterns of English 2.
Using Prefixes and Suffixes. Collins 1975.
64
Part B. Read the sentences below, and then complete them by adding the correct
suffix to the words in SMALL CAPS.
1
ATTRACT
STRESS
TRUE
FOREIGN
POLITICS
GROW
Part C. Complete the texts below with the appropriate form of the word in the
margin. To get the appropriate form, combine each word with one of the word
parts from the list in the box. The first one has been done for you.
-less
antien-
-ify
prere-
-able
over-ing
-ed
un-ist
undersubmis-
im-er
-en
1. design
2. use
3. category
4. beauty
5. home
6. neurology
7. transfer
65
Now, lets review what youve learnt. Select the correct option for the
statements below.
1. The main part of a word is called the root. The root (also known as the
stem) is the ___ to which other parts are added.
A. sentence
B. part
C. judgment
2. Sometimes word parts are added to the end of a word. These parts are
called ___.
A. prefixes
B. suffixes
C. roots
3. Suffixes have meanings of their own. When they are placed at the end
of the ___, they influence the meaning of the word.
A. phrase
B. sentence
C. root
4. The letter or group of letters after the root of a word is the ___.
A. root
B. prefix
C. suffix
5. From the words below, the one with a suffix is ___.
A. fright
B. rain
C. truthful
6. From the words below, the one with a suffix is ___.
A. rude
B. speed
C. toothless
7. From the words below, the one without a suffix is ___.
A. neatness
B. nervously
C. through
8. How many of these words have a suffix?
manhood
blindness
child
A. one
B. two
C. three
C. three
66
Spanish
actor
cable
fatal
general
hotel
local
material
normal
real
simple
total
English
activity
analysis
area
cause
cognate
contamination
division
effect
energy
function
problem
university
variety
Spanish
actividad
anlisis
rea
causa
cognado
contaminacin
divisin
efecto
energa
funcin
problema
universidad
variedad
Spanish equivalent
de hecho, en realidad
Solicitud
Agradecer
ayudar, atender
asistir (a un evento, etc.)
Alfombra
avergonzar, apenar
Biblioteca
darse cuenta
Sensato
Sensible
xito
Incorrect
translation
actualmente
aplicacin
apreciar
asistir
atender
carpeta
embarazada
librera
realizar
sensible
sensitivo
suceso,
acontecimiento
English equivalent
of incorrect translation
current, nowadays
effort, computer application
to esteem
attend
assist
folder
pregnant
bookstore
to carry out
sensible
sensitive
event
67
Exercise 22:
Identifying cognates
Part A. Read the following text and pay particular attention to the cognates.
...Many people feel offended when their minds are linked to computer programs or
machines. We have seen how a simple tower building skill can be composed of
smaller parts. But could anything like a real mind be made of stuff so trivial?
Ridiculous, most people say. I certainly do not feel like a machine!
Marvin Minsky
How many cognates were you able to identify? In the table below write at least 4.
Then, translate the words into Spanish.
English cognate
Spanish equivalent
1. _________________________________
___________________________________
2. _________________________________
___________________________________
3. _________________________________
___________________________________
4. _________________________________
___________________________________
Part B. Read the text that follows and underline all cognate words.
Several theories have been proposed about why the dinosaurs disappeared from the
face of the earth. In recent years one popular theory proposes that climatic changes
caused the dinosaurs to become extinct. This climatic change theory says that
millions of years ago the climate of the world gradually became colder. As the earth
slowly became colder, fewer plants were able to grow. The cold weather finally
resulted in a severe shortage of food for the dinosaurs.
How many cognates were you able to identify?
____________
In the space below write 4 of them in alphabetic order. Then translate the words
into Spanish.
English cognate
Spanish equivalent
1. _________________________________
___________________________________
2. _________________________________
___________________________________
3. _________________________________
___________________________________
4. _________________________________
___________________________________
68
Did you find any false friend in the above passage? ___________. If your answer is
YES, write down the word or words you found.
_________________
_________________
__________________ _________________
What are the advantages and / or disadvantages of dealing with cognates when
reading in a foreign language? Have you ever had any funny or unusual
experience related with cognates or false cognates? Discuss your experience with
your classmates and your teacher.
Exercise 23:
False friends
The words in the parentheses are known as false friends because they seem to be
similar to words in Spanish. Use your dictionary to find the meaning of each of
the words. Then fill in the gaps with the correct word.
1 Did you know that Chrissie got ________________ (embarrassed / pregnant) on
holiday in Ibiza?
2 The ________________ (signature / subject) I hate most is maths.
3 Begonia is a very ________________ (kind / sympathetic) person.
4 Keep ________________ (removing / stirring) the soup the whole time.
5 I couldnt agree more. Thats a very ________________ (sensible / sensitive)
idea.
6 The film The Quiet American was a box-office ________________ (exit / success).
7 How many ________________ (idioms / languages) can you speak?
8 ________________ (Actually / Nowadays) Im living with my parents again.
9 The poor live in the ________________ (slums / suburbs).
10 The police came to my ________________ (assistance / attendance).
11 Ive got ________________ (a cold / constipation). Pass me a tissue, please.
12 I was only living with my parents ________________ (eventually / temporarily).
13 The government have ________________ (inverted / invested) a lot of money in
the new scheme.
69
70
Step 2: Once you know the most common meaning of the word, make a
word card
If you use an index card, write the word in English in one colour on one side, and
the Spanish equivalent in another colour on the other. If you can:
k Ul
3. Pronounce the word, say it!
Now you use it. Personalize the word in a sentence of your own!!! The more you
use the word and relate it to things in your own life, the easier you will learn it.
71
Remember to add the new meanings and uses to your vocabulary card, file or
notebook. Highlight differences and similarities, use coloured pens, underline
the word, use it to connect ideas, write notes!!
Step 4: Play with words
Use mnemonic techniques. Link new words to old; to familiar sounds.
Make semantic maps
slice
72
Always review the new words: once a day, once a week, once a fortnight Review
the old words along with the new.
Most importantly . . . use the word . . . link it to you personally, your world, your
experiences . . . but USE IT!!!
73
74
______________________________________
______________________________________
. . . synthesizing speech?
______________________________________
. . . sensing vibration?
______________________________________
Notice that those nouns describing the nucleus or head noun are usually singular.
Exercise 24:
75
Exercise 25:
__________________________________
2.
__________________________________
3.
__________________________________
4.
__________________________________
5.
__________________________________
6.
__________________________________
7.
__________________________________
8.
__________________________________
9.
Methods of production
__________________________________
10.
Mechanics of fluids
__________________________________
11.
__________________________________
12.
Interpretation of photographs
__________________________________
76
13.
__________________________________
14.
__________________________________
__________________________________
16.
__________________________________
Did you notice how you worked from back to front in order to form your
compound nouns?
Exercise 26:
Part A. Explain the meaning of the following compound nouns in your own
words.
1.
burglar alarm
____________________________________________
2.
germanium diode
____________________________________________
3.
assembly line
____________________________________________
4.
cellphone
____________________________________________
5.
wavemeter
____________________________________________
6.
nobleman
____________________________________________
7.
pipeline
____________________________________________
8.
wallpaper
____________________________________________
9.
toothbrush
____________________________________________
10.
starlight
____________________________________________
11.
goatskin
____________________________________________
12.
riverbank
____________________________________________
13.
wavelength
____________________________________________
14.
fishbone
____________________________________________
77
communication satellite
___________________________________________
satellite communication
___________________________________________
a car battery
___________________________________________
a battery car
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
a gas turbine
___________________________________________
a turbine gas
___________________________________________
an assault rifle
___________________________________________
a rifle assault
___________________________________________
my tea plantation
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
light indicators
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
_____________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
water-plant treatment
___________________________________________
Exercise 27:
Part A. See how many compound nouns you can make by using the words on lists
A and B.
Your words
Your words
cancer
pump
________________________
________________________
mercury
fatigue
________________________
________________________
78
air
research
________________________
________________________
vacuum
level
________________________
________________________
metal
bottom
________________________
________________________
sea
pressure
________________________
________________________
Part B. Join one word from column A and one from column B to make compound
nouns. Then, complete the sentences with one of the compound nouns formed.
A
Your words
screen
case
________________________
earth
moon
________________________
eye
shield
________________________
brief
quake
________________________
honey
set
________________________
sun
sight
________________________
As we have seen, compound nouns are used in scientific English because they are
concise: the compound noun is shorter than writing out the entire phrase.
Phrases can be turned into compound nouns and vice versa. When two or more
nouns are put together to form a compound, the first nouns act as adjectives for
the last one. When this occurs, adjectival nouns usually do not take their plural
form. Sometimes only the context helps you to understand whether the concept
behind the compound noun is singular or plural:
After the hurricane, the city had to get ready for very strict
disease control. (= control of diseases in general)
In the case of AIDS, we have not yet reached a stage of total
disease control. (= control of the disease called AIDS)
79
Exercise 28:
Look at the following compound nouns and pay attention to their meaning:
animal-trapping fungi = fungi that trap animals
animal-trapped fungi = fungi that are trapped by animals
As you know, ing and ed indicate the gerund and the past (or, as in this case,
the past participle) of verbs. When a compound noun includes words with these
endings, be careful to interpret them correctly. In the above examples you can see
that when the verb in the compound has an ing, the noun following it performs
the action of the verb. On the other hand, when it has an ed, the noun following
it is the object of the verbs action. Notice this is interpreted in the same way we
would regular adjectives as in the examples below:
a boring movie = a movie that bores the audience
a bored spectator = a spectator that is bored by a show
an interesting book = a book that interests readers
an interested reader = a person who is interested in a reading
Part A. Explain the difference between the following concepts.
fungus-caused disease
_____________________________________
fungus-causing disease
_____________________________________
oil-propelled engine
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
methane-powered engine
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
ant-eaten mammal
___________________________________________
mammal-eating ants
___________________________________________
boa-feeding services
___________________________________________
rodent-fed boa
___________________________________________
Did you notice how irregular verbs (such as eat) do not take ed for their past
participle? Also please note that hyphens (-) may not always be used.
80
Part B. Explain the meaning of the following compound nouns in your own
words.
1.
light-emitting diode
____________________________________________
2.
salt-bearing strata
____________________________________________
3.
reef-building
organism
____________________________________________
4.
banana-splitting
system
____________________________________________
5.
man-eating animal
____________________________________________
6.
roach-infested attic
____________________________________________
7.
lid-covered container
____________________________________________
8.
horse-plowed field
____________________________________________
9.
orange-squeezing
machine
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
81
82
If you answered A, B, or C, then you are not reading as effectively and efficiently
as you could be. The best strategy for dealing with an unknown word is to try to
guess what it means. This strategy is useful because:
it is fast as you dont have to interrupt your reading and you can enjoy the text
because you dont have to stop so often;
it helps your concentration because you stay focused on the general sense of what
you are reading; and
it helps build vocabulary because you probably remember the words.
In this chapter you will find some strategies that you can use to understand the
unknown words you might meet while reading. Some of them are:
context clues
synonyms and antonyms
morphological clues
definitions, restatements, examples and explanations
83
Exercise 29:
Identify the meaning of the italicized word. Then write the word(s) in the
sentence which worked as clues to help you.
1. The rock singer was very popular. A crowd was waiting at the park to
listen to her songs.
Crowd means
a lot of
people.
few
The word(s) which helped me were: __________________________________
2. There are many ships near our city, so there is a lot of tar in the water.
When there is tar in the water, the water is dirty.
clean.
The word(s) which helped me were: __________________________________
3. I helped my friend in math. He was very grateful. He thanked me again
and again.
A grateful person is
appreciative of
someones favor.
indifferent to
The word(s) which helped me were: __________________________________
4. He ate large amounts of food, so he got very fat.
Large amounts of food is
a little
food.
a lot of
The word(s) which helped me were: __________________________________
5. I didnt expect a present from Danny, so I was surprised when he gave
me a radio!
To expect means to think something is
going to happen.
isnt
The word(s) which helped me were: __________________________________
84
6. They bothered me all the time. They had no consideration for my privacy
or my need to rest.
To have consideration means not to care about other peoples feelings.
to care
The word(s) which helped me were: __________________________________
7. Excuse me, said the girl, I thought you were someone else. She was
very embarrassed.
When you are embarrassed you are
proud.
uncomfortable.
satisfied.
The word(s) which helped me were: __________________________________
Adapted from Feuerstein, T., & Schcolnik, M. (1995). Enhancing Reading Comprehension in the Language
Learning Classroom. San Francisco, CA: Alta Books Center.
Exercise 30:
Use the two sentences given after the question to help you guess the meaning of
the word. These words are more difficult, but remember, dont use your
dictionary.
1. What does ravenous mean? _____________________________________
A. Could I have a piece of bread? I missed breakfast and Im simply
ravenous.
B. The poor horse was ravenous and it ate the leaves and bark off the
trees.
2. What does dike mean? _________________________________________
A. After so much rain, the river flowed over the dike and into the fields.
B. People in this area began building dikes many centuries ago. It was
the only way to keep the sea out of their village.
3. What does pitch mean? ________________________________________
A. The singer was so terribly off pitch that it hurt my ears to listen.
B. The ambulance siren was at such a high pitch that we all jumped.
4. What does mold mean? _________________________________________
A. The liquid plastic was poured into a mold and left there until it was
hard.
B. The dentist first makes a mold of his patients teeth. From that he
makes a model of the teeth to decide how to correct any problem.
5. What does squall mean? ________________________________________
85
A. The squall arrived so suddenly that we all got wet when we ran home
from the beach.
B. When they saw the squall coming, the sailors took down the sail and
headed for the port.
6. What does gush mean? __________________________________________
A. When the fountain was turned on, the water gushed up several feet
into the air.
B. The blood gushed out of his wound until the doctor put on a tight
bandage.
7. What does soggy mean? __________________________________________
A. The study window had been left open during the storm, and my
papers were a soggy mess.
B. We gathered up the soggy towels and bathing suits and hung them all
in the sun to dry.
8. What does rugged mean? _________________________________________
A. Susan and her husband led a rugged life in the Alaskan mountains,
with no electricity and no running water.
B. The young mans face was rugged, but his smile was friendly and the
children soon forgot their fears.
9. What does stoop mean? ___________________________________________
A. The old man walked slowly along, all stooped over and leaning on a
stick.
B. When I stooped down to get a better look, I realized that it was a dead
rabbit. It must have been hit by a car.
10. What does wink mean? __________________________________________
A. George winked at me from across the room. It was a signal not to say
anything about what we had seen.
B. Ive only known one cat that could wink and that was Tinker. She
really could close just one of her eyes and she did it often.
Taken from Feuerstein, T., & Schcolnik, M. (1995). Enhancing Reading Comprehension in the Language Learning
Classroom. San Francisco, CA: Alta Books Center.
86
An orange can be a delicious snack. This citrus fruit is also very healthy
for you because it is a good source of vitamin C.
Exercise 31:
Synonyms
From the list below, choose a synonym for the italicized word in each sentence.
Write it on the line provided.
on the average
battle
complicated
hardly
omit
customer
extremely angry
lack
useful
move forward
87
You can also build your vocabulary by asking yourself if you know the antonym
or opposite of one of the most important words in a sentence. Knowing antonyms
also helps you to learn words in a complete sentence. According to some
researchers, this makes them easier to remember.
You will notice as well that some words have several opposites depending on the
context. For example, the opposite of old could be new or young depending on
the situation, as in the sentences below:
1. Pedro is very lucky; his English teacher is young and beautiful. Im
unlucky; my teacher is old and ugly.
2. Mary and Paul have just moved from an old house to a new flat.
Can you think of any more examples like this? Write them in the space below.
Compare them with your classmates.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Asking yourself questions about your own Englishwhat you know, and what
you dont knowwill help you to improve more quickly.
Exercise 32:
Antonyms
Complete each sentence with the opposite of the italicized word. Choose from the
following list. Use each word once only.
cry
increase
hate
borrow
sharp
reject
shallow
tight
light
present
receive
set
88
89
90
5. Everyone can vote in our country: the educated and the ignorant, the
affluent and the poor.
Affluent means __________________________________________.
6. She likes warm colours such as red, scarlet, and vermilion.
Vermilion is ______________________________________________.
Exercise 33:
Nonsense words
The words that appear in italics in the following statements are nonsense words,
that is, words that do not exist in Englishtherefore you cannot find them in the
dictionary! But you can guess their meanings from the context . . . Can you? If you
can, write an equivalent for each nonsense word and underline the words that
helped you. If you cant, double underline the words you dont know but which are
needed for understanding the nonsense word.
1. My father is a bodder. He can make beautiful things out of wood.
Bodder = ___________________________________________________
2. Alma is really gribb, but her sister is gribber, so she finds it easier to
find jobs.
Gribb = ____________________________________________________
3. Ben is quite grappy. He never lets anyone finish a sentence.
Grappy= ___________________________________________________
4. Last night, both Sherry and David became very gompered. They
wouldnt stop shouting at each other.
Gompered = ________________________________________________
91
Check contextual
clues and definitions
clear
unclear
Go to next word
Check morphological
clues
clear
unclear
Go to next word
Look it up in
dictionary
Taken from Feuerstein, T., & Schcolnik, M. (1995). Enhancing Reading Comprehension in the Language Learning
Classroom. San Francisco, CA: Alta Books Center.
92
Emphasis words
Among the most valuable signals for you to know are emphasis words, through
which the writer tells you directly that a particular idea or detail is
especially important. The following list contains some typical words showing
emphasis.
important to note
most of all
a significant factor
a primary concern
the most substantial issue
a key feature
the main value
Exercise 34:
especially valuable
most noteworthy
remember that
a major event
the chief outcome
the principal item
pay attention to
Read the selections that follow and underline the emphasis words.
93
Addition words
Addition words tell you that the author is going to continue in the same
direction; the author is going to add on more points or details of the same kind.
Typical examples of addition words are those indicating time and sequence, but
they are not the only kind. Look over the following addition words.
and
also
another
for one thing
Exercise 35:
in addition
furthermore
likewise
moreover
finally
last of all
Read the selections that follow and underline the addition words.
1. Involving the community and the larger society in combating child maltreatment
means getting people other than parents to help with child rearing. One form of relief
for abused and neglected children is to remove them from their parents homes and
place them in foster care. Another alternative is the use of supplemental mothers
who are available regularly to baby-sit with potential maltreated children. Moreover,
there are community-based crisis nurseries where parents can take their children
when they feel they need to get away for a few hours. Ideally, crisis nurseries are
open twenty-four hours a day and accept children at any hour without prearrangement in order to relieve or divert a crisis in the parent-child relationship.
2. The quality of our decisions is affected by the information we use in making them. For
one thing, if we fail to consider carefully all available information, we can limit the
number of alternatives or make a premature choice. Furthermore, the information we
use may be distorted because it is outdated or misrepresented by its source. Also, we
can unwittingly distort information because of our personal beliefs, attitudes and
values. Finally, new information may change our decisions.
94
Change-of-direction words
Change-of-direction words prepare you for a change in the direction of the
writers thought. They tell you that the writer will probably reverse or modify a
previous statement. Look over the following change-of-direction words.
but
even though
conversely
Exercise 36:
instead
in contrast
yet
on the contrary
on the other hand
still
however
otherwise
nevertheless
Read the selections that follow and underline the change-of-direction words.
1. Males have dominated movies to such an extend that from 1966 to 1972 every movie
that won the Academy Award for best picture did not have a major female role. There
is some evidence, however, that the myth of machismo best exemplified by the
Western and gangster movie is slowly receding in the movies.
2. The elderly age segment is another growing market that presents many opportunities
for marketers, and it will continue to grow as longevity increases. Demand will rise for
health care and services, books, nursing homes, travel, retirement housing, and many
leisure-time activities. But people in this age group do not like to be stereotyped, and
marketers must be sensitive in communicating with them.
Illustration words
Illustration words tell you that an example or illustration will be given in
order to make an idea clear. Look over the following illustration words.
for example
once
thus
Exercise 37:
to illustrate
for instance
like
specifically
such as
including
Read the selections that follow and underline the illustration words.
1. Test markets are usually selected as being typical American cities with a good cross
section of income and ethnic groups. Columbus, Ohio, for example, has long been
known as an excellent city in which to taste new products and learn consumers
reactions.
95
2. The qualities of leadership in human societies are not as clear-cut and easy to see as
they are in animal societies. Most people, for instance, have certain qualities that
allow them to be leaders at one time or another, or in one situation or another.
Conclusion words
Conclusion words tell you to expect the writers last and possibly most
important point within a paragraph or larger unit of thought. Look over
the following conclusion words.
therefore
consequently
last of all
Exercise 38:
thus
in summary
so
hence
in conclusion
at last
finally
as a result
at the end
Read the selections that follow and underline the conclusion words.
1. When romance fades, all too often the marriage fades with it. Thus, by celebrating
romance so avidly, we may be simultaneously undermining the very relationships we
hope to promote stable, enduring, child-producing marriages.
2. Remember that even if you visit an individual and get a personal promise of a
reference, there may be forty other students doing the same thing. Consequently, the
professor may still have trouble identifying you without some reference form from
which to work. The rsum provides this.
Underline the main linking words in the selections that follow. Then, write
down each linking word and identify whether it shows emphasis, addition,
change of direction, illustration or conclusion.
1. All of us desire approval, particularly from people we love and respect. But too much
reliance on the approval of others can do great damage to the self-concept. We can
never really know what other people think of us. Furthermore, their opinions change.
Therefore, if we rely on their approval in order to start liking ourselves, we are
doomed to wait eternally since their approval will never be absolute or final.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
96
2. It has tended to be true as a general rule, for example, that poor people vote
Democratic and rich people vote Republican. Yet if we ask each why, neither usually
connects his or her economic status with his or her vote. Nevertheless, the
combination is such a common phenomenon that we suspect that there is a
connection.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
3. There are several cultural reasons why the aged are stigmatized and oppressed in
American society. One is that the members of our society are obsessed with youth.
We have traditionally associated a number of highly valued traits with youth, such as
beauty, health, sexual vigor, happiness, usefulness, and intelligence. As a result of
this association, those considered old are typically believed to be physically
unattractive, sickly, asexual, useless, and incompetent. Second, in our rapidly
changing, highly technical society, old people are considered to be unnecessary.
Their wisdom represents another age that is irrelevant now. On the other hand, in
simpler societies where tradition is paramount, the elderly are highly respected,
admired, and even revered because they are repositories of the groups accumulated
wisdom.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Exercise 40:
Read the statements below. Underline the words that join the phrases or the
sentences. What role do they play in the sentences? The first one is done for you.
1
Man and apes are similar physically. Correspondingly, their nervous systems
are alike.
This is used to _______________________________________________________
Even though they are small, ants are proportionally much stronger than
man.
This is used to _______________________________________________________
97
Exercise 41:
as soon as
when
I get there.
Exercise 42:
Although
we left late, we still got there on time.
In spite of
It was a fantastic evening
although
in spite of
We decided to go in spite of
despite
He thought the car was too However,
expensive. On the other hand,
They enjoyed the course, even though
whereas
I love the ocean furthermore
whereas
We found a lovely bungalow In addition,
near the lake we can rent. However,
98
Exercise 43:
Part A. Complete the following sentences with a word below. Discuss the
meaning the word gives to the sentence.
however
rather than
similarly
but
even though
in fact
otherwise
whereas
in spite of
nevertheless
instead
on the contrary
while
despite
likewise
Part B. From the list below, add a suitable word to the following statements in
order to make a coherent sentence. Some words mean the same, so please use as
many as possible for variety.
therefore
in other words
however
nevertheless
as a result
consequently
at the same time
in spite of
99
100
Concept maps
These are special forms of diagrams used for obtaining information, finding
relationships between data and sharing the information gathered. They consist of
cells that contain a concept, item or question and labelled links which show the
link between the different concepts or ideas. Examples of kinds of concept maps
are:
102
The Fishbone
This type of map is used to show the
causal interaction of complex events.
Key questions are: What are the
factors that cause X to occur? How do
they interrelate? Do these factors allow
X to persist?
Remember: use graphic organizers when you read texts to help you visualize the
information more easily.
104
Focus on Summarizing
What is summarizing?
Summarizing is the process of retelling the important parts of a passage in a much
shorter form. It is an important reading skill. When you are able to summarize a
passage, you can be confident that you have understood it.
A good summary should present a clear, concise idea of the main points of an article.
It should include the main ideas and the major supporting points of what you have
read.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Reread the text, highligh important information and take notes on the main
points.
Using your notes as guide, write the first draft of your summary. It should
include:
a. A topic sentence that states the name of the article, the author, and the
source.
b. A body that focuses on explaining, in your own words, the main ideas
presented in the article, but do not include minor detail.An effective
way to do this is by answering the questions what, where, when, and
why.
c. A final statement that summarizes any conclusions the author madein
the article.
Revise the draft of your summary and be sure that you did not include any
of you r own thoughts or opinions about the topic.
Edit your summary to make sure that the grammar, spelling, punctuation,
and capitalization are correct.
Go through the process again, making changes as appropriate.
A patent is an exclusive right to use an invention for a certain period of time, which is
given to an inventor as compensation for disclosure of an invention.
Although it would be beneficial for the world economy to have uniform patent laws,
each country has its own laws designed to protect domestic inventions and safeguard
technology. Despite widespread variation, patent laws generally fall under one of two
principles: the first-to-file and first-to-invent. The first-to-file principle awards a patent
106
to the person or institution that applies for a patent first, while the first-to invent
principle grants the patent to the person or institution that was first to invent and can
prove it. Most countries have adopted the first-to-file system. However, the United
States maintains a first-to-invent system, despite obvious shortcomings. A result of
countries employing different patent law principles is inconsistency of patent
ownership.
Patent ownership is not recognized globally. On the contrary, ownership may change
depending on the country. It is not uncommon for an invention to have two patent
owners one in the United States and one in the rest of the world. This unclear
ownership often has economic consequences. If a company is interested in using a
patented invention, it may be unable to receive permission from both patent owners,
which in turn may prevent manufacture of a particular product. Even if permission is
received from both owners, pay royalties to both may be quite costly. In this case, if
the invention is useful enough, a company may proceed and pass on the added cost to
consumers.
International economic tension has also been increasing as a result of differing
policies. Many foreign individuals and companies believe that they are at a serious
disadvantage in the United States with regard to patent ownership because of the
logistical difficulties in establishing first-to invent status. Further, failure of the United
States to recognize patent ownership in other countries is in violation of the Paris
Conventions on Industrial Properties, which requires all member nations to treat all
patents equally. The conflict surrounding patents has prompted the World Intellectual
Properties Organization (WIPO) to lobby for universality in patent laws. WIPO
maintains that the first necessary step involves compelling the United States to
reexamine its patent principle, taking into account the reality of a global economy.
This push may indeed result in more global economic cooperation.
Taken and adapted from: How to Write a Summary available at
http://www.sa.sdsu.edu/dss/summary.pdf
What is a definition?
A definition is the formal statement of the meaning of a concept or a word.
Definitions must be concise and relevant because they deal with the important
characteristics of the concept. By recognizing definitions, you will focus attention
on the significant points to be considered in the text.
Note that definitions are often marked in texts by punctuation marks such as a
comma (,), or a colon (:). In some cases, the expressions that is or i.e. are used as
definition markers. For example:
Infrared light waves, the waves that are in the right side of the spectrum . . .
Infrared light waves: the waves that are in the right side of the spectrum . . .
Infrared light waves, that is, the waves that are in the right side of the spectrum . . .
Infrared light waves, i.e., the waves that are in the right side of the spectrum . . .
The structure of the text should also answer questions such as What is ______?
What does ___________ mean?
108
Class
is a vehicle
Characteristics
that has a motor and four wheels and
is used to transport things or people
from one place to another.
Class
is a circuit
Characteristics
containing active elements that can
assume either one of two stable
states at any given time.
Writing definitions
Simple definitions can be written in the following way, starting with the term to
be defined:
Term + Verb + General class word + Wh word + Particular characteristics
Example: A fossil is an inorganic trace which is buried by natural
processes and subsequently permanently preserved.
Exercise 44:
Match the term to its definition. Then join the two sentences using the correct
relative pronoun, that, which or who.
Term
1. An engineer is a person
Definition
A. It produces electricity.
2. A microscope is an instrument
3. A generator is a machine
4. A botanist is a person
5. A square is a geometric figure
6. A cucumber is a vegetable
7. An economist is a person
8. An encyclopedia is a book
110
Lets begin by looking at sentence definitions. Match each concept with its
corresponding class and characteristics and/or examples. Then write down a
definition for each concept.
Concept
Class
dog
fruit
in the air
humidity
electrical appliance
lamp
animal
orange
instrument
telephone
amount of water
1. _________________________________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________________________________
3. _________________________________________________________________________
4. _________________________________________________________________________
5. _________________________________________________________________________
Adapted from Feuerstein, T., & Schcolnik, M. (1995). Enhancing Reading Comprehension in the Language
Learning Classroom. San Francisco, CA: Alta Books Center.
Exercise 45:
112
Exercise 46:
Go back to the different types of definitions you can find in technical texts. Then
read the following selections, underline each definition and indicate the example
of the definition given. Some definitions will have several examples, but you need
to mark off the example that makes the definition clear to you.
1. Mixtures are combinations of two or more elements and compounds, or of two or more
compounds. The combination is merely a physical mixing. Therefore, the components
of a mixture can be separated by physical means. For example, consider a mixture of
iron fillings (element) and salt (a compound). We know this combination is a mixture
because we can separate the components by a physical process. We can use a
magnet to attract the iron away from the salt. Or we could place the mixture in water
(which dissolves the salt) and filter, thereby separating the iron fillings. The salt
solution is also a mixture. The mixed compounds, salt and water, can be separated by
the physical change of boiling the water away and thereby leaving the salt behind.
Type of definition: ____________________________________________
Term being defined: ___________________________________________
General class: ________________________________________________
Indicators: ___________________________________________________
2. Our self-concept is the product of learning. This learning goes on every day, usually
without our being aware of it. Learning may be defined as a relatively permanent
psychological change that occurs in us as a consequence of experience. Through the
experience of falling in the bathtub and getting his nose full of water, a child may learn
to fear the water. The same principle operates in the learning of the self-concept. A fat
child, through the experience of listening to her classmates poke fun at her body,
learns that being fat is bad and therefore that she is bad. In the learning of the selfconcept, there are three important factors that must be considered: association,
consequences and motivation.
Type of definition: ____________________________________________
Term being defined: ___________________________________________
General class: ________________________________________________
Indicators: ___________________________________________________
Exercise 47:
Analyzing definitions
114
Here are some more indicators of definitions. See if you can find them in the
sentences that follow:
is defined as
is concerned with
Astronomy deals with
relates to
involves
We can define
We can consider
astronomy
In this context,
For our purposes,
Exercise 48:
1. Parasitology may be defined as the branch of biology which deals with the nature of
parasitism and its effects on both the parasite and the host. Broadly defined, a
parasite is an organism which lives for all or part of its life on or in another organism
from which it derives some benefit, such as food, shelter or protection. Organisms
living on the host are known as ectoparasites; those living within the host organism
are called endoparasites.
Paragraph taken from Bates/Dudley Evans, pp. 38
A. parasite
B. endoparasites
2. Kinematics is the branch of applied mathematics that deals with the motion of bodies
without considering the forces which produce such motion. When a body moves, so
changing its position, the distance it has moved is measured by the length of its path
of motion. Distance is therefore a scalar quantity. Speed is also a scalar quantity.
Speed is defined as the rate of change of distance with time. The speed of a body
measured in a definite direction is known as its velocity. Consequently, velocity is a
vector quantity. If there is a change in either the speed of a body or its direction of
motion, then the body is subject to an acceleration. We may therefore define
acceleration as the rate of change of velocity with time. When the speed of a body
decreases with time the rate of decrease of speed is known as deceleration.
Passage taken from Bates/Dudley Evans, pp.38
116
What is description?
To describe is to give the characteristics of something or someone. It
emphasizes the physical nature and /or structure of an object (shape, size, colour,
etc.) It may also give the relationship of the object to its surroundings (location,
position). Some specific devices which are characteristic of description are:
adjectives
sense data
descriptive sequence
1. Adjectives
The presence of adjectives is characteristic of description as adjectives tell us
what something is like. Adjectives are words like short, old, cheap, happy, nice,
electric, etc. An adjective modifies a noun; the function of adjectives is to give you
a sense of the physical and other qualities of things (large, quiet, friendly) as well
as the writers opinion or attitude (excellent, beautiful).
2. Sense data
The second device typical of description is sense data, that is words, phrases and
expressions that refer to the five senses: sight, touch, hearing, smell and taste.
We often use can and could for perceptions; e.g.:
I can see something under the sofa.
3. Descriptive sequence
Finally, the third device is descriptive sequence or the structure the writer uses
when describing the different parts or characteristics of the object/ scene/person/
situation.
In order to identify the structure of description, look for words or expressions
such as:
X has/have . . ., X consist(s) of . . ., X contain(s) . . ., X is/are
characterised by . . ., X is/are made of . . ., X is/are composed of . . ., etc.
The structure should also answer questions such as:
How is X? Which are the characteristics of X? What does X look like? What are
the parts of X?
Exercise 49:
Now lets look at some extracts. How can you identify them as being descriptive?
What was the authors purpose in writing them?
1. Sonar: is the name put together from Sound Navegation and Ranging. It uses highfrequency sound waves to measure ocean depths. An instrument on shipboard called
a fathometer, using an electrical vibrator, sends a short blast of sound into the water.
The waves produced, travelling at about 4,800 feet/second hit the ocean bottom and
bounce back to a microphone on the ship. The time between the sending of the blast
and the return of the echo is marked automatically on a moving strip of paper. With
this information the distance to the bottom can be determined easily.
The author uses: A. adjectives
B. sense data
C. descriptive sequence
2. An octopus appears to be just a huge head with eight long, fearful arms. Its head is
soft and rubberlike. Its eyes stick out on stalks so that it can see in all directions. Its
mouth is on the underside of its body and has powerful jaws shaped like a beak. The
long arms, or tentacles, have double rows of suckers. These can fasten onto objects
with such suction that they cannot be pulled off.
The author uses: A. adjectives
B. sense data
C. descriptive sequence
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What is classification?
When we divide something into groups, classes, categories, etc. we are classifying
those items, i.e., separating objects from one another. The simplest
classification divides things into those that show groups of characteristics that
are shared and those that do not. For example, you would not place fish and birds
together in the same class with trees and so the classification is made according
to a criterion or several criteria. The criteria is the basic concept or idea that
the author is using as the basis for grouping information. Lets look at this first
example.
Exercise 50:
Determining criteria
Cross out the word that is not related to the other words in the rows below. Write
the common criteria on the line to the right. The first is done for you.
1. red
blue
yellow
square
2. morning
year
noon
night
_____________
3. piano
violin
orchestra
oboe
_____________
4. second
five
three
six
_____________
5. minutes
clock
hours
seconds
_____________
6. English
Arabic
Italy
French
_____________
7. Saturn
Venus
Radium
Mars
_____________
8. physics
chemistry
dance
biology
_____________
colours
In explaining how the words are related, you are classifying the information.
Exercise 51:
Read the following paragraph and first highlight the concept being classified and
then underline the criteria used for the classification. The first has been marked
for you. Find the others.
Exercise 52:
Now, take a look at these sentences. Can you identify the words which indicate
classification? Underline them. The first one has been done for you.
1. Materials can be broadly divided into the following categories: metals
and metal alloys; inorganic materials, ceramics and cements; organic
substances, synthetic polymers; biological structures.
2. Reactions may be classified as combinations or decompositions.
3. Mechanical mixtures can be separated into the two or more phases that
constitute them by suitable mechanical means: filtration, flotation,
centrifugation, etc.
4. There are many classes of vertebrates: one class includes all those
vertebrates which produce milk to suckle their young.
5. Other studies of blood DNA confirmed that humans should be grouped
with the chimps and gorillas, leaving the orangutans and gibbons in two
other groups.
6. Predation is another type of exploitation of one species by another.
7. The control of carbon dioxide is an example of homeostasis in which
some sense receptors outside the central nervous system and others in
120
the brain itself affect coordinating centers in two different parts of the
brain.
How did these words indicate that a classification was being made?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Types of classification
Information can be classified in several ways. For example, from general to
specific, in other words, the text presents first the superordinate term and then
the subordinate ones.
Parasites
The chemical
elements
are
may be
can be
could be
classified
grouped
divided
arranged
categorized
into
classified
categorized
grouped
classed
as
divisions
groups
types
classes
categories
kinds
There are three chief
types
of symbiosis: commensalism,parasitism and mutualism
classes
categories
The amoeba is
is
may be
could be
classified
categorized
classed
as
right-handed
an example of
a type of
(an) animal that carries on only intracellular digestion
a kind of
a form of
a (n)
Exercise 53:
Go back to the previous exercise. Can you find the term being classified and the
type of classification used based on the chart above? Tick the appropriate one.
1. ________________________
2. _________________________
3. _________________________
4. _________________________
5. __________________________
6 __________________________
7. __________________________
We shall first divide all plant tissues into two major categories: meristematic tissue
and permanent tissue. Meristematic tissues are composed of immature cells and are
regions of active cell division; permanent tissues are composed of more mature,
differentiated cells.
122
Comparison and contrast is also used with extended definitions where the writer
discusses similarities or differences between the item being defined and an item
with which the readers are more familiar.
Exercise 54:
Part A. Read the following extract. What item is being defined? How does the
writer do this?
A bit brace is a manual tool used to drill holes. Cranked by hand, it can theoretically
turn bit to bore a hole in any material that a power drill can bore. Like a power drill, a
bit brace can accept any number of different sizes and shapes of bits. The principal
differences between a bit brace and a power drill are: a bit brace drills much more
slowly, it is a manual tool and so it can be used where no electricity is available and it
makes almost no noise in use.
Item being defined: _________________________________________________
The writer does this by: _____________________________________________
Part B. Lets look at the following text to answer these questions.
What is the author comparing? ______________________________________
In what ways are they similar? ______________________________________
In what ways are they different? _____________________________________
What words indicate the similarities and differences? Underline them.
Use a Venn diagram to map the information. Remember to put the areas in which
they are similar in C and the differences in A and B.
The elements phosphorus (P) and silicon (Si) have numerous similarities and
differences. They are both nonmetallic elements with comparable atomic numbers.
Neither number is high: silicons atomic number is 14 and phosphoruss number is 15.
Their melting points are also parallel: the melting point of silicon is 1410C and that of
phosphorus is 1554C. Nonetheless, phosphorus and silicon are dissimilar in many
ways. Phosphorus is a yellow, waxy solid, whereas silicon often appears in a brown
crystalline form. Phosphorus is used in fertilizers and detergents, but silicon, in
contrast, is used in semi-conductor devices.
Remember,
Venn Diagrams
are used to show
similarities and differences.
Assuming that the brain and the computer are both machines, how are the two to be
compared? The exercise is interesting. Computers are invented by man and are
therefore thoroughly understood, if human beings can be said to understand anything;
what they do not know is what future computers will be like. The brain was created by
evolution and is in many important ways not understood. Both machines process
information and both work with signals that are roughly speaking electrical. Both have,
in the largest versions, many elements. Here, however, there is an interesting
difference. For cells to be manufactured biologically appears to be reasonably simple
and neurons are in fact produced in prodigious numbers. It seems to be not so easy
to increase the elements of a computer, even though the numbers are expanding
rapidly. If synapses rather than neurons are considered to be elements of the nervous
system, however, I can hardly imagine computers catching up. No one would want to
be held to a guess as to the number of synapses in a brain, but 10 trillion would not
be implausible.
Where microcosmos
Unlike
In contrast to
Compared to
In comparison to
differs from
other hands-on programs is in its choice of subject matter.
is different from
like
similar to
indium, very soft.
comparable to
resemble(s)
parallel(s)
124
Exercise 55:
Now look at the following statements. Decide what the writer is comparing or
contrasting. Underline the similarities and highlight the differences.
1. Although the basic unit of the vertebrate kidney, the nephron, differs
from that of the crayfish kidney in external appearance, the general
process are parallel in both.
The writer is comparing/contrasting: ________________________________
2. The chemistry of gallium is very similar to that of aluminum.
The writer is comparing/contrasting: ________________________________
3. The strain rates computed for both the eastern and western subnetworks are comparable in magnitude and direction.
The writer is comparing/contrasting: ________________________________
4. A computer can solve a complex problem in seconds; by way of
contrast, men would take weeks, maybe months, to do the same
operations.
The writer is comparing/contrasting: ________________________________
126
Until the 1940s, this tube, the only amplifier, was the
basis of the electronics industry.
Exercise 56:
Now from the examples, see if you can identify some other words that also
indicate time sequence. Underline them and then write them in the column. Some
are done for you.
Next
Then
Exercise 57:
On your own
Here are some other indicators of time. Find examples of their use in your
readings. Write the sentence next to the corresponding word.
Before
Eventually
While
Subsequently
Recently
Exercise 58:
Part A. Place the following sentences in their correct position in the text. Write
the letter corresponding to the sentence in the space provided.
1. ___. He introduced the theory of electromagnetic energy. ___. In his paper he showed
that when an electromagnetic force is changed, it travels through space as a wave.
Maxwell, however, did not make electromagnetic waves, experiment with them, or
128
suggest using them for communication. ___. He transmitted the first electromagnetic
waves across a room, and he received the wave signal on a simple receiver. These
waves were called Hertzian waves. Hertz did not think he could use his apparatus for
communication. ___.
a. In 1864, Maxwell published a paper which suggested that light
was part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
b. In 1888, Hertz proved Maxwells theory.
c. The first important discovery was made by Maxwell.
d. Marconi, however, did believe that it was possible to use Hertzian
waves for communication.
2. Guglielmo Marconi believed that it was possible to use Hertzian waves for
communication. ___. ___. With this wireless telegraph, Marconi first transmitted
electromagnetic waves a short distance, only across a room. ___. He then discovered
that when the antenna was higher, the waves went farther, even over a hill. ___. In
November, 1899, the American ship St. Paul received messages when it was almost
100 kilometers away from the transmitter. ___. He built a special transmitter station
on the coast of England and then took a ship to North America. ___.
a. Finally, Marconi transmitted radio waves from one side of the
Atlantic Ocean to the other.
b. Next, Marconi used his new invention to help ships on the sea.
c. Marconi did his first experiments in the spring of 1895.
d. A year later, he invented the first wireless telegraph.
e. In December 1901, when Marconi received three dots (, S) on
his receiver in Canada, he knew it was possible to transmit radio
waves across the ocean.
f.
3. This was the belief that life could arise spontaneously from nonliving
materials.
4. The idea of spontaneous generation was a long time dying, and it took
a series of experiments over a period of several centuries to lay it to
rest.
5. In 1688, he showed that if meat was covered to keep flies away,
maggots did not develop.
6. By the end of the eighteenth century, spontaneous generation of entire
organisms had been pretty well discredited.
7. Thus, flies created the maggots which, in time, developed into new
flies life from previous life.
8. The Dutch scientist Antonie Van Leuwenhoek (1632-1723), using a
recently developed microscope, followed the life cycle of the flea and
showed that fleas, too, come from other fleas.
The correct order of these sentences is: ________.
A. 1, 3, 6, 2, 5, 7, 8, 4
B. 6, 1, 3, 4, 2, 5, 8, 7
C. 1, 3, 4, 8, 2, 5, 7, 6
D. 1, 3, 4, 2, 5, 7, 8, 6
Paragraph 2
1. Between 1855 and 1872 he published his investigations on color and
color blindness.
2. His findings were published in 1873 in his great work Treatise on
Electricity and Magnetism
3. His textbook, Theory of Heat, was published in 1871.
4. In 1856, J.C. Maxwell, a Scottish physicist, wrote a prize-winning
paper about the rings around Saturn.
5. Maxwell is most famous for his studies in electricity and magnetism.
The correct order of these sentences is:________
A. 4, 1, 2, 3, 5
B. 5, 1, 2, 3, 4
C. 4, 1, 3, 5, 2
D. 5, 2, 1, 4, 3
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Exercise 59:
events
Teller, Edward (b. Jan. 15, 1908, Budapest, Hungary), physicist who made
contributions in nuclear science and led as a scientist, administrator, and public
advocate in the development of the hydrogen bomb.
Abstract of text biography. Teller studied at Budapest, Karlsruhe, Munich, and
Leipzig, and received a PhD in physical chemistry. He continued his studies under
Niels Bohr in Copenhagen and taught at the University of Gottingen. In 1935, he
emigrated to the United States. By 1941, he joined Enrico Fermis team that produced
the first nuclear chain reaction. In 1943, he joined with J. Robert Openheimer on the
secret atomic weapons project at the Los Alamos weapons laboratory in New Mexico.
At wars end, he became the leading advocate of the construction of the hydrogen
bomb. In 1958, he became director of the U.S. second weapons laboratory at
Livermore, Calif. He also taught physics at the University of California at Berkeley. In
1962, the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission presented him with the Enrico Fermi
Award.
1908
Process
Once you can detect chronological order in a text, process is easy because you are
identifying the different stages in an experiment or a process. Lets look at the
first example which describes an experiment. First, read the text through, then
underline the different stages of the experiment. Finally, read the sentences
which follow and put the stages in the correct order by numbering them.
1. Hunter studied short-term memory in rats. He used a special apparatus that had a
cage for the rat and three doors. There was a light in each door. First, Hunter placed
the rat in the closed cage. Next, he turned one of the lights on and then off. There
was food for the rat only at this door. After the light was turned off, the rat had to wait
a short time before it was released from its cage. Then, if it went to the correct door, it
was rewarded with the food that was there. If the rat had to wait only ten seconds or
less, it remembered which was the correct door.
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
2. The following procedure can be used to test short-term memory of information which
is heard. Prior to the experiment, take ten index cards and write three consonants on
each card. Use different letters on each card, for example LTV, QRX, ZYN, etc. To
begin the experiment, sit facing a subject. Read the first card to the subject.
Immediately after you read the card, give the subject a number, for example, 241. The
subject must immediately begin counting backwards from that number by threes (eg.
241, 238, 235, etc.) After ten seconds, say Stop. When you say Stop, the subject
stops counting and is asked to tell you the letters. Keep a record of the number of
correct responses. Wait five seconds and then read the next card. Repeat the
procedure until you have read all ten cards.
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
_____
Say Stop.
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Go back through the texts. What are the words that indicate the different parts or
stages of the experiment? ______________________________________________
Are they similar to the ones you find in texts that describe sequential events? If
so, how? ___________________________________________________________________
Exercise 60:
On your own
Here are some more words which indicate that a process is being described. Find
sentences which illustrate their use as you read other texts.
The first step
is . . .
The first stage
The next step
is . . .
The next stage
begins with
...
commences with
Exercise 61:
Look at the following processes. You will find that the steps described contain
very few of the words you found above. It describes the way in which coffee seeds
are dried. Can you put the stages in order, anyway? Analyze each stage of the
procedure logically. Use the structure of the sentence to help you.
Put the sentences in the correct order. Write the number in the space provided.
Then give texts 2 and 3 a title.
Text 1. Drying coffee beans
1. The few remaining traces of pulp are then removed by washing.
2. If dried in the sun, they must be turned by hand several times a day
for even drying.
3. First, the fresh fruit is pulped by a pulping machine.
4. The coffee seeds are then dried to a moisture content of about 12 per
cent either by exposure to the sun or by hot-air driers.
5. Some pulp still clings to the coffee, however.
________
________
________
________
________
Text 2. _____________________________________
1. The homogenizer is a pump which is capable of exerting considerable
pressure on the milk, thus forcing it through a restricted opening.
2. The milk goes first to a clarifier.
3. The streams of milk then pass into a pre-heater.
4. The small size of the opening causes the milk to travel at high velocity.
5. The clarifier is a machine for applying centrifugal force.
6. The homogenizer thus prevents cream formation even after long
standing.
7. The disks separate the milk into thin streams.
8. The preheater elevates the temperature of the milk to 130 F and then
allows the milk to flow to the homogenizer.
134
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
Text 3. _________________________________________
1. As the mixture falls into the furnace, it meets with a blast of hot air
which fires the coke and raises the temperature of the mixture to
about 1800C.
2. Pig iron is extracted from iron ores such as iron carbonate.
3. As the coke burns, some of it reacts with the oxygen in the air to form
carbon monoxide.
4. This mixture is then fed into a blast furnace.
5. First, the ore is mixed with coke and crushed limestone.
______
______
______
______
______
How did the words in the sentences help you place the stages in the correct order?
Exercise 62:
Part A. Now, lets see if you can use the diagram, which shows the distribution of
electricity from the power station to the consumer, to put the stages in the correct
order.
Taken from Glendinning, E. & McEwan, J. (1999). Oxford English for Electronics
1. It is fed to substations.
2. It is stepped up by a transformer to high voltages for long distance
distribution.
3. It is distributed via the grid to supply points.
4. It is distributed to the domestic consumer.
5. Electricity is generated at the power station at 25 kV.
6. It passes via the switching compound to the grid.
7. It is distributed via overhead or underground cables to intermediate
substations.
______
______
______
______
______
______
______
Part B. Finally, lets look at another graphic organizer, a cycle graph, that you
can use with texts in which a process is described. Use it to map the information
found in the text that follows.
Carbon, the basic element of organic chemistry, undergoes a natural cycle in the environment. It exists in the
form of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. From there it
is absorbed by plants to build carbohydrates in green
leaves. When plants burn, and animals breathe out,
carbon dioxide passes back into the air. Also in decaying plant and animal remains, carbohydrates are broken
down to release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
136
Let us look at a very simple process as the chemist does it and as it might be done in
a chemical process plant. The chemist takes a bottle of Chemical A from a shelf and
pours the required quantity into a glass measure. The chemical is dumped into a flask
and a second liquid, Chemical B, is measured and added in the same way. Chemical
C, a powder, is weighed on a small laboratory scale and added to the two liquids. The
chemist mixes the chemicals together by shaking the flask and heats the mixture over
a small gas flame, with constant shaking. Finally, the mixture is rapidly cooled by
placing the flask in a container of crushed ice. The chemist may have made a total
quantity of a half-liter or less of product.
Taken from Hughson, R. V. The Language of Chemical Engineering in English, Regents Publishing Company, 1979.
Exercise 63:
Writing a process
These sentences describing how a breakfast cereal is made are incomplete and in
the wrong order.
Part A. First, complete each sentence by putting the verb in parentheses in the
passive voice. Then, write out the correct order using the sequence of pictures to
help you. Use the best sequence words to link the sentences. Be sure to give your
text a title.
1. It (store) in the silos
2. These (weave) into biscuits.
3. The wheat (harvest) from the field
4. Each biscuit (bake) until brown.
5. It (cut) in thin strips
6. The grain (cook) to soften it.
7. It (pack) ready to be eaten.
8. The wheat grain (transport) to the silos.
______________________________________
Exercise 64:
The sentences for this exercise were taken from a description of the process for
making glass bottles.
Part A. First, complete the sentences by putting the verb, given at the end of
each, in the correct passive form.
1. It ______________________ into bottles in the mould. (shape)
2. Sometimes broken glass ______________________ (add)
3. The bottles ____________________________ to strengthen the glass. (reheat and cool)
4. Glass ______________________from sand, limestone and soda ash. (make)
5. They are ready ______________________ (use)
6. Glass ____________________________. (produce)
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Part C. Finally, complete the following diagram with the key information of the
process.
is the effect. Sometimes, one cause may lead to several effects and the effects can,
in turn, become the cause of another effect. Lets begin by recognizing cause and
effect patterns in this passage.
When a load is placed on the platform, it causes the load cell to bend very slightly.
This, in turn, causes a change in strain, which triggers a change in the electrical
resistance of the strain gauge. As the resistance changes, so does the output voltage
from the strain gauge. In short, the change in voltage across the strain gauge is
proportional to the load on the platform.
Text taken from Oxford English for Electrical and Mechanical Engineering
Look at these sentences taken from the text above. They describe two actions.
What is the relationship between them?
1a. A load is placed on the platform.
slightly.
2a. The strain gauge is stretched.
One is the cause and the other is the effect and they can be linked like this:
A load is placed on the platform, which causes the load cell
to bend very slightly.
The strain gauge is stretched, which causes the electrical
resistance to change.
Or it can be expressed by placing the effect first as in the following manner:
The load cell bends very slightly because the load
is placed on the platform.
The electrical resistance changes as a result of the strain gauge
being stretched.
The words in italics indicate cause and effect relationship.
Lets look at some other sentences to find the cause and effect pattern and the
words which indicate them. Remember to ask yourself questions.
1. When the air cools off at night, the surface of the rock contracts.
Cause:
Effect:
Indicator:
140
Now that youve found some of the words which indicate cause and effect patterns
in texts, lets look at them more closely.
caused by
due to
as a result of
As
Richard wants to become a veterinarian, he has enrolled in veterinary
Because
school.
Since
causes
leads to
Therefore,
Middle-aged individuals have already Consequently,
middle-aged people generally save a
spent the money necessary for raising a
So,
larger percentage of their money than
family. They are starting to think about
Thus,
young people do.
retirement.
For this
reason,
But, look at the next sentence. These words do not appear. Which action is the
cause and which is the effect?
The suns rays heat up rock during the day and the rock expands.
You can ask the question What does the heat do to the rock? and the answer is
that it causes it to expand.
Obesity facilitates the emergence of diabetes in certain individuals.
You can ask the question Why are some people diabetic? and the answer is
because they are obese.
142
Exercise 65:
There you have found the cause and effect relationship even though there were no
words to guide you. These sentences include verbs that join cause and effect
statements.
Can you identify the verbs and the statements that they link in the following
sentences? Circle the verbs, underline the causes and double underline the
effects.
1. The introduction of computers has brought about significant changes in
office routines.
2. Computers can create artificial objects in their memories. This allows
developers to test product design without actually creating a real
prototype.
3. A solar eclipse results when the moon comes between the earth and the
sun.
4. It has been proven that extended periods of exposure to sun produce
cancer of the skin.
Exercise 66:
Infectious diseases
Bacteria
Colds and flu
Food poisoning
Improper nutrition
Ear infection
Diet high in fat
Too much exposure to sun
Exercise 67:
Do they mean the same? Read each sentence. Then circle the letter corresponding
to the option which best matches the meaning of the sentence. Remember, first
identify the cause (C) and then look for its effect (E). Use the charts to help
explain your choice.
1. Increasing the temperature increases the rate of a chemical reaction.
A. Chemical reactions cause an increase in temperature.
B. An increase in the rate of a chemical reaction may be caused by
increasing the temperature.
Original sentence
Option A
Option B
Option A
Option B
Option A
Option B
Option A
Option B
144
Exercise 68:
Part A. You can also use graphic organizers to map the cause and effect pattern
in texts. You can simply use an arrow to indicate the relationship, as in the
example text below. Read the passage and then fill in the missing information in
the organizer.
There are several factors to be taken into account when studying why some plants become
weak or die. One reason is lack of water. Dryness in the soil causes the leaves to wilt, and
may give rise to the death of the plant. On the other hand, too much water may result in the
leaves drooping, or becoming yellow. While sunshine is necessary for plants, if it is too
strong, the soil may be baked and the roots killed. However, if there is no light, the leaves will
become pale and the stems thin. Consequently the plant may die.
1. Lack of water
plant
2. ____________________
plant
3. Too strong sun
4. _______________
___________________
_______________________
_____________
death of
death of the
____________________
_____________
Part B. Now try to map the information from this text on another kind of
organizer, a fish bone.
Headaches, with their characteristic pain or throbbing sensation in the head, are an extremely
common complaint, experienced by almost everyone at some time or other. Occasionally,
they are a symptom of an underlying disorder, but, if they occur on their own, developing
gradually and clearing up with no side-effects, the probability is that they are totally harmless,
apart from the discomfort they cause. Probably the commonest form of headache is caused
by tension, from the contraction of the muscles of the neck, shoulders and scalp. The second
commonest is the result of the swelling of local blood vessels. There can be many
contributing factors. These range from stress, sleeplessness and drinking and eating too
much, to noise and stuffy rooms, but, insofar as tension headaches are concerned, one of the
commonest causes is poor posture. The muscles of the neck become tense and sore
because they have to support the considerable weight of the head in an awkward position.
Another common cause is eye strain. This can be due to the simple need for glasses. If
headaches persist, it is as well to go to an optician for a check-up, and to work in a good light.
need for glasses
Headaches
too much
Below you will find some short texts which show the cause and effect pattern. Use
an appropriate graphic organizer to map the information. Remember to first
identify the causes and the effects.
1. Many people do not think of coffee as a drug. But, in fact, it is a drug and it has
important effects on your body. Some of the effects are good and some are not.
Coffee can help you stay awake when you are driving or working. But it can also keep
you awake at night when you want to sleep. Coffee makes some people feel more
alive so they can work better. Other people feel too nervous when they drink coffee.
After a large meal, coffee can help your stomach. But too much coffee can cause a
stomach ache.
2. In the United States, poor city children are often ill because of their diet. Some
children do not get enough food. Sometimes they do not get healthy food. Poor health
is also caused by bad housing. The apartments may not have heat in the winter or
fresh air in the summer. Poor health may also be the result of dirty water. Or it may be
caused by crowded apartments and crowded schools.
3. Actinic keratosis is an effect of many years of chronic over-exposure to sunlight. It
usually appears as hard, gray, scaly patches of thickened skin surface. People with
blond or red hair are more likely than others to develop the disorder. It is not
cancerous, but it is classified as a pre-cancerous condition. There has been some
difference of opinion among specialists concerning the exact relationship to cancer of
some conditions described as pre-cancerous. It is widely believed, however, that
there is a heightened likelihood of skin cancer among persons whose overexposure to
sunlight has already produced actinic keratosis.
4. A pulse laser is basically a device for storing energy and then releasing it all at once
to give a very intense beam of light. The heart of the laser is a crystal or tube of gas
or liquid into which energy is pumped. This is usually done by surrounding it with a
device to produce a powerful flash of light or an intense beam of radio waves or
electrons. As pumping occurs, more and more of the atoms inside take up energy and
are excited to high energy states. Suddenly an atom spontaneously returns to its first
energy state and gives out a particle of light (a photon). This photon strikes another
excited atom and causes it to produce another photon. Very rapidly, a cascade of
photons develops. The crystal or tube is closed at both ends by mirrors and the
photons bounce to and fro between them, building up the cascade. A proportion of
this light is able to escape through one of the mirrors, which is half-silvered, and an
intense flash of light emerges from the laser
Exercise 69:
Weve looked at the different organizational patterns a writer uses in the text:
time sequence, either through chronological order or process, description where
the author might have to define, classify, compare or contrast an idea or device
and finally cause and effect. Lets check your knowledge of the signal words with
this exercise. Ask yourself What does this word do in the sentence to make the
meaning clear?
146
Choose the best signal word for each passage. Look at the example below.
Example. During a temperature inversion, an upper layer of warm air
acts like a lid. _________, polluted cooler air cannot rise, and harmful
fumes pile up and make people sick.
A. As a result
B. However
C. For example
The upper layer of warm air acts as a lid (i.e., a cover). You can infer that a cover
prevents the cool air from rising. Therefore the correct option is A. Now you do
the rest.
1. In December 1930, a dark smog of smoke and fog covered the Meuse
Valley in Belgium. ________ the smog, sixty people died.
A. In contrast to
B. Because of
C. In front of
2. Thousands of people may die from a killer smog. _____, 4,000 people
were killed by thick black smog in London in 1952.
A. For example
B. Afterwards
C. However
3. There is a lot of carbon monoxide in the air where there is a lot of
traffic. _____ carbon monoxide prevents the red blood cells from
carrying oxygen all over the body, people in traffic jams may get
headaches or feel dizzy.
A. Therefore
B. Since
C. Whereas
4. ___________ the population of the world continues to increase at the
same rate, there will not be enough resources on the earth to support
all of the people in the future.
A. Eventually
B. During
C. If
5. Sea birds have died in great numbers _________ oil which escaped from
deep-sea wells.
A. prior to
B. owing to
C. after
6. The smoke from the copper ore refinery in Ducktown, Tennessee,
destroyed all the trees and plants on the hills around the refinery.
Pine trees in the mountains east of Los Angeles have been killed by
What is a hypothesis?
Hypotheses are found in all scientific fields and it is important that you, the
reader, are able to detect a hypothesis when it is presented in a text. Lets take a
look at the different ways in which the writer can present his hypothesis.
To begin, what is a hypothesis? In the scientific world, when researchers find a
possible explanation, or solution to a problem, an event or a
phenomenon, they formulate a hypothesis. For example, in the fields of
archaeology and paleontology, researchers make discoveries and use hypothesis
148
to explain why their finds exist. The discovery of a fossil of a whale with legs,
vertebrae and tail led scientists to hypothesize that this creature may have been
the link between aquatic mammals and ancient four-footed land creatures.
Studies of the effect of smoking on unborn children show that, compared to those
whose mothers didnt smoke, these children are three to four times at greater risk
of contracting AIDS. This brings us to a second important aspect of hypotheses:
their basis.
A hypothesis is usually based on observations or on facts. Isaac Newtons
ideas on gravity came to him, history tells us, as he observed a falling apple.
Charles Darwins theories about evolution came from his observations of nature
during his trip to the Galapagos Islands. Once an observation is made and
scientists come up with their idea, the hypothesis must be tested, for not all
are always correct. Sometimes they may have to be rejected altogether or at least
revised. As more research is done, and new information is obtained, old
hypotheses must be refined. Today, as more satellites are sent into space to
gather information about planets and galaxies, astrophysicists must change their
hypotheses about the formation of the solar system. Work in the field of genetics
is also forcing paleontologists to review their classification of early hominid fossils
and is helping us to gain more insight into the evolution of our species.
However, you must not confuse a hypothesis with a theory. Theories are
general explanations based on a large amount of data which are
currently accepted by scientists. For example, the Theory of Evolution applies
to all living creatures and is based on extensive observations. It is widely
accepted by scientists. Nevertheless, there are many aspects of evolution that
cannot be explained, like the gaps in the hominid fossil record. So, although many
accept the Theory of Evolution, hypotheses must still be proposed and tested to
explain those areas that are uncertain.
Another term which is frequently used is principle, as in the principles of
thermodynamics. A principle is something, usually a rule or norm, that is
accepted as true and which is used as the basis for reasoning or conduct.
Once a hypothesis has been made, lets look at the way in which it is expressed in
English.
150
refers to a situation that does not exist (i.e., is not real) at the present time. This
prediction will also come true if certain conditions are met. But since the
conditions are unlikely to occurthe standards of admission to USB will not
probably be loweredthe prediction is hypothetical. It may or may not come
true. In the case of hypothesizing to solve a problem or explain a phenomenon,
the prediction may or may not be the solution to the problem or the explanation
to unknown phenomena. It must be subject to verification through research.
If decrepitude were an inevitable part of aging,
life expectancy statistics would be worse.
If students ate a balanced diet and slept the proper amount of hours
during weeks 5-6, their concentration would increase in exams.
The third sentence,
If the flask had not exploded, the results would not have been affected
refers to a situation that did not happen. The prediction would have come true
in the past if the conditions had been met. However, the conditions are either
impossible or did not exist in the past and so the predictions cannot be
fulfilled. Lets look at some other examples.
1. If the lab assistant had followed the instructions carefully (but he did
not), he would have replicated the methodological procedure of the
first experiment.
2. If the researcher had known about the danger of using radioactive
materials (but he did not know it at that time), he would not have
used it.
What do you notice about the changes in the tenses used?
If
Result
present
present
present
will
past
would
could
might
Degree of
certainty
certain
probable
improbable
Example
If you heat iron, it
expands.
If it is a clear night, we
will see the eclipse.
If I won the lottery, I
would travel around the
world.
past perfect
would
could
might
present perfect
impossible
Even if there are rules for the use of tenses in these types of sentences, writers
and speakers very frequently use mixed combinations that do not follow these
three patterns because of the need the author has to express his/her ideas. Look
at the following example.
If the EPA officially brands secondhand smoke a known cause of cancer,
the likely result would be greater restrictions on smoking in offices,
restaurants and other public places.
Exercise 70:
hypothesis
Can you identify the types of conditionals in the statements? Indicate whether
each of these sentences is certain (C), probable (P), improbable (I), or impossible
(Im).
1. ____ If the volcano had erupted, many people would have been killed.
2. ____ If the iron bar were exposed to air, it would rust.
3. ____ The satellite would have gone into orbit if it had reached a speed of
18,000 miles per hour.
4. ____ If the air temperature drops below 0o C, the rain turns to snow.
5. ____ If the milk were pasteurised, the harmful bacteria would be destroyed.
6. ____ If the egg cell were fertilized by sperm carrying an X chromosome, the
baby would be a girl.
7. ____ If a fuel ignites, the engine will start.
8. ____ If chlorine is inhaled in large doses, it will be fatal.
9. ____ If neon is given an electric charge, it will glow.
10. ____ If a cure is found for leukemia, many lives will be saved.
11. ____ If the compound had been an acid, it would have turned the blue litmus
red.
12. ____ The calcium would melt if you heated it to 845oC.
13. ____ Plants do not grow if they are deficient in oxygen.
14. ____ If he ate a balanced diet, he would be healthier.
15. ____ If the apple fell from the tree, potential energy would change to kinetic
energy.
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Probability
Writers often express hypothesis with words that indicate that these are
tentative or unproven. What is the difference between these statements?
There is life on Jupiter.
There must be life on Jupiter.
There may be life on Jupiter.
There might be life on Jupiter.
It is unlikely that there is life on Jupiter.
It is impossible for there to be life on Jupiter.
There is no life on Jupiter.
In the first statement, the author is telling us that there is life on Jupiter.
Obviously, he makes this statement based on solid evidence. In the second
statement, however, the author is not 100 percent sure, although substantial
evidence exists to suggest that it is highly probable that life exists on that planet.
When we get to the third statement, we see that the writer is not sure of this
hypothesis. There is a 50/50 chance that life may be or may not be found on the
planet. In the statements that follow, the degree of certainty with which the
author makes his point becomes less and less, until we get to the last sentence in
which he affirms that there is no life on the planet Jupiter.
Verbs
Degree of certainty
complete
is (not)
will (not)
must (not)
certain(ly)
definite(ly)
clear(ly)
undoubtedly
strong
can/cannot
should (not)
probably (is)
presumably
partial
could (not)
likely/unlikely
Less strong
may (not)
might (not)
possibly (not)
perhaps (not)
impersonal (i.e., no
commitment)
Exercise 71:
It is said that . . .
It appears that . . .
X reports that . . .
There is evidence to suggest that . . .
Identifying probability
There are many ways to express probability. Look at the sentences below and
underline the word or words that you believe indicate probability. The first one is
done for you.
1. Light seems to travel in waves.
Seems
Exercise 72:
Identifying hypothesis
Now that we know how a hypothesis is written, try to identify the sentences
which contain one by circling the correct option. Underline the word or words that
helped you decide.
1. A. Migration is the seasonal movement of animals from one place to
B. another.
Birds may be guided in their migration by the position of the sun or
stars.
2. A. Rocks fall faster than feathers.
B. There may be a fifth force in nature that causes objects to fall at
different rates.
3. A. Certain types of music may relieve stress.
B. During the Middle Ages, music was used to treat certain diseases,
such as the plague.
4. A. The Big Bang was first proposed by a Belgian mathematician, Abbe
George Le Maitre, in 1927.
154
B. The universe was born about 18 billion years ago when a cosmic egg,
containing all the matter and energy existing in the universe today,
exploded into millions of pieces.
5. A. Dinosaurs may have become extinct because their brains were not
proportional to their brawn.
B. Some elephants, whales, dolphins, and porpoises have brains larger
than the human brain.
Exercise 73:
Detecting evidence
As weve said before, hypotheses are based on observations and once the
hypothesis is made, it must be tested for the researchers to know if their ideas
are correct or not. This evidence is usually obtained from observation or
experimentation combined with reasoning. Lets now turn to detecting
evidence which supports a hypothesis.
Read the following passage. Underline the evidence given by the writer to support
his hypothesis that smoking is harmful to health.
Exercise 74:
Part A. In the following pairs of statements, you will find a conclusion and the
evidence on which it is based. Underline the conclusion once and the evidence
twice.
156
1. A plastic raincoat prevents the rain from penetrating, but a wool coat
does not. Plastic is impermeable to water and wool is not.
2. If a bottle of perfume is left open in a closed room, the smell will
eventually spread all over the room. The molecules of a gas spread, or
diffuse, to fill the entire area.
3. The earth is round. A person traveling directly east from the equator
will eventually return to the starting place.
4. Life as we know it cannot exist on Venus. There is no oxygen or water
on Venus.
5. Death often occurs when drugs and alcohol are used together. Certain
combinations of alcohol and drugs can be fatal.
6. Morphine is addictive. Hospital patients who are given morphine as a
pain reliever sometimes develop a physical dependence on the drug.
7. Glass is fragile, or breakable. A glass bottle dropped on a hard surface is
likely to break.
Part B. Now, circle the letter of the conclusion that can be drawn from each of
these statements.
1. When the water in a closed bottle is heated, the water rises.
A. Water evaporates when heated.
B. Water expands when heated.
2. The shapes of the earths continents fit together like pieces of a big
jigsaw puzzle.
A. The continents were once one land mass that broke into parts that
drifted apart.
B. The earth is expanding just as the universe is.
3. There is a high statistical correlation between smoking and
emphysema.
A. Emphysema patients like to smoke.
B. Smoking is a cause of emphysema.
4. The space between the sun and the earth is cold.
A. The sun is not as hot as it used to be.
B. The rays of the sun warm what they touch but are not hot
themselves.
5. When a bean seed is grown in the dark, the plant soon dies.
A. Bean plants need light to survive.
B. Bean plants need light to turn green.
Once the evidence which supports the hypothesis has been obtained, the researcher must draw conclusions based on these facts. To do this, most scientists
use two types of reasoning: deductive and inductive reasoning. Lets look at them
both.
(General assumption)
(Specific conclusion)
Exercise 75:
Decide whether the following statements show inductive (I) or deductive (D)
reasoning. Then, discuss with your classmates if the conclusion is valid or not.
Has the reasoning led to a false conclusion? Justify your position.
I 1. Iron silicates are green, iron carbonates are yellow-brown, and iron oxides
D
are red. All iron compounds are colourful.
Conclusion is valid not valid. Because _______________________
_______________________________________________________________
I 2. Tigers, horses and dogs have tails. All four-legged animals have tails.
D
Conclusion is valid not valid. Because _______________________
_______________________________________________________________
I 3. AIDS is a venereal disease. It is sometimes transmitted by blood. All
D
venereal disease may be transmitted by blood.
Conclusion is valid not valid. Because _______________________
_______________________________________________________________
I 4. Carbohydrates convert starch into sugar in the body. Potatoes are
D
carbohydrates. Potatoes convert starch into sugar.
Conclusion is valid not valid. Because _______________________
_______________________________________________________________
I 5. Automobiles give off carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas.
D
Therefore automobiles cause air pollution.
Conclusion is valid not valid. Because _______________________
I 6. Penicillin stops the growth of bacteria. Pneumonia is caused by bacteria.
D
Penicillin is effective against pneumonia.
158
which the writer does not use any of these indicators and it is up to the reader to
determine if the statement is a fact or an opinion.
Separating fact from opinion is very important when we read reviews as we shall
see later on in this section.
Exercise 76:
Part A. Study the following groups of statements. In each case, identify the
italicized portion as fact or opinion.
1. More and more women are deciding to give birth to their children at
home. A hospital, after all, is not the best place for a baby to be born.
Fact Opinion
2. Once the cavity reaches the dentin (the hard, dense, bone-like material
that composes the principal mass of the tooth), it must be cleaned and
filled. Some researchers, however, are beginning to question whether
periodic cleaning and checking of the enamel (the calcareous
substance that forms a thin layer capping the teeth) plays a
significant role in preventing tooth decay. Fact Opinion
3. More and more women are deciding to give birth to their children at
home. A hospital, after all, is not the best place for a baby to be born.
Fact Opinion
4. B. J. Vukovich, autho of the best-written novel of the disaster genre,
will speak at tonights How I Became An Author meeting. Fact
Opinion
5. Philip Luttgen, satirical columnist for the Daily Views, will give a
rebuttal entitled What Is An Author? Fact Opinion
6. The national coal strike, now into its seventh week, has caused untold
hardships on the miners, their families, and the rest of the winterweary nation.
Fact Opinion
Part B. Read these statements. Do they express facts or the writers opinion?
Mark the correct option. Give the criteria you used to make your selection.
1. In endurance events such as running and long-distance swimming,
women do very well (The author cites two examples.)
Fact Opinion. Criteria: __________________________________________
2. Mothering is an activity that is learned, not inborn.
Fact Opinion. Criteria: __________________________________________
3. Sex hormones program our bodies to develop as male or female.
Fact Opinion. Criteria: __________________________________________
160
What is an argument?
An argument is the act of reasoning to establish or reject a position. The
purpose of an argument is generally to present a particular point of view. The
authors may want to persuade people of the importance, necessity or correctness
of their point of view, defend their position and perhaps even attack a different
point of view. They do this by presenting facts, evidence and reasons to support a
conclusion. However, to shape a convincing argument, the authors need more
than just a collection of facts. They need to analyze the topic, establish
relationships among disparate elements, and weigh evidence. A good argument
reasons and draws sound inferences from facts, and in order to do this, it also
incorporates values. The authors forge a position on an issue basd the evidence
they gather and analyze, and the beliefs and values they hold.
The opinions and values of the authors are predominant in argumentative texts.
So you, as a reader, have to be able to evaluate the validity of the arguments put
forward by the writers. How do you do it? First of all, a good argument is based on
solid evidence and sound reasoning. When you read an argumentative text,
remember what you learnt in the section on facts and opinions and the different
types of reasoning. Use that information to help you determine whether the
authors are being objective or not.
Lets look at an example of an argumentative text regarding stem cells. As you
read it, try to identify if there are one or more positions presented.
Stem cell research offers a potential cure for many fatal diseases. Many people
oppose stem cell research because it involves using cells from human embryos.
Although there are certainly reasons to be cautious with stem cell research or any
new technology, I believe that its potential benefits far outweigh its dangers. In
my opinion, stem cell research should receive the full support of our government.
Are there one of more positions presented? Explain your response
_________________________________________________________________________
Identyfing arguments
Lets look at some other examples of argumentative texts taken from the web
page of the Royal Society of Science http://royalsociety.org/. Identify and
underline the words which, in your opinion, indicate argumentation.
The genetic modification of plants raises important issues for
science and the public, and the Royal Society encourages
debate, informed by sound science, about the potential benefits
and risks of this technology. The Royal Society has provided
advice to policy-makers on GM plants during the development
of this branch of science and has published a number of reports
on this issue. In 2003, the Royal Society contributed to the
Governments national debate on the commercialization of
genetically modified crops in the UK, by encouraging the
participation of scientists and holding events through which
some of the main GM issues could be discussed.
Along with the great majority of the scientific
community, the Royal Society considers that the benefits
arising from scientific research which uses animals
justifies their use. At the same time, the Society also
recognizes that special ethical considerations are
involved and that animal research must be undertaken
only with the greatest care to minimize the suffering of
the animals used in research. The Royal Society takes an
active role in policy discussions on the use of animals in
research, and has a standing Committee to discuss issues
related to the use of animals in scientific research.
162
agree
believe
argue
it is clear wellthat
grounded
assume
claim
be certain / contend
be
uncertain
debate
issue
at it appears think
to
me/
her/him
disagree
from
my speculation
/his/ones
point of view
assumption controversy in
my/his/ones
opinion
suppose
sound
logic
sound
reasoning
counter
argument
proposition
common
sense
Keep in mind that an argumentative text usually contains these five key
elements:
1. An explanation of the issue
2. A clear thesis statement
3. A summary of opposing arguments
4. Rebuttal to the opposing arguments (rebut means to point out problems
with the other sides reasons to prove that they are not good reasons).
5. The authors arguments
Now go back to the previous texts and find examples of these key elements
When you read an argumentative text take into account the following questions:
1. Do the ideas presented in the text make you think seriously about your
personal position or belief on the subject?
2.
164
Book Reviews
Separating fact from opinion is also very important when we look at reviews. A
book review is an article in which the author summarizes and evaluates a
book. It usually includes objective descriptions of different aspects of a book,
along with the personal opinion of the reviewer, and a recommendation of the
book to the readers whom the reviewer thinks might be interested in reading the
book.
Lets begin by examining some extracts from the review entitled Unraveling
Space and Time by Lee Smolin who is reviewing the book The Fabric of the
Cosmos: Space, Time, and the Texture of Reality by Brian Greene.
As you read the following extract, try to identify the arguments the author
presents by answering the following questions:
1. What type of reader does Smolin believe will enjoy this book?
2. What aspects of Greens writing does he admire?
3. What aspects of the book does /doesnt he like?
4. Why do you think we can trust Smolins opinions?
Having said all this, let me begin by noting that this is a wonderful book for the lay
reader who wants to get a glimpse of what we theoretical physicists are thinking
about. It is extremely well written. To prepare the reader to understand the theories
that currently animate the frontiers, Greene gives an introduction to the main ideas of
20th-century physicsrelativity, cosmology, quantum theory and particle physics
and he does it very well. As someone who, like Greene, has struggledtwicewith
the problem of how to write a fresh and compelling book that introduces the reader to
these topics, I commend him for his success here. He is a master expositor and
popularizer, and these parts of the book really shine.
As you look through the paragraph, you will see a number of words that indicate
the positive light in which the reviewer sees the book: . . . extremely well
written. . . a wonderful book. . . does it very well. . . to write a fresh and compelling
book. Can you find the others? Underline them.
Lets look at another paragraph. Are the reviewers comments still positive? What
serious claim against the author does he make?
There are, however, two grounds on which I believe the book falls short: It is far too
uncritical of Greenes own subject, string theory. And it offers little for the reader who
remembers that science is based on experiment and who may therefore wonder how
it is that all these beautiful, exciting ideas are to be tested against the harsh light of
reality.
It is, then, worrying that many of the claims made in the book for string theory are
exaggerated. Greene describes clearly the beautiful results that inspire hope among
those who study string theory. But a presentation for the general public of a
speculative and untested theory should be honest about which problems remain
open. There are a number of cases in which conjectures widely believed by string
theorists have remained unproven despite many years of hard work by very smart
people. In several key cases Greene nevertheless presents those conjectures as
facts.
In this paragraph, however, we can see that the reviewer does not agree on
certain points put forward by the books author. Here are some of the words and
phrases he uses to convey his objections. Can you find the others? . . . the book
falls short . . . far too uncritical . . . it offers little . . . it is then worrying . . .
The reviewer claims that Green ____________________________________________.
How do you think he will support this? What specific example does he cite?
For example, he clearly describes how strings, by having a finite size, suppress the
quantum fluctuations of the gravitational field, perhaps leading to a consistent
unification of gravity and quantum theory. As Greene explains, the result is that the
theory gives finite answers, an obviously necessary condition, but one hard to satisfy.
What he does not say is that the suppression has been demonstrated only in a certain
low-order approximation. In fact, determined efforts by many physicists and
mathematicians over a period of more than 20 years have failed to produce a proof of
the finiteness or consistency of string theory. The failure has been so complete that I
am aware of only two people, out of a community of more than a thousand string
theorists worldwide, who are still trying to solve this problem.
Is the reviewer biased in his opinions of the way in which the information is
presented by Greene? How does the reviewers tone indicate this?
There are several other examples of the same kind of exaggeration, in which
conjectures are reported as truths, and the phrase convincingly argued is used to
imply that something is proven. This overstatement greatly weakens the value of the
166
book for the public. It also raises questions. Brian Greene knows that the proofs of
these assertions are incomplete. At the same time, his fairness in other matters
shows that he is a person of integrity. So I am sure that there is no intent here to
deceive. What is happening, I suspect, is a phenomenon much more troubling. Im
afraid that it is simply inconceivable to him, as it is to many members of the string
theory community, that these conjectures could be wrong.
Finally, you must always ask yourself Who is this reviewer? What experience
does he have in this field? Is there any reason I should believe his opinions?
Who is Lee Smolin? What information, if any, was given in the text to indicate his
profession?
Lee Smolin is a founding member and research physicist at the Perimeter Institute in Waterloo, Canada. He is the
author of The Life of the Cosmos and Three Roads to Quantum Gravity.
Exercise 77:
Lets take a look at some comments made by various reviewers on different books.
Can you identify the positive and the negative aspects they saw? Underline the
postive points and double underline the negative ones.
1. The time is ripe for a book on the geology of Venus and Cattermole has, to use the
words of Nathan Bedford Forrest, gotten there first with the most men. However, the
forced march of a quick writing (many of the references are to material published in
October 1992 and the preface is dated March, 1993), has resulted in an uneven
product.
2. This book is aimed at the reader who intends to use the technology for research and
commercial purposes. He has written an extrordinarily readable text, illustrated it
lavishly with pictures, graphs and examples, and furnished it with problem sets,
projects and general and specilized reading lists.
3. The organizational problems are especially evident in the presentation of related
material, either illustrations or text, from different research papers with no critical
analysis of the distinctions between them. In general, the material is not well
integrated, with preMagellan research not placed in its appropriate postMagellan
context.
4. Even so, so much is left out that it is hard to believe an engineer whose only
knowledge of image processing is derived from this book could proceed
independently on any nontrivial application. Although many mathematical techniques
are mentioned, relatively few are proved rigorously, and some are merely cited
without proof. In the last part in particular, a host of important topics are raced through
in little, if any, depth.
5. The book gives a balanced overview of impact cratering, superficial processes,
volcanism and tectonism. The material on tectonism is distributed throughout three
separate, nonadjacent chapters.
6. One cannot help expressing regret that more writers in this difficult field do not have
Professor Bakers gift of clear expression combined with his soundness of judgement.
7. The description of the planets physiograph is excessive; much of the information
could be obtained simply by looking at a map. In addition, the text reveals some
significant misconceptions concerning gravity, isostasy, and heat loss and contains an
above-average number of misquotations and minor errors. This is definitely a book to
read with pencil in hand.
Exercise 78:
On your own
The following is a book review taken from American Scientist. While reading it,
look for the answers to these questions:
1. What is the title of the book being reviewed?
2. Whos the author?
3. What kind of readership does the reviewer think might be interested
in this book?
4. Why does he believe so?
5. How is the book structured? What are the different parts?
6. What aspects of the text does the reviewer praise?
7. What aspects of the text does the reviewer criticize?
8. Does the reviewer seem to be biased in any way? If so, how?
9. What credentials does the reviewer have to make him worthy to
review this book?
On Shaky Ground
Mark Zoback
Earthshaking Science: What We Know (and Dont Know) about Earthquakes. Susan
Elizabeth Hough. xviii + 238 pp. Princeton University Press, 2002. $24.95.
In Earthshaking Science, Susan Hough, a research scientist at the U.S. Geological Survey,
offers a basic primer on a range of topics related to earthquake science and engineering. Her
objective is to explain current research and controversies to the lay readera formidable
task, in which she succeeds admirably. A reader with no background in earth science or
seismology can easily absorb the material presented.
Hough begins by describing the history of the theory of plate tectonics and follows with some
basic information about earthquakes (how they are located, what magnitude means, and so
forth). She then goes on to discuss topics that range from the prediction of ground motion (if
an earthquake of expected magnitude occurs on a known fault, what factors affect how
168
strongly the ground will shake at a given site?) to seismic hazard analysis and, predictably
enough, what she refers to as The Holy Grail of Earthquake Prediction.
For obvious reasons, nonexpert readers who live in earthquake-prone areas will be interested
in the chapters on ground motions and the mapping of seismic hazard. Those who must
accept the inevitability of earthquakes are concerned with the way in which anticipated strong
ground shaking is calculated. Hough does a very good job of introducing the various factors
that affect such calculations. The chapter on mapping seismic hazard is not as effective,
however. Probabilistic earthquake forecasts are now the standard technique for
communicating earthquake information to the public, so it is important for readers to
understand the methodologies used in such analysespaleoseismic data, earthquake
recurrence models, long-term slip rates, fault segmentation and so on. These subjects are not
as thoroughly discussed as they should be. Although Hough attempts at the end of the
chapter to enumerate the degree of uncertainty inherent in such estimates, she hasnt
explained the basic methodologies sufficiently for readers to fully understand those
uncertainties.
The illustrations (black-and-white maps, crude cartoons and line drawings) are disappointing.
The quality of the figures in the chapter on ground motions is particularly poor, which is
surprising given the excellent information on the subject widely available on the World Wide
Web and in other places.
Houghs writing style is easy and engaging, and she makes the subject matter entertaining.
Sprinkled throughout the text are sidebars on such topics as the historical rivalry between
strong- and weak-motion seismologists (something most readers probably dont need or want
to know about) and the pedigree (or, more accurately, the lack thereof) of professional
geophysicists. Many of these sidebars offer entertaining insights into the everyday lives of
earthquake researchers. As Hough points out, those researchers are a unique breed,
fascinated by fundamental scientific questions and driven by a desire to help reduce the
devastation earthquakes can wreak.
Mark Zoback, Geophysics, Stanford University
http://www.americanscientist.org/template/BookReviewTypeDetail/assetid/18855
Final tips
Remember, becoming an efficient reader entails practice. So here are some final
tips!
1. Use the reading strategies you have learnt. Use the SQ3R technique:
Survey: Skim the text to make sure of its relevance and an overview of the main
points.
Question: Ask yourself questions that you want the text to answer.
Read: Read carefully, looking for the answers to your questions.
Recite: Read aloud the answers to your questions, fixing them in your mind.
Review: Think about what you have learnt, organize it in your mind, link it to
other information, assess its importance.
2. Look at the content, structure and purpose of the text.
Content: What is the text going to be about? What is the topic? What particular
aspect of the topic is covered?
Structure: How is the text organized? Is it a description, argument? Does it list
reasons, compare results or explain the steps of a process?
Purpose: Ask yourself What do I need to know after reading this? What will I be
expected to know? What should I remember?
3. Activate your schemata, make predictions while you read, try to picture and
develop images while you read the text. Relate your prior knowledge to the new
information you are obtaining. Monitor your understanding of the text, re-read
170
parts that may be difficult or confusing. Use the strategies you have been
taught.
4. After reading the text, recall what you have read. Talk to yourself and test your
understanding. Use metal maps, graphic organizers or write a summary of
what you learnt. Evaluate the new material; ask yourself What have I learnt
from this text? How has it changed or strengthened my view on this topic?
References
Cambridge dictionaries. (2005). http://www.cambridgedictionaries.com
Cobas, L. (2003). La instruccin directa de vocabulario de vista de alta frecuencia y la comprensin de lectura en
L2. [Masters Thesis. Advisor: G. Llinares]. Caracas: Universidad Simn Bolvar.
Cobb, T. (n/d). The Compleat Lexical Tutor. [Last modified August 2005]. Retrieved from http://www.lextutor.ca/
Coxhead, A. (2000). A New Academic Word List. TESOL Quarterly, 34(2), 213-238.
Cuesta College. Interpreting what you read. In Reading comprehension. [Last modified June 2003]. Retrieved
from: http://academic.cuesta.edu/acasupp/AS/310.HTM
Departamento de Idiomas. (2001). Gua de Lectura ID-1112. Caracas: Universidad Simn Bolvar.
Departamento de Idiomas. (2002). Gua de Lectura ID-1112 (Paralelo). Caracas: Universidad Simn Bolvar.
Departamento de Idiomas. (2002-2004). Gua de Lectura ID-1111. Caracas: Universidad Simn Bolvar.
Departamento de Idiomas. (2003). Gua de Lectura ID-1111 (Paralelo). Caracas: Universidad Simn Bolvar.
Dobbs, C. (1989). Reading for a Reason. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.
Donahue Latulippe, L. (1987). Developing Academic Reading Skills. Prentice Hall Regents.
Feuerstein, T., & Schcolnik, M. (1995). Enhancing Reading Comprehension in the Language Learning
Classroom. San Francisco, CA: Alta Books Center.
Gillett, A. (2005). Rhetorical functions in academic writing. In Using English for Academic Purposes: A Guide for
International Students. Hatfield, UK: School of Combined Studies,University of Hertfordshire. Retrieved
from: http://www.uefap.co.uk/writing/function/function.htm
Glendinning, E., & Glendinning, N. (1995). Oxford English for Electrical and Mechanical Engineering.
Hornby, A.S., & Ruse, C.A. (1992). The Oxford ESL Dictionary. Oxford University Press.
Jordan, R.R. (1999). Academic writing course. Edinburgh: Addison Wesley Longman
Mahnke, K. & Duffy, C. B. (1992). The Heinemann TOEFL Preparation Course.
Mikulecky, B.S. & Jeffries, L. (1996). Reading Power. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Mikulecky, B.S. & Jeffries, L. (2004). More Reading Power. Longman.
Mondria, J.A. and Mondria-De Vries, S. (1994). Efficiently memorizing words with the help of word cards and
hand computer: Theory and applications. System 22 (1), 47-57.
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., & Svartvik, J. (1972). A grammar of contemporary English. London:
Longman.
St. Louis, R. (2004). Reading Skills Guide. Caracas: Universidad Simn Bolvar.
Swales, John M. and Christine B. Feat. Academic Writing for Graduate Students, Essential Tasks and Skills.
Ann Arbor: U Michigan P, 1994. 105-130.
The Graphic Organizer. (2005). Graphic organizers. Retrieved from http://www.graphic.org/bubble.html
The Jamestown Comprehension Skills Series. (1993). Jamestown Publishers.
Wilson, B. (2005). Bob Wilsons Auto-English. Retrieved from http://perso.wanadoo.es/autoenglish
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172
Apndice:
No entiendo lo que leo en ingls!
Aprender vocabulario en ingls
Numerosos investigadores han demostrado que el
conocimiento insuficiente de vocabulario impide la
comprensin de textos autnticos en una segunda
lengua. Adems, hemos podido determinar que, por
lo general, los estudiantes que comienzan el
Programa de Ingls de Primer Ao del
Departamento de Idiomas en la USB no poseen el
conocimiento de vocabulario necesario para
comprender de manera satisfactoria los textos
contenidos en las guas de la asignatura Ingls
Tcnico y Cientfico. Es por ello que consideramos que es imprescindible que los
estudiantes emprendan, de manera autnoma e inmediata, una serie de
medidas correctivas en lo que respecta a esta carencia de vocabulario en ingls,
puesto que esa deficiencia podra afectar seriamente su rendimiento en esta
asignatura.
Es obvio que no todas las palabras tienen la misma utilidad para los estudiantes,
entonces qu palabras se deben aprender primero? Para que el aprendizaje de
vocabulario en ingls sea lo ms eficiente posible, es preciso comenzar por
memorizar las palabras de ms alta frecuencia. Se han recopilado unas listas de
palabras seleccionadas de acuerdo a su frecuencia de aparicin en textos escritos
en ingls, las cuales tienen el potencial de suministrar al estudiante el
conocimiento mnimo necesario para leer con comodidad textos de carcter tcnico
y cientfico en ese idioma. En la prxima seccin se encuentra un glosario inglsespaol que contiene cerca de 1100 palabras en ingls acompaadas de sus
173
Listas de Vocabulario
Las listas de vocabulario que encontrar a continuacin se componen de palabras
provenientes de la General Service List (West, 1953) la cual contiene las 2000
palabras ms frecuentes en ingls y la Academic Word List (Coxhead, 2000)
compuesta por las 570 familias de palabras que aparecen con mayor frecuencia
en los textos de carcter acadmico en ingls. A las listas anteriormente
mencionadas se les han eliminado las unidades gramaticales como pronombres,
conjunciones, preposiciones, artculos, etc.; los verbos auxiliares y los adverbios.
Tambin se han dejado fuera de las listas la mayora de los cognados
transparentes del espaol, aquellas palabras que componen el vocabulario propio
del ingls de bachillerato, y las palabras que a pesar de ser frecuentes en
ingls tengan una frecuencia relativamente baja en textos de carcter tcnicocientfico.
Podr observar que las palabras en ingls se presentan en orden alfabtico y
acompaadas de su traduccin ms frecuente al espaol dentro del mbito
tcnico-cientfico. Este glosario ingls-espaol est separado en tres sub-listas: (1)
1-1000 Word List, con 513 palabras; (2) 1001-2000 Word List, con 351 palabras; y,
(3) Academic Word List, con 217 palabras. Esperamos que sean de utilidad.
La versin electnica completa de estas listas de vocabulario est disponible en
http://tinyurl.com/2ev85x2
174
capaz
cuenta, dar cuenta de
real
aadir
direccin
avanzar
ventaja
asuntos
edad
estar de acuerdo
acuerdo
aire
todo(s)-toda(s)
permitir
solo(a)
cantidad
antiguo
otro(a)
respuesta, responder
parece aparecer
aplicar
nombrar en un cargo
cita, nombramiento
surgir
brazo
llegada
preguntar, pedir
intento, intentar
trasero, respaldar
malo
pelota
banco
barra
oso, sustentar
convertirse
comenzar
creencia
creer
pertenecer
el mejor de todos
mejor
grande
soplar
azul
tabla, tablero
nacido
box
break
bridge
bright
bring
broad
build
burn
business
buy
call
care
carry
case
catch
change
charge
chief
choice
choose
circle
claim
clear
close
cold
come
concern
contain
count
cover
cross
current
cut
danger
dangerous
dark
darken
darkness
date
deep
degree
destroy
detail
develop
development
discover
discovery
distinguish
doubt
drop
caja
romper
puente
brillante
traer
amplio
construir
quemar
negocio
comprar
llamada, llamar
cuidado
cargar, llevar
caso, estuche
capturar
cambio, cambiar
cargar
jefe, principal
alternativa
elegir
circulo
alegar
claro, transparente
cercano, cerrar
fro
venir
preocupacin, concernir
contener
contar
cubrir
cruzar
actual
cortar
peligro
peligroso
oscuro
oscurecer
oscuridad
fecha
profundo
grado
destruir
detalle
desarrollar
desarrollo
descubrir
descubrimiento
distinguir
duda, dudar
gota, caer
175
dry
due (to)
early
earth
east
easy
employ
end
enter
entrance
equal
every
example
exchange
expense
expensive
explain
extent
face
fact
factory
fail
failure
fair
fall
feel
field
fight
figure
fill
find
fine
finish
fire
first
fit
fix
flow
follow
foreign
forget
free
fresh
front
full
gain
gather
get
give
go
gold
good
seco, secar
debido (a)
temprano
tierra
este
fcil
emplear
fin
entrar
entrada
igual
cada
ejemplo
intercambiar
gasto
costoso
explicar
alcance
cara, enfrentar
hecho
fbrica
fracasar
fracaso
justo
cada, caer
sentir
campo
pelea
figura, cifra
llenar
encontrar
fino, excelente
terminar
fuego
primero
caber, encajar
arreglar
flujo
seguir
extranjero
olvidar
libre, gratis
fresco
frente
lleno
ganar
reunir
obtener
dar
ir
oro
bueno
great
green
ground
group
grow
growth
hand
hang
happen
hard
harden
hardness
have
head
hear
heat
heavy
help
helpful
helpless
high
hold
home
hope
hot
hour
house
inch
increase
iron
join
joint
judge
judgment
keep
kill
kind
know
knowledge
lack
land
large
last
late
latter
law
lay
lead
leader
leadership
learn
leave
gran, excelente
verde
tierra, molido
grupo
crecer
crecimiento
mano
colgar
suceder
duro, difcil
endurecer
dureza
tener
cabeza
or
calor
pesado
ayuda, ayudar
de ayuda, beneficioso
indefenso
alto
mantener
hogar
esperanza, esperar
caliente
hora
casa
pulgada
aumento, aumentar
hierro
unir
juntar, unin
juez, juzgar
juicio
mantener
matar, eliminar
tipo, clase
saber
conocimiento
falta
tierra, aterrizar
grande
ltimo, durar
tarde
ltimo
ley
colocar(se)
plomo, dirigir
lder
liderazgo
aprender
dejar
176
left
length
lessen
let
letter
level
library
lie
life
lift
light
like
likely
line
listen
little
live
long
look
lose
loss
lost
low
lower
machine
main
make
mark
mass
mastery
matter
mean
measure
measurement
member
mere
middle
mile
mind
mine
miner
miss
money
month
move
movement
name
need
new
next
night
north
izquierdo, dejado
longitud
disminuir
permitir
carta
nivel
biblioteca
yacer, mentir
vida
levantar
luz, iluminar
similar, gustar
probable
lnea
escuchar
poco
vivir
largo
mirar
perder
prdida
perdido
bajo
ms bajo
maquina
principal
hacer
marca, marcar
masa
dominio
materia
media, significar
medir
medida
miembro
simple
medio
milla
mente
mina
minero
pasar por alto
dinero
mes
mover
movimiento
nombre, nombrar
necesidad, necesitar
nuevo
prximo
noche
norte
northern
notice
number
offer
oil
old
open
orange
order
ought to
outward
owe
own
owner
ownership
page
paint
paper
pay
payment
people
picture
piece
place
plain
play
pleasant
pleasure
point
poor
post
pound
poverty
power
prevent
price
profit
proof
proper
property
proposal
propose
prove
provide
pull
purpose
put
quantity
quarterly
question
race
raise
del norte
notar
nmero
ofrecer
aceite, petrleo
viejo, antiguo
abierto, abrir
naranja, anaranjado
orden, ordenar
debera
hacia fuera
deber
propio
propietario
propiedad
pagina
pintura, pintar
papel
pagar
pago
gente
foto
pedazo
lugar, colocar
simple
jugar
agradable
placer
punto, apuntar
pobre. deficiente
poste
libra
pobreza
poder, fuerza
prevenir
precio
ganancia
prueba
apropiado
propiedad
proposicin, propuesta
proponer
probar
proveer
halar
propsito
poner
cantidad
trimestral
pregunta, preguntar
raza, carrera
aumento, aumentar
177
rank
rate
reach
read
ready
reality
realization
realize
reason
receive
receiver
recognize
red
regard
remain
remark
remember
reply
rest
right
ring
rise
river
rock
roll
rolling
room
rough
roughness
rule
safety
sale
same
save
say
scarce
scarcity
scene
science
scientist
sea
season
seat
see
seem
sell
send
sense
serve
set
settle
shake
clasificar
tasa
alcanzar
leer
listo
realidad
comprensin
darse cuenta
razn
recibir
receptor
reconocer
rojo
observar
permanecer
observacin
recordar
contestar, responder
descansar
derecho, correcto
anillo
aumento, aumentar
ro
roca
rollo, enrollar
rodante
cuarto, habitacin
spero, rudo
aspereza
regla
seguridad
venta, ganga
mismo, igual
ahorrar, guardar, salvar
decir
escaso
escasez
escena
ciencia
cientfico
mar
temporada
asiento
ver
parecer
vender
enviar
sentido
servir
conjunto, poner
asentar
batir
shape
share
shine
ship
shipment
shoot
short
shorten
shoulder
show
side
sight
silver
single
sit
size
sky
small
snow
society
soft
soften
softness
some
sort
sound
south
space
speak
speaker
speed
spend
spot
spread
spring
square
stage
stand
star
start
statement
stay
steel
step
stock
stone
stop
store
strange
stream
strength
strike
178
stroke
strong
struggle
study
subject
succeed
successful
suffer
suggest
suggestion
summer
sun
supply
support
suppose
sure
surface
surprise
surround
sweet
table
take
talk
teach
tear
tell
term
thing
think
thought
throw
time
together
ton
top
touch
town
trade
train
travel
tree
trouble
troublesome
trust
truth
try
turn
type
understand
unfair
unit
unite
golpe
fuerte
lucha, luchar
estudio, estudiar
material, sujeto
tener xito
exitoso
sufrir
sugerir
sugerencia
verano
sol
provisin, proveer
apoyo, apoyar
suponer
seguro, cierto
superficie
sorpresa, sorprender
rodear
dulce
mesa
tomar
hablar
ensear
rasgar
decir
trmino
cosa, elemento
pensar
pensamiento
lanzar
tiempo, vez
junto(s)
tonelada
tope
tocar
pueblo
comercio
tren, entrenar
viajar
rbol
problema
problemtico
confiar
verdad
intentar
girar
tipo
entender
injusto
unidad
unir
unpleasant
useful
usefulness
useless
user
valley
value
vessel
view
voice
vote
wait
walk
wall
want
war
watch
water
wave
way
wealth
wealthy
wear
week
west
western
white
whole
wide
widen
wild
win
wind
window
winter
wise
wish
woman
wonder
wonderful
wood
wooden
word
work
worker
world
worthless
write
wrong
year
yellow
yield
desagradable
til
utilidad
intil
usuario
valle
valor
barco
punto de vista
voz
voto, votar
esperar
caminar
pared
querer
guerra
observar
agua
onda
manera, camino
riqueza
rico
ponerse
semana
oeste
occidental
blanco
complete
ancho
ensanchar
salvaje
ganar
viento
ventana
invierno
sabio
desear
mujer
preguntarse
maravilloso
madera
de madera
palabra
trabajo, funcionar
trabajador
mundo
sin valor
escribir
equivocado
ao
amarillo
produccin, producir
179
young
joven
hacer propaganda
consejo, aconsejar
costear
con miedo
objetivo, apuntar
vivo
ngulo
molestar
aprobacin
aprobar
arco
discutir
arreglo
flecha
ceniza
asistir, estar presente
evitar
inapropiado, extrao
bolsa
descubierto
barril
rayo, viga
comportarse
conducta
doblar
atar
pedazo
hojilla
bloque, bloquear
hervir
audaz
hueso
borde
pedir prestado
botella
fondo
limitar
frontera
ladrillo
cepillo
ocupado
botn
tapa
tarjeta, ficha
precaucin
cadena, encadenar
barato
limpio, limpiar
coarse
collect
complain
confidence
confident
conscious
cool
corner
crack
crash
crush
damage
damp
dare
decay
decrease
delay
deliver
delivery
deserve
dirt
dirty
discuss
disturb
dot
earn
edge
empty
enclose
encourage
engine
entire
fault
faulty
fold
frame
freeze
guard
guess
guide
hammer
handle
harm
harmful
harmless
height
hesitate
hide
hinder
hit
hollow
hook
rugoso, burdo
recolectar
quejarse
confianza
seguro
conciente
fresco
esquina
grieta, agrietar
chocar
triturar
dao, daar
hmedo
atreverse
decaer
disminuir
retraso, retrasar
enviar
entrega
merecer
suciedad
sucio
discutir
molestar
punto
ganar
borde
vaco, vaciar
incluir
estimular
motor
entero, completo
falta
con errores
doblar
marco
congelar
guardia, proteger
suponer:
gua, guiar
martillo, martillar
manilla,
dao, daar
daino
inofensivo
altura
dudar
esconder
impedir
golpear
hueco, vaco
gancho, enganchar
180
hurry
ice
improve
improvement
apuro, apurarse
hielo
mejorar
mejora
inquireenquire averiguar
inquiry
investigacin
insurance
seguro
intend
intentar
inward
hacia adentro
jump
saltar
key
llave, clave
knot
nudo
lamp
lmpara
lean
sin grasa
leg
pierna
lend
prestar
lid
tapa
load
carga, cargar
lock
cerradura, trancar
loose
flojo, holgado
loosen
aflojar
loud
a alto volumen
lump
grumo
male
masculino, macho
manage
gerenciar
management gerencia
match
fsforo, combinar
melt
derretir
mend
remendar
mild
suave, leve
mistake
error
mix
mezclar
mixture
mezcla
narrow
estrecho
needle
aguja
neglect
descuidar
net
red
nice
agradable
noise
ruido
noisy
ruidoso
noun
nombre
nuisance
molestia, fastidio
obey
obedecer
pack
paquete, empacar
package
paquete
pain
dolor
pair
par
paste
pasta, pegar
path
va, trayectoria
pattern
patrn
perform
actuar
performance desempeo
pick
pile
pin
pipe
plate
plenty
pocket
poison
poisonous
pool
pot
pour
powder
print
printer
pump
purple
push
puzzle
qualify
quick
quiet
rail/railing
rain
raw
ray
regret
relief
relieve
remind
repair
repeat
replace
request
rescue
resign
review
ripe
risk
rod
roof
root
rope
row
rub
rubber
rush
rust
sample
sand
scale
scatter
seleccionar
montn, amontonar
alfiler, sujetar
tubera
placa
bastante
bolsillo
veneno, envenenar
venenoso
charco, grupo, agrupar
olla, pote
verter
polvo
imprimir
impresora
bomba, bombear
prpura
empujar
confundir
calificar
rpido
tranquilo
baranda, riel
lluvia, llover
crudo
rayo
lamentar
alivio
aliviar
recorder
reparar
repetir
remplazar
pedido, pedir
rescate, rescatar
renunciar
revisin, revisar
maduro
riesgo, arriesgar
barra
tejado
raz
soga, cuerda.
fila
frotar
goma
apuro
xido, oxidar
muestra
arena
escala
esparcir
181
scent
screen
screw
seed
seize
shade
shadow
shallow
sharp
sheet
shelf
shell
shelter
shield
shock
shop
shower
shut
signal
sink
skill
skillful
skin
slide
slight
slip
slow
smell
smoke
smooth
soap
soil
solve
sour
spare
spill
spin
split
spoil
staff
stain
stamp
steady
steal
steam
steep
steer
stem
stick
stiff
sting
stir
olor, esencia
pantalla
tornillo, atornillar
semilla
agarrar, sujetar
sombra
sombra
poco profundo
afilado
hoja
estante
concha
refugio, proteger
escudo
choque
tienda
ducha, ducharse
cerrar
seal, sealar
fregadero, hundir
habilidad
hbil, habilidoso
piel
deslizar
leve
resbalar, deslizar
lento
olor, oler
humo, fumar
liso, suave
jabn
suelo
resolver
amargo
de repuesto
derrame, derramar
girar
dividir
echar a perder
personal de trabajo
mancha, manchar
estampar
estable
robar
vapor
empinado
conducir
base, tallo
pegar (se) a algo
tieso
pinchar, picar (insectos)
remover
straight
strap
stretch
string
strip
stuff
suck
sudden
sugar
suspect
suspicion
suspicious
swallow
sweat
swim
swing
tail
tall
tame
tap
tasteless
tend
thank
thick
thickness
thin
thorough
thread
threat
threaten
throat
thunder
tide
tie
tight
tin
tip
tire
title
tongue
tool
tough
tower
track
translation
trap
tray
trick
trunk
tube
tune
twist
derecho
correa, atar
estirar
cuerda delgada
tira, listn
material
extraer
repentino
azcar
sospechar
sospecha
sospechoso
tragar
sudor. sudar
nadar
mecer
cola
alto
dcil, domar
grifo, golpe ligero
inspido
tener tendencia a
agradecer
grueso, espeso
grosor, espesor
delgado
minucioso, exhaustivo, completo
hilo, hilvanar
amenaza
amenazar
garganta
trueno
marea
atar
apretado
latn
punta
caucho, neumtico
ttulo
lengua
herramienta
duro, difcil, resistente
torre
carril, rastrear
traduccin
trampa, atrapar
bandeja
truco
tronco
tubo
tono, entonar
torcer
182
ugly
uncomfortable
upper
upright
upset
urge
waist
wake
wander
warm
warmth
warn
wash
waste
wasteful
wax
weak
weaken
weakness
weapon
weather
weave
weed
weigh
weight
wet
wheat
wheel
whisper
wine
wing
wipe
wire
wireless
witness
wool
worm
worry
worse
worst
wrap
wrist
yard
feo
incmodo
superior, de arriba
derecho, vertical
molesto, molestar
exhortar
cintura
despertar
caminar sin rumbo
tibio
calor, calidez
advertir
lavar
desperdicio, desperdiciar
derrochador
cera, encerar
dbil
debilitar
debilidad
arma
clima
tejer
hierba
pesar
peso
mojado, mojar
trigo
rueda
susurro, susurrar
vino
ala
limpiar frotando
alambre
inalmbrico
testigo
lana
gusano
preocuparse
peor
el peor de todos
envolver
mueca (mano)
yarda
acompaar
acumular
exacto, preciso
lograr
reconocer
acquire
adequate
adjust
advocate
aid
allocate
alter
amend
append
approach
assemble
assess
assign
assist
assure
attach
attain
automate
available
aware
benefit
bias
bond
brief
bulk
capable
cease
challenge
channel
chapter
chart
chemical
code
collapse
commodity
compile
complex
compound
comprehensive
comprise
conceive
conclude
conduct
confine
consent
constrain
converse
convince
core
couple
create
cycle
adquirir, comprar
adecuado
ajustar
defender
ayuda., ayudar
colocar, asignar
alterar
corregir
anexar
enfoque, acercarse
ensamblar
evaluar
asignar, encargar
ayudar
asegurar
aadir, pegar
lograr, alcanzar
automatizar
disponible
consciente
beneficio
sesgo, parcialidad
vnculo, unin
breve
volumen
capaz
cesar, terminar
reto
canal, canalizar
captulo
diagrama
qumico (a)
cdigo
colapsar
artculo de consumo
recopilar
complejo
compuesto
amplio
incluir
concebir
concluir
conducir
restringir
permitir
restringir
Inverso
convencer
centro
pareja
crear
ciclo
183
data
decade
definite
deny
derive
design
deviate
device
devote
diminish
displace
display
dispose
distort
domain
draft
edit
enable
encounter
enforce
enhance
enormous
ensure
environment
equate
erode
establish
evolve
exceed
exploit
expose
feature
fee
file
focus
forthcoming
found
foundation
framework
gender
goal
grade
guarantee
guideline
hierarchy
highlight
imply
impose
index
infer
injure
input
datos
dcada
definido
negar
derivar (se)
diseo, disear
desviar
dispositivo
dedicar
disminuir
desplazar
exhibir, desplegar
disponer
distorsionar
dominio
dibujo, borrador
editar, corregir
capacitar
encuentro, encontrar
hacer cumplir
realzar
enorme
asegurar
ambiente
igualar
erosionar
establecer
evolucionar
exceder
sacar partido
exponer
caracterstica
pago
archivo, archivar
foco, enfocar
por venir
encontrado
fundacin
marco de referencia
gnero
meta
grado
garantizar
pauta
jerarqua
destacar
implicar
imponer
ndice
inferir, concluir
dao, daar
entrada (de informacin)
insight
inspect
instance
intervene
involve
isolate
issue
job
journal
justify
label
layer
lecture
link
locate
maintain
major
mature
media
mediate
migrate
minor
negate
network
obtain
occupy
odd
ongoing
outcome
output
overall
partner
perceive
percent
phase
phenomenon
plus
policy
pose
predict
presume
previous
principle
prior
proceed
promote
publish
purchase
pursue
random
range
ratio
perspectiva
inspeccionar
ejemplo, instancia
intervenir
involucrar
aislar
asunto
trabajo, empleo, ocupacin
publicacin peridica (cientfica)
justificar
etiqueta, etiquetar
capa, estrato
conferencia
enlace, enlazar
localizar
mantener
principal, importante
maduro, madurar
medios de comunicacin
mediar
migrar
menor (en importancia)
negar
red
obtener
ocupar
impar, extrao
continuo
resultado
producto
suponer, solapar
compaero (a)
percibir
porcentaje
fase
fenmeno
mas, extra
poltica
plantear
predecir
suponer
previo
principio
anterior
proceder
promover
publicar
adquirir, comprar
perseguir
aleatoriamente
rango
proporcin
184
react
recover
refine
register
reinforce
reject
release
reluctance
rely
remove
require
research
resource
restore
restrain
restrict
retain
reveal
route
schedule
scheme
scope
secure
seek
shift
simulate
site
so-called
sole
source
sphere
statistic
straightforward
stress
style
submit
sum
summary
survey
survive
sustain
tape
target
task
team
trace
trend
trigger
ultimate
undergo
underlie
undertake
reaccionar
recuperar(se)
refinar
registrarse
reforzar
rechazar
soltar, liberar
renuencia
confiar
quitar
requerir
investigacin
recurso
restaurar
restringir
restringir
retener
revelar
rumbo, ruta
horario
esquema
alcance
seguro, asegurar
buscar
cambio, cambiar
simular
lugar
as denominado
nico
fuente
esfera
estadstico
directo al grano
tensin
estilo
presentar
suma
resumen
encuesta
sobrevivir
mantener
cinta
objetivo
tarea
equipo
rastro, rastrear
tendencia
desencadenar
ltimo, final
sufrir, experimentar
subyacer
emprender
unique
vary
violate
widespread
nico
variar
violar
extenso, diseminado
185
compartimientos
centmetros
1 2
14
186
187