Bridge Handout PDF

Fundamentals of Bridge Design
1. Introduction
1.1 Definition: A bridge is a structure that crosses over a river, bay or other
obstructions, permitting the smooth and safe passage of vehicles, trains and
pedestrians. A bridge structure is divided into upper part (the super structure),
which consists of the slab, the floor system, and the main truss or girders, and a
lower part (the substructure), which are columns, piers, towers, footings, piles
and abutments. The super structure provides horizontal spans, elevating above
the ground surface.
Bridge Terminologies
Approach: It is a part of a bridge length wise to the communication route at the ends of
the bridge. It can be either a part of the bridge or a separated small bridge.
Superstructure: comprises all the components of a bridge above the supports carrying
a communication route.
-
Wearing surface, deck, primary members distribute loads longitudinally and are
designed to resist flexure(stringers, girders, trusses,), secondary members
bracings between primary members and designed to resist cross sectional
deformations of the superstructure frame and help distribute part of the vertical
load between stringers(diaphragms, cross beams, lateral bracings,)
Substructure: consists of all components of bridge required to support the

superstructure.
o
Piers: are structural elements, which sustain superstructure dead and live loads,
carry their own weight and transmit all loads to the foundation soil. They are
constructed of masonry or reinforced concrete.
Bearings: Support the superstructure (girders, slabs, ---) and transmit the loads
to the substructure (abutments and piers). They connect the upper and lower
structures and are designed to resist these reaction forces.
Abutments: are particular types of walls (retaining walls) that support the end of a
bridge superstructure. They resist loads from the bridge superstructure & earth
pressure.
Instructor: Shewangizaw T. & Yonas T
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o
Wing Walls: is a wall constructed at both sides subjected side ways to lateral
earth pressures. Assist in confining the earth/backfill behind the abutment.
Pedestals: short columns on an abutment or pier that directly support a

superstructure primary member.
Bearings: mechanical devices used to transmit loads from superstructure to

substructure.
-
Transmit vertical loads and horizontal loads to abutment and piers.
Facilitate movement caused by thermal changes
Provide rotational movement of the primary member/girder and may be

classified as Fixed and Expansion.
Free (clear) span: the face to face distance between supported components measured
perpendicular to the supports.
Span Length: is the distance between the centers of bearings.
Total width of a bridge: is defined as the distance between the inside of the ower railings
including walkways.
Waterway: area through which the water flows under the superstructure of the bridge.
Natural waterway: unobstructed area of the river.
Linear waterway: the width of the water surface measured from edge to edge along the
design high flood level.
Waterway afflux: the vertical increase of water due to vertical supports.
Freeboard: The vertical distance between the crown and the level of the bottom of the
girder taking in to account the backwater effects.
The waterway below the superstructure must be designed to pass the design flood and
the floating debris carried on it. This should apply even after several years of
sedimentation under or downstream of the bridge. Therefore, the free board above the
design water level should not be less than the table given below.
Discharge Q (m3/s)
Vertical Clearance (m)
0 3.0
0.3
3.0 30.0
0.6
30.0 300.0
0.9
> 300.0
1.2
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These clearance measurements should be increased on rivers with a history of
unusually large floating debris or for navigational requirements.
The width of bridge for different number of lanes is given below
Application
Width (m)
Two-lane in urban area
10.30
Two-lane in urban area
7.30
Single lane
4.20
Pedestrian
3.0
Vertical clearance: - the height above roadways. (5.3m)

1.2 A Bridge Is the Key Element in a Transportation System
A bridge is a key element in a transportation system for three reasons:
It likely controls the capacity of the system

It is the highest cost per mile of the system
If the bridge fails, the system fails.
If the width of a bridge is insufficient to carry the number of lanes required to handle the
traffic volume, the bridge will be a constriction to the flow of traffic. If the strength of a
bridge is deficient and unable to carry heavy trucks, load limits will be posted and truck
traffic will be rerouted. The bridge controls both the volume and weight of the traffic
carried by the system. When a bridge is removed from service and not replaced, the
transportation system may be restricted in its function. Traffic may be detoured over
routes not designed to handle the increase in volume. Users of the system experience
increased travel times and fuel expenses. Normalcy does not return until the bridge is
repaired or replaced.
Because a bridge is a key element in a transportation system, balance must be achieved
between handling future traffic volume and loads and the cost of a heavier and wider
bridge structure. Strength is always a foremost consideration but so should measures to
prevent deterioration. The designer of new bridges has control over these parameters
and must make wise decisions so that capacity and cost are in balance, and safety is not
compromised.
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Bridge Site selection
In site selection for the location of bridge, a compromise between the easiest river
crossing and the shortest road alignment considering the economy to arrive to the most
economic bridge site and longest service life by setting at least the following criteria for
the site that has
o a straight reach of the river

o minimum disturbing influence of larger tributaries
o well defined banks
o reasonably straight approach roads
o permits as perpendicular a crossing as possible
o Availability of local materials
o Traffic needs
o Foundation conditions
o Vertical and horizontal alignment
o Less river training methods such as riprap, gabions etc
Bridge Geometry
o The hydrological and Hydraulic Analysis
o The elevation of the bridge and the highway.
o The soil condition of the site (Bearing & Scouring)
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1.3 Bridge Classification
Bridge Type
Depending on the objective of classification bridges can be classified according to:
i) Materials
-
Steel, concrete, Timber, metal alloy bridges.
ii) Objective/usage
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Highway, Railway, Combined, pedestrian bridges
iii) Structural System (Super Structure)

-
Plate girder, Box girder, T-Girder, Composite girder, Truss, Arch, Frame,
Cable-stayed, Suspension bridges.
iv) Span
-
Short, medium, long
v) Support Condition
-
Simply supported, continuous, cantilever
Vi) The obstacle for the traffic lane

-
Valley bridge or viaduct, River bridges, Flood bridges
vii)The arrangement of the bridge in ground plan

-
Straight bridges, skew bridges, curved bridges
None of these classifications are mutually exclusive they all seem to contain parts of one
another within each other. The best that can be done is to describe the characteristics of
the different bridge type, to realize that they overlap one another, and that no one bridge
type has an exclusive advantage in particular application. Experience, modeling, peer
review, public review, architectural review, and landscape review all may play important
roles in selection of a bridge type.
The classification of bridge types in this chapter will be according to the structural
system of the super structure.
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SLAB BRIDGE
The simplest type of bridge to construct and design and is perhaps the most common
bridge. It requires less labour and form work and economical for length up to 12m.
Normally the slab is made with a uniform depth over the whole bridge and the required
depth is usually 5.5 6% of the span length. Slab bridges carry loads primarily in shear
and flexural bending.
Continuous Reinforced Concrete Bridge
Advantages
I.
Lesser number of bearings than simply supported bridge since one line of
bearings are used over the piers
II.
Reduced width of piers, thus less flow obstruction and less amount of material
III.
Require less number of expansion joints due to which both the initial cost and
maintenance cost become less. The rigidity quality over the bridge is thus
improved.
IV.
Lesser depth of girder, hence economical supports
V.
Better architectural appearance
VI.
Lesser vibration and deflection
Disadvantages
I.
Analysis is laborious and time consuming
II.
Not suitable on yielding foundations
GIRDER BRIDGES
Girders are not as efficient as trusses in resisting loads over long spans. However, for
short and medium spans the difference in material weight is small and girder bridges are
competitive. In addition, the girder bridges have greater stiffness and are less subject to
vibrations. This characteristic was important to the railroads and resulted in the early
application of plate girders in their bridges. Girder bridges are structurally simple and
common. They consist of a floor slab, girders and the bearings, which support and
transmit gravity loads to the substructure. Girders resist bending moments and shear
forces are used for spans 12m to 90m. Girders are classified into T-Girder (cast-insitu),
concrete Box-Girder (RC or Prestressed), and steel plate Girder.
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T Girder
It is usually used for a single span bridge spanning between 12-20m. The design depth
of a normal girder bridge may vary between 7-10% of the span length depending on the
number of beams.
Box Girder
Are used for span length of between 30-90m, especially if a slender structure is desired
or for curved bridges with small horizontal curves where a great resistance to torsion is
required with no loss of strength is bending and shear.
Steel girder bridges are most favorable over deep or muddy waters since scaffolding
from the ground is not necessary.
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TRUSS BRIDGES
In truss bridges, the floor slab, which carries the live load, is supported by the floor
system of stringers and cross beams. The load is transmitted to the main trusses at
nodal connections, are on each side of the bridge, through the floor system and finally to
the bearings. Lateral braces, which also are truss frame, are attached to the upper and
lower chords to resist horizontal forces such as wind and earthquake loads as well as
forsional moments. Truss bridges can take the form of a deck bridge as well as a
through bridge. A truss composed of upper and lower chords, joined by diagonal and
vertical members. Trusses are an assembly of bars, net plates and this are
comparatively easier to erect on site and are often the choice for long bridges.
Types of Truss Bridges
Warren Truss
It is the most common and is a frame composed of isosceles triangles, where the
members are either in compression or tension.
Pratt Truss
In this type of truss the members are vertical and diagonal where the diagonals are
inclined toward the center and resist only tension. It is suitable for steel bridges since it is
tension that is most effectively resisted but the vertical members are in compression.
Howe Truss
It is similar to Pratt truss except that the diagonals are inclined toward the ends, leading
to axial compression forces and the vertical members resist tension.
K Truss
As the name indicates, the members form a K, is most economical in large bridges
because the short member lengths reduce the risk of buckling.
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FRAME BRIDGES
The members are rigidly connected in rahmen structures or rigid frames. Unlike the
truss and the arch bridge, all the members are subjected to both axial force and bending
moments. The members in rigid frame bridges are much larger than these in a typical
building. The supports of frame bridges are either hinged or fixed, making it an externally
indeterminate structure and it is therefore not suitable when the foundation is likely to
sink. The reactions at the supports are horizontal and vertical forces at hinges, with the
addition of a bending moment at a fixed base.
Additional advantages of rigid frame bridges over continuous ones are
I.
More rigidity of the structure
II.
Less moments in deck being partly transferred to the supporting members
III.
No bearings are required
IV.
Better aesthetic appearance than the continuous span structure
As in continuous span bridges, these structures also require unyielding foundation

materials. The analysis is however more laborious than the former. The frames may be
fixed or hinged at the base.
There are different types of frame bridges such as portal frame, -Rahmen, V-Leg
Rahmen, Vierendeel frame.
Portal Frame
A portal frame is the simplest design and is widely used for the piers of elevated highway
bridges because the space underneath can be effectively used for other roads of parking
lets.
Rahmen
The - rahmen design is usually used for bridges in mountainous regions where the
foundation is firm, passing over deep valleys with a relatively long span or for bridges
crossing over expressways.
V Leg Rahmen
A v leg Rahmen is similar to a Rahmen bridge but can span longer distances with
no axial force in the center span of the girder.
Vierendeel Bridge
The vierendeel bridge is a rigid frame whose upper and lower chords are connected
rigidly to the vertical members. All the members are subjected to axial and shear forces
as well as bending moments. This is internally a highly indeterminate system.
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ARCH BRIDGES
An arch acts like a circular beam restrained not only vertically but also horizontally at
both ends, and thus results, in vertical and horizontal reactions at the supports. The
horizontal reaction causes axial compression in addition to bending moments in the arch
rib. The bending moments caused by the horizontal forces balances those due to gravity
loads in the super structure and they are economical in material compared with an
equivalent straight, simply supported girder or truss. Arch bridges may have high
fabrication and erection cost. The most suitable site for arch bridges is a valley, with the
arch foundations located on dry rock slopes. Aesthetically, the arch can be the most
successful of all bridge types and it appears as understandable and expressive.
Types of Arch Bridges
An arch bridge includes the road deck and the supporting arch. Arch bridges are
generally classified into the deck, through-deck and semi-through-deck types. Since the
deck is both types of bridges is sustained by either vertical columns or hangers to the
arch, structurally the same axial force action, either compression or tension, is in effect
in the members. The difference is that the vertical members of deck bridges take
compressive forces and the hangers of through-deck bridges take tension.
Two-hinge arch
It is the basic structural type for an arch and has one degree of indeterminacy externally
because there are four end reactions. The structure is not affected due to rotation of the
abutments but is affected due to the displacement of the same-may be designed with
small displacement of the supports.
Three hinge arch

If one hinge is added at the crown of the arch, the arch becomes a three-hinge arch
results in rendered determinate. Even with rotation and small displacement of the
foundation or unequal settlement of the foundation, the thrust and moments are not
significantly affected in three-hinged arch bridges.
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Fixed Arch
If the two ends are clamped turning it into a fixed arch, it becomes indeterminate to the
third degree. Need absolute unyielding foundation because forces and moments in fixed
arches change both due to rotation and displacement of the supports.
Trussed Arch
Due to difficulty in structural analysis diagonal members are not used in arch bridges but
in trussed arch diagonal truss bars are used instead of vertical members. Diagonal web
members increase the stiffness of a bridge more so than vertical members.
CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

A cable stayed bridge hangs the girders form diagonal cables that are tensioned from
the tower. The cables of cable-stayed bridges are anchored in the girders. The girders
are most often supported by movable or fixed hinges. Due to the diagonally tensioned
cables, axial forces and bending moments are imposed on the girder and the tower. For
long span bridges, stability under strong wind currents should be carefully considered in
the design.
Longitudinal cable arrangement
I.
Radiating (converging)-Fan: because the cables are at maximum angle of

inclination to the girders, the cables take maximum component of DL & LL loads.
Therefore, the axial loads in the girders are minimal. (fig. a)
II.
III.
Harp:
-
it causes bending moment in the tower
the harp pattern is not the best from the static of economic point of views
it is superior aesthetically (fig. b)
Fan/Modified fan: combination of radiating and harp types and combining the
advantages of both. Large number of cable-stayed bridges have been built using
this. (fig. c)
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The cable stayed bridge is usually analyzed using linear elastic frame analysis. The
cable is modeled as a bar element with hinged ends. Most of the load is transmitted to
the substructure through the cables and the tower. But some goes to the girder directly.
The smaller the bending stiffness of the girder, the less the load is taken by the girder. In
the preliminary design, the bridge is modeled as a plane frame. For the details, however,
more precise analyses such as three-dimensional stress analyses may be used. It is
recommended to be economical over the range 100-350m, but the maximum span used
is 890m of the Tatarn Bridge in Japan.
The following three general principles are to be considered in determining cable tension:
1. Avoid having any bending moments (generated by dead loads) in the tower.
This is accomplished by balancing the horizontal components of the cable
tension in the left and right ends of the tower.
2. Keep the bending moments in the girder small. It depends on the location and
the distance between joints in the cable small distance (multi-cable) will result
in small bending moments on the girders.
3. Close the girder by connecting the center block lastly without using any
compelling forces. The cable tension is selected such that zero sectional
force exists at the center of the girder.
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SUSPENSION BRIDGES
Suspension bridges use two main cables suspended between two towers and anchored
to blocks at the ends. Stiffening girders are either truss or box type and hung from the
main cables using hangers. The suspension bridge is most suitable for long spans. The
longest is the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge, which has the main span of 1908.8m in Japan.
The flow of forces in a suspension bridge: The load on the girder is transmitted to the
towers through the hangers and the main cables, and then to the anchor blocks. It can
be seen that anchor blocks are essential to take the horizontal reaction force from the
cables. The gravity of the anchor blocks resists the upward component of the cable
tension force and the shear force between the anchor blocks and the foundation resists
the horizontal component. Unlike the cable-stayed bridge, no axial force is induced in the
girders of a suspension bridge.
The sag in the main cable affects the structural behavior of the suspension bridge: the
smaller the sag, the larger the stiffness of the bridge and thereby large horizontal forces
are applied to anchor blocks. In general the ratio of the sag to the main span is selected
to the about 1:10. It is economical over the span of 600m.
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Cable Design
For the cable, the high strength steel wire, i.e. usually 5mm in diameter with a strength of
1760 N/mm2 and zinc-galvanized is used. There are several types of cables: stand rope,
spiral rope, locked coil rope, and parallel wine stand.
Stiffening Girder
Truss or box type girders are used to stiffen suspension bridges. The girder must be
carefully designed to have sufficient stiffness for wind stability. For very long spans
trusses are most effective in improving the stiffness and stability. The box girder is often
adopted due to its ease of fabrication.
Tower
The tower is designed to be subjected to large axial compression and bending moment.
It is designed to have smaller bending stiffness in the longitudinal direction since the
horizontal forces coming from both sides of the tower keep it balanced.
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1.4 SELECTION OF BRIDGE TYPE
One of the key submittals in the design process is the engineers report to the bridge
owner of the type, size and location of the proposed bridge. Selection of a bridge type
involves consideration of a number of factors. In general, these factors are related to
economy, safety, and aesthetics. It is difficult to prepare a list of factors without implying
and order of priority, but a list is necessary even if the priority changes form bridge to
bridge.
Geometric conditions of the site: - The type of bridge selected will often depend on the
horizontal and vertical alignment of the highway route and on the clearances above and
below the roadway. Generally skewed crossings should be avoided, because skewed
bridges are more difficult to calculate, are longer and need more reinforcement, which
means they are more costly. Skewed bridges should be avoided due to the eccentric
earth pressure on each of the front walls that may cause the whole structure to rotate.
For example, if the roadway is on a curve, continuous box-girders and slabs are a good
choice because they have a pleasing appearance can readily be built on a curve, and
have a relatively high torsion resistance.
Geotechnical or soil condition of the site: - The foundation soils at a site are very
important in the total cost of the structure. If the soil for the adjacent road embankment
are very poor and require piling or a pile deck, this should be compared to the cost of a
longer bridge. For example, -frame bridge required strong foundation material that can
resist both horizontal and vertical thrust.
Functional Requirements: - In addition to geometric alignment that allows a bridge to
connect two points on a highway route, the bridge must also function to carry present
and future volumes of traffic. Decision must be made on the number of lanes of traffic,
inclusion of sidewalks and /or bike paths, whether the width of the bridge deck should
include medians, drainage of the surface waters, snow removal and future wearing
surface.
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Architectural and sculptural aspects: - Close to cities and large towns the architectural
and sculptural aspects of the bridge should be considered. If a pleasing bridge is desired
a competition between architects shall be arranged before or parallel with the actual predesign of the bridge. It should be the goal of every bridge designer to obtain a positive
aesthetic response to the bridge type selected.
Economics and Ease of Maintenance: - It is not possible to separate first cost and
maintenance cost over the life of the bridge when comparing the economics of different
bridge types. A general rule is that the bridge with the minimum number of spans, fewest
deck joints, and widest spacing of girders will be the most economical. By reducing the
number of spans in a bridge layout by one span the construction cost of one pier is
eliminated. Deck joints are a high maintenance cost item, so minimizing their number will
reduce the life cycle cost of the bridge.
Construction and Erection Consideration: - The selection of the type of bridge to be built
is often governed by construction and erection considerations. The length of time
required to construct a bridge is important and will vary with bridge type. In general, the
larger the prefabricated or Precast member the shorter the construction time. However,
the larger the members, the more difficult they are to transport and lift into place. Cast in
place concrete bridges are generally economical for grade separations unless the false
work supporting the non-hardened concrete becomes a traffic problem.
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1.5 Design Philosophy
General
A general statement for assuring safety in engineering design is that the resistance of
the components supplied exceed the demands put on them by applied loads, that is,
Resistance effect of the loads
When applying this simple principle, both sides of the inequality are evaluated for the
same conditions.
When a particular loading condition reaches its limit, failure is the assumed result, that
is, the loading condition becomes a failure mode. Such a condition is referred to as a
limit state that can be defined as: A limit state is a condition beyond which a bridge
system or bridge component ceases to fulfill the function for which it is designed.
Examples of limit states for girder-type bridges include deflection, cracking, fatigue,
flexure, shear, torsion, buckling, settlement, bearing, and sliding. Well-defined limit
states are established so that a designer knows what is considered to be unacceptable.
Development of Design Procedures
Allowable
Stress Design
Safety in the design was obtained by specifying that the effect of the loads should
produce stresses that were a fraction of the yield stress fy : for example, one half. This
value would be equivalent to providing a safety factor F of 2; that is,
Because the specifications set limits on the stresses, this became known as allowable
stress design (ASD).
These techniques were used as early as the 1860s to design many successful statically
determinate truss bridges. Similar bridges are built today, but they are no longer
statically determinate because they are not pin connected. As a result, the stresses in
the members are no longer uniform because of the bending moments that occur due to
the more rigid connections.
Implied in the ASD method is the assumption that the stress in the member is zero
before any loads are applied, that is, no residual stresses are introduced when the
members are formed. Not only are these residual stresses highly non uniform, they are
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also difficult to predict. Consequently, adjustments have to be made to the allowable
bending stresses, especially in compression elements, to account for the effect of
residual stresses.
Another difficulty in applying ASD to steel beams is that bending is usually accompanied
by shear, and these two stresses interact. Another definition of yield stress that
incorporates the effect of shear stress would be more logical. ASD methods were
developed for the design of statically determinate metallic structures. They do not
necessarily apply in a straightforward and logical way to other materials and other levels
of redundancy. In regard to uncertainties in design, one other point concerning the ASD
method needs to be emphasized. Allowable stress design does not recognize that
different loads have different levels of uncertainty. Dead, live, and wind loads are all
treated equally in ASD.
Shortcomings
Of Allowable
Stress Design
As just shown, ASD is not well suited for design of modern structures. Its major
shortcomings can be summarized as follows:
1. The resistance concepts are based on elastic behavior of materials.
2. It does not embody a reasonable measure of strength, which is a more fundamental
measure of resistance than is allowable stress.
3. The safely factor is applied only to resistance. Loads are considered to be
deterministic (without variation).
4. Selection of a safety factor is subjective, and it does not provide a measure of
reliability in terms of probability of failure.
What is needed to overcome these deficiencies is a method that is (a) based on the
strength of material, (b) considers variability not only in resistance but also in the effect
of loads, and (c) provides a measure of safety related to probability of failure.
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Load and
Resistance
Factor Design
To account for the variability on both sides of the inequality in Eq. 3.1, the resistance
side is multiplied by a statistically based resistance factor , whose value is usually less
than one, and the load side is multiplied by a statistically based load factor , whose
value is usually greater than one. Because the load effect at a particular limit state
involves a combination of different load types (Qi) that have different degrees of
predictability, the load effect is represented by a summation of iQi values. If the nominal
resistance is given by Rn, the safety criterion is
Rn effect of iQi
Because the above eqn involves both load factors and resistance factors, the design
method is called load and resistance factor design (LRFD). The resistance factor for a
particular limit state must account for the uncertainties in
Material properties.
Equations that predict strength.
Workmanship
Quality control
Consequence of a failure
The load factor i chosen for a particular load type must consider the uncertainties in
Magnitudes of loads
Arrangement (positions) of loads
Possible combinations of loads
In selecting resistance factors and load factors for bridges, probability theory has been
applied to data on strength of materials, and statistics on weights of materials and
vehicular loads.
Some of the pros and cons of the LRFD method can be summarized as follows:
Advantages of LRFD Method
1. Accounts for variability in both resistance and load.
2. Achieves fairly uniform levels of safety for different limit states and bridge types
without involving probability or statistical analysis.
3. Provides a rational and consistent method of design.
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Disadvantages of LRFD Method
1. Requires a change in design philosophy (from previous AASHTO methods).
2. Requires an understanding of the basic concepts of probability and statistics.
3. Requires availability of sufficient statistical data and probabilistic design algorithms to
make adjustments in resistance factors.
Design Limit States
The basic design expression in the AASHTO (2004b) LRFD Bridge Specifications that
must be satisfied for all limit states, both global and local, is given as:
iiQi Rn
where Qi is the force effect, Rn is the nominal resistance, i is the statistically based load
factor applied to the force effects, is the statistically based resistance factor applied to
nominal resistance, and i is a load modification factor.
For all nonstrength limit states, = 1.0.
The load modifier is a factor that takes into account the ductility, redundancy, and
operational importance of the bridge. It is given for loads for which a maximum value of
i is appropriate by:
i = DRI 0.95
and for loads for which a minimum value of i is appropriate by:
i = 1/DRI 1.0
where D is the ductility factor, R is the redundancy factor, and I is the operational
importance factor. The first two factors refer to the strength of the bridge and the third
refers to the consequence of a bridge being out of service. For all nonstrength limit
states D = R = 1.0
DUCTILITY FACTOR D
Ductility is important to the safety of a bridge. If ductility is present, overloaded portions
of the structure can redistribute the load to other portions that have reserve strength.
This redistribution is dependent on the ability of the overloaded component and its
connections to develop inelastic deformations without failure. Components and
connections in reinforced concrete can be made ductile by limiting the flexural
reinforcement and by providing confinement with hoops or stirrups.
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The values to be used for the strength limit state ductility factor are:
D 1.05 for non ductile components and connections
D = 1.00 for conventional designs and details complying with the specifications
D 0.95 for components and connections for which additional ductility-enhancing
measures have been specified beyond those required by the specifications
For all other limit states:
D = 1.00
REDUNDANCY FACTOR R
Redundancy significantly affects the safety margin of a bridge structure. A statically
indeterminate structure is redundant, that is, has more restraints than are necessary to
satisfy equilibrium. For example, a three-span continuous bridge girder in the old days
would be classified as statically indeterminate to the second degree. Any combination of
two supports, or two moments, or one support and one moment could be lost without
immediate collapse because the applied loads could find alternative paths. The concept
of multiple-load paths is the same as redundancy. Single-load paths or nonredundant
bridge systems are not encouraged.
Redundancy in a bridge system increases its
margin of safety, and this is reflected in the strength limit state by redundancy factors
given as:
R 1.05 for nonredundant members
R = 1.00 for conventional levels of redundancy
R 0.95 for exceptional levels of redundancy
R = 1.00
OPERATIONAL IMPORTANCE FACTOR I
Bridges can be considered of operational importance if they are on the shortest path
between residential areas and a hospital or school or provide access for police, fire, and
rescue vehicles to homes, businesses, and industrial plants. Bridges can also be
considered essential if they prevent a long detour and save time and gasoline in getting
to work and back home again. One example of a less important bridge could be on a
secondary road leading to a remote recreation area that is not open year round, bridges
remain open.
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Therefore, the following requirements apply to the extreme event limit state as well as to
the strength limit state:
I 1.05 for a bridge of operational importance
I = 1.00 for typical bridges
I 0.95 for relatively less important bridges
I = 1.00
Bridge Design Specifications
Set of rules and regulations to be followed in designing the nations highway bridges
1914 AASHO was formed
1921 AASHOs Bridges and Allied Structures Committee Organized
1932 First edition of AASHO standard specifications for Highway Bridges and Incidental
structures was published
1963 AASHO became AASHTO
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3. LOADS ON BRIDGES
3.1 Introduction
This chapter specifies minimum requirements for loads and forces, the limits of their
application, load factors and load combinations used for the design of new bridges and
structural evaluations of existing bridges. The designer must consider all the loads that
are expected to be applied to the bridge during its service life. Such loads may be
classified into two broad categories: permanent and transient loads.
3.2 Loads on Bridges
The permanent loads remains on the bridge for an extended period, usually for the entire
service. Such loads include:
DC = dead loads of structural components & non-structural attachments.
DD = down drag
DW = dead load of wearing surfaces & utilities
EH = horizontal earth pressure load
EL = accumulated locked in effects resulting from the construction process.
ES = earth surcharge load
EV = vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill.
The transient loads, as the name implies changes with time and may be applied from
several directions and 1 or locations. Typically, such loads are highly variable.
BR = Vehicular braking force
CE = vehicular centrifugal force
CR = creep
CT = vehicular collision force
EQ = earthquake
FR = friction
IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance
LL = vehicular live load
LS = live load surcharge
PL = pedestrian live load
SE = settlement
SH = shrinkage
TG = temperature gradient
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TU = uniform temperature
WA = water load & stream pressure
WL = wind or live load
WS = wind load on structure
Permanent loads
The dead load of the structural components & non-structural attachments (DC) are
definitely permanent loads and must be included in any analysis. Here components refer
to those elements that are part of the load resistance system. Non-structural
attachments refer to such items as curbs, parapets, barrier rails, sign illuminators, and
guard rails. The weight of such items can be estimated by using the unit weight of the
material combined with the geometry. The dead load of the wearing surface (DW) is
estimated by taking the unit weight times the thickness of the surface. In the absence of
more precise information, the unit weights are given in the below.
3.3 Combination of Loads for Design
The load factors for various load combinations and permanent loads are given in Tables
3.1 and 3.2, respectively. There are four different service limit state load combinations
given in Table 3.1 to address different design situations.
Service
Limit State
Service I
This service limit state refers to the load combination relating to the normal operational
use of the bridge with 55-mph (90-km/h) wind, and with all loads taken at their nominal
values. It also relates to deflection control in buried structures, crack control in reinforced
concrete structures, concrete compressive stress in prestressed concrete components,
and concrete tensile stress related to transverse analysis of concrete segmental girders.
This load combination should also be used for the investigation of slope stability.
Service II
This service limit state refers to the load combination relating only to steel structures and
is intended to control yielding and slip of slip-critical connections due to vehicular live
load. It corresponds to the overload provision for steel structures in past editions of the
AASHTO Standard Specifications.
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Service III
This service limit state refers to the load combination for longitudinal analysis relating to
tension in prestressed concrete superstructures with the objective of crack control and to
principal tension in the webs of segmental concrete girders. The statistical significance
of the 0.80 factor on live load is that the event is expected to occur about once a year for
bridges with two traffic lanes, less often for bridges with more than two traffic lanes, and
about once a day for bridges with a single traffic lane. Service I is used to investigate for
compressive stresses in prestressed concrete components.
Service IV
This service limit state refers to the load combination relating only to tension in
prestressed concrete substructures with the objective of crack control. The 0.70 factor
on wind represents an 84-mph (135-km/h) wind. This should result in zero tension in
prestressed concrete substructures for 10- year mean reoccurrence winds.
Fatigue
and Fracture
Limit State
The fatigue and fracture limit state refers to a set of restrictions on stress range caused
by a design truck. The restrictions depend on the number of stress-range excursions
expected to occur during the design life of the bridge. They are intended to limit crack
growth under repetitive loads and to prevent fracture due to cumulative stress effects in
steel elements, components, and connections. For the fatigue and fracture limit state,
= 1.0. Because the only load effect that causes a large number of repetitive cycles is the
vehicular live load, it is the only load effect that has a nonzero load factor in the fatigue
limit state (see Table 3.1). A load factor of 0.75 is applied to vehicular live load, dynamic
load allowance, and centrifugal force. Use of load factor less than 1.0 is justified
because statistics show that trucks at slightly lower weights cause more repetitive cycles
of stress than those at the weight of the design truck. Incidentally, the fatigue design
truck is different than the design truck used to evaluate other force effects. It is defined
as a single truck with a fixed axle spacing.
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Strength
Limit State
Strength limit states include the evaluation of resistance to bending, shear, torsion, and
axial load. The statistically determined resistance factor will usually be less than 1.0
and will have different values for different materials and strength limit states. The
statistically determined load factors i are given in five separate load combinations in
Table 3.1 to address different design considerations. For force effects due to permanent
loads, the load factors p of Table 3.2 shall be selected to give the most critical load
combination for a particular strength limit state. Either the maximum or minimum value
of p may control the extreme effect so both must be investigated. Application of two
different values for p could easily double the number of strength load combinations to
be considered. Fortunately, not all of the strength limit states apply in every situation and
some can be eliminated by inspection.
For all strength load combinations, a load factor of 0.50 is applied to TU, CR, and SH for
nondisplacement force effects to represent the reduction in these force effects with time
from the values predicted by an elastic analysis. In the calculation of displacements for
these loads, a load factor of 1.20 is used to avoid undersized joints and bearings
Strength I
This strength limit state is the basic load combination relating to normal vehicular use of
the bridge without wind.
Strength II
This strength limit state is the load combination relating to the use of the bridge by
owner-specified special design vehicles, evaluation permit vehicles, or both without
wind. If a permit vehicle is traveling unescorted, or if the escorts do not provide control,
the basic design vehicular live load may be assumed to occupy the other lanes on the
bridge.
Strength III
This strength limit state is the load combination relating to the bridge exposed to wind
velocity exceeding 55 mph (90 km/h). The high winds prevent the presence of significant
live load on the bridge.
Strength IV
This strength limit state is the load combination relating to very high dead/live load force
effect ratios. The standard calibration process used to select load factors i and
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resistance factors for the strength limit state was carried out for bridges with spans
less than 200 ft (60 m). For the primary components of large-span bridges, the ratio of
dead- and live-load force effects is rather high and could result in a set of resistance
factors different from those found acceptable for small- and medium-span bridges. To
avoid using two sets of resistance factors with the load factors of the strength I limit
state, the strength IV limit state load factors were developed for large-span bridges.
Strength V
This strength limit state is the load combination relating to normal vehicular use of the
bridge with wind of 55-mph (90-km/h) velocity. The strength V limit state differs from the
strength III limit state by the presence of live load on the bridge, wind on the live load,
and reduced wind on the structure (Table 3.1).
Extreme
Event Limit State
The extreme event limit state refers to the structural survival of a bridge during a major
earthquake or flood or when collided by a vessel, vehicle, or ice floe [A1.3.2.5]. The
probability of these events occurring simultaneously is extremely low; therefore, they are
specified to be applied separately. The recurrence interval of extreme events may be
significantly greater than the design life of the bridge [C1.3.2.5]. Under these extreme
conditions, the structure is expected to undergo considerable inelastic deformation by
which locked-in force effects due to TU, TG, CR, SH, and SE are expected to be
relieved [C3.4.1] (see Chapter 6). For the extreme event limit state, = 1.0.
Extreme Event I
This extreme event limit state is the load combination relating to earthquake. This limit
state also includes water load WA and friction FR. The probability of a major flood and
an earthquake occurring at the same time is very small. Therefore, water loads and
scour depths based on mean discharges may be warranted. Partial live load coincident
with earthquake should be considered. The load factor for live load EQ shall be
determined on a project-specific basis.
Extreme Event II
This extreme event limit state is the load combination relating to ice load, collision by
vessels and vehicles, and to certain hydraulic events with reduced live load. The 0.50
live-load factor signifies a low probability of the combined occurrence of the maximum
vehicular live load, other than CT, and the extreme events.
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Fundamentals of Bridge Design

Substructure: consists of all components of bridge required to support the

Instructor: Shewangizaw T. & Yonas T

Fundamentals of Bridge Design

Pedestals: short columns on an abutment or pier that directly support a

Bearings: mechanical devices used to transmit loads from superstructure to

Transmit vertical loads and horizontal loads to abutment and piers.

Facilitate movement caused by thermal changes

Provide rotational movement of the primary member/girder and may be

Vertical Clearance (m)

Instructor: Shewangizaw T. & Yonas T

Fundamentals of Bridge Design

Two-lane in urban area

Two-lane in urban area

Vertical clearance: - the height above roadways. (5.3m)

It likely controls the capacity of the system

Instructor: Shewangizaw T. & Yonas T

Fundamentals of Bridge Design

o a straight reach of the river

Instructor: Shewangizaw T. & Yonas T

Fundamentals of Bridge Design

Steel, concrete, Timber, metal alloy bridges.

Highway, Railway, Combined, pedestrian bridges

iii) Structural System (Super Structure)

Short, medium, long

Simply supported, continuous, cantilever

Vi) The obstacle for the traffic lane

Valley bridge or viaduct, River bridges, Flood bridges

vii)The arrangement of the bridge in ground plan

Straight bridges, skew bridges, curved bridges

Instructor: Shewangizaw T. & Yonas T

Fundamentals of Bridge Design

Lesser depth of girder, hence economical supports

Better architectural appearance

Lesser vibration and deflection

Analysis is laborious and time consuming

Not suitable on yielding foundations

Instructor: Shewangizaw T. & Yonas T

Fundamentals of Bridge Design

Instructor: Shewangizaw T. & Yonas T

Fundamentals of Bridge Design

Instructor: Shewangizaw T. & Yonas T

Fundamentals of Bridge Design

More rigidity of the structure

Less moments in deck being partly transferred to the supporting members

No bearings are required

Better aesthetic appearance than the continuous span structure

As in continuous span bridges, these structures also require unyielding foundation

Instructor: Shewangizaw T. & Yonas T

Fundamentals of Bridge Design

Three hinge arch

Instructor: Shewangizaw T. & Yonas T

Fundamentals of Bridge Design

CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

Radiating (converging)-Fan: because the cables are at maximum angle of

it causes bending moment in the tower

it is superior aesthetically (fig. b)

Instructor: Shewangizaw T. & Yonas T

Fundamentals of Bridge Design

Instructor: Shewangizaw T. & Yonas T

Fundamentals of Bridge Design

Instructor: Shewangizaw T. & Yonas T

Fundamentals of Bridge Design