Theories of Failure

A good understanding of theories of failure are imperative in the design of civil structures or
types of mechanical equipment.
The Weight Lifter Analogy
Consider a weight lifter problem.
A weight lifter analogy
In the first case he is able to lift maximum up to 50 kg in a relatively simple fashion. Now
consider a second case, here he is lifting the same amount of weight in a different manner. Is
it true to say here also his maximum lifting ability is 50 kg?. Answer to this question could
be Yes or No. If you assume that, his lifting ability is same in the second case also, then
this can be considered as a failure theory for a weight lifter.
The Backbone of Failure Theories
In materials also we can apply the same concept of weight lifter failure theory. Here material
will undergo a simple force test (simple tension test), so one can determine what's the
maximum load capability the material has. Now, we will assume that in a complex loading
condition also, the material has the same capability. This assumption forms the backbone of
Failure theories. Concepts of Simple tension test and Principal stresses are the main
prerequisites to understand the Failure theories effectively.
Simple Tension Test
In Simple tension test material is pulled from both the ends, the elongation of material
(strain) with respect to the load is noted. From such an observation one can easily determine
maximum strength of the material. For ductile material upper yield point is considered to be
maximum strength of material, while for brittle material it is taken as ultimate strength of the
material. From the maximum strength value of the material, values of various other
parameters can easily be calculated. Simple tension graph and upper yield point value for a
ductile material case is shown in the figure below.
Simple tension test
Principal Stress
Principal stress is the maximum normal stress occurring at a given point. In order to find out
this value easy way is to do a Mohr circle analysis. Once you know Principal stress values
you can go ahead with failure theories. Figure below shows principal stress values induced at
point in a 3 dimensional complex loading case.
Principal stresses and planes

The Failure Theories

The interesting thing in the Failure theories is that, just by looking at the name of the theory
you will be able to formulate condition of failure in an actual case. Just make sure that your
concept of Simple Tension Test and Principal stresses are clear. The theories along with its
usability are given below.
1. Maximum principal stress theory - Good for brittle materials*
According to this theory when the maximum principal stress induced in a material
under complex load condition exceeds the maximum normal strength in a simple
tension test, the material fails. So the failure condition can be expressed as

2. Maximum shear stress theory - Good for Ductile Materials

According to this theory when the maximum shear strength in actual case exceeds
maximum allowable shear stress in simple tension test the material case. Maximum
shear stress in actual case in represented as
Maximum shear stress in simple tension case occurs at angle 45 degree with load, so
maximum shear strength in a simple tension case can be represented as
Comparing these 2 quantities one can write the failure condition as
3. Maximum normal strain theory - Not recommended
This theory states that, when the maximum normal strain in actual case is more than
maximum normal strain occurred in simple tension test case the material fails. The
maximum normal strain in actual case is given by
Maximum strain in simple tension test case is given by
So condition of failure according to this theory is
Where E is Youngs modulus of the material
4. Total strain energy theory - Good for ductile material
According to this theory when the total strain energy in actual case exceeds the total
strain energy in simple tension test at the time of failure, the material fails. The total
strain energy in actual case is given by
The total strain energy in simple tension test at time of failure is given by

So failure condition can be simplified as

5. Shear strain energy theory - Highly recommended
According to this theory when the shear strain energy in the actual case exceeds shear
strain energy in simple tension test at the time of failure the material fails. Shear strain
energy in the actual case is given by
Shear strain energy in simple tension test at the time of failure is given by
So the failure condition can be deduced as
Where G is shear modulus of the material
Out of the 5 theories discussed, the Shear strain energy theory or Von-mises theory is the
most valuable one.
*Since brittle materials does not have yield point, you can use ultimate tensile stress as
failure criterion.

Industrial Applications of Failure Theories

Nowadays FEA based solvers are well integrated to use failure theories. User can specify
kind of failure criterion in his solution method. Shear strain energy theory is the most
commonly used method. These softwares can produce Von-mises stress along material,which
is based on Shear strain energy theory. So user can check whether maximum Von-mises
stress induced in the body crosses maximum allowable stress value. It is a common practice
to introduce Factor of Safety(F.S) while designing, in order to take care of worst loading
scenario. So the engineer can say his design is safe if following condition satisfies.

What is Von Mises Stress ?

Von Mises stress is widely used by designers to check whether their design will withstand a
given load condition. Now we will understand Von Mises stress in a logical way.
Use of Von Mises stress

Von Mises stress is considered to be a safe haven for design engineers. Using this
information an engineer can say his design will fail, if the maximum value of Von Mises
stress induced in the material is more than strength of the material. It works well for most
cases, especially when the material is ductile in nature.
When does a material fail?
One of the easiest ways to check when a material fails is a simple tension test. Here the
material is pulled from both ends. When the material reaches the yield point (for ductile
material) the material can be considered as failed. The simple tension test is a unidirectional
test, this is shown in the first part of Fig.

A simple tension test and a real life loading condition

Now consider the situation in second part of Fig., an actual engineering problem with a
complex loading condition. Can we say here also, that the material fails when the maximum
normal stress value induced in the material is more than the yield point value?. If you use
such an assumption, you would be using a failure theory called 'normal stress theory'. Many
years of engineering experience has shown that normal stress theory doesnt work in most of
the cases. The most preferred failure theory used in industry is Von Mises stress based.
Distortion energy theory
The concept of Von mises stress arises from the distortion energy failure theory. Distortion
energy failure theory is comparison between two kinds of energies, 1) Distortion energy in
the actual case 2) Distortion energy in a simple tension case at the time of failure. According
to this theory, failure occurs when the distortion energy in actual case is more than the
distortion energy in a simple tension case at the time of failure.
Distortion energy
It is the energy required for shape deformation of a material. During pure distortion, the
shape of the material changes, but volume does not change. This is illustrated in Fig.
Representation of a pure distortion case
Distortion energy required per unit volume, ud for a general 3 dimensional case is given in
terms of principal stress values as:
Distortion energy for simple tension case at the time of failure is given as:
Expression for Von Mises stress
The above 2 quantities can be connected using distortion energy failure theory, so the
condition of failure will be as follows.

The left hand side of the above equation is denoted as Von Mises stress.
So as a failure criterion, the engineer can check whether Von Mises stress induced in the
material exceeds yield strength (for ductile material) of the material.So the failure condition
can be simplified as
Industrial Application of Von Mises Stress
Distortion energy theory is the most preferred failure theory used in industry. It is clear from
above discussions that whenever an engineer resorts to distortion energy theory he can use
Von Mises stress as a failure criterion.Let's see one example:
Suppose an engineer has to design a cantilever beam using mild steel as the material, with a
load capacity of 10000 N. The materials properties of mild steel are also shown in the figure.
The yield stress value of mild steel is 2.5x108 Pa. He wants to check whether his design will
withstand the design load.
A design problem, the cantilever should be able to withstand design load
The following figure shows the Von Mises stress distribution obtained by FEA analysis of
the beam.
Fig. Distribution of Von Mises stress in the beam obtained from FEA analysis
One can note that Von Mises stress is at maximum towards the fixed end of the beam, and
the value is 1.32x108 Pa. This is less than the yield point value of mild steel. So the design is
safe. In short an engineer's duty is to keep the maximum value of Von Mises stress induced
in the material less than its strength.