Ar003 COMBUSTION PDF

Source: HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS
SECTION 3
COMBUSTION
Combustion Calculations Using the
Million BTU (1.055 MJ) Method 3.1
Savings Produced by Preheating
Combustion Air 3.4
Combustion of Coal Fuel in a
Furnace 3.5
Percent Excess Air While Burning
Coke 3.8
Combustion of Fuel Oil in a
Furnace 3.9
Combustion of Natural Gas in a

Furnace 3.11
Combustion of Wood Fuel in a
Furnace 3.17
Molal Method of Combustion
Analysis 3.19
Final Combustion Products Temperature
Estimate 3.22
COMBUSTION CALCULATIONS USING THE

MILLION BTU (1.055MJ) METHOD
The energy absorbed by a steam boiler red by natural gas is 100-million Btu / hr
(29.3 MW). Boiler efciency on a higher heating value (HHV) basis is 83 percent.
If 15 percent excess air is used, determine the total air and ue-gas quantities
produced. The approximate HHV of the natural gas is 23,000 Btu / lb (53,590 kJ /
kg). Ambient air temperature is 80F (26.7C) and relative humidity is 65 percent.
How can quick estimates be made of air and ue-gas quantities in boiler operations
when the fuel analysis is not known?
Calculation Procedure:
1. Determine the energy input to the boiler

The million Btu (1.055MJ) method combustion calculations is a quick way of
estimating air and ue-gas quantities generated in boiler and heater operations when
the ultimate fuel analysis is not available and all the engineer is interested in is
good estimates. Air and ue-gas quantities determined may be used to calculate
the size of fans, ducts, stacks, etc.
It can be shown through comprehensive calculations that each fuel such as coal,
oil, natural gas, bagasse, blast-furnace gas, etc. requires a certain amount of dry
stochiometric air per million Btu (1.055MJ) red on an HHV basis and that this
quantity does not vary much with the fuel analysis. The listing below gives the dry
air required per million Btu (1.055MJ) of fuel red on an HHV basis for various
fuels.
3.1
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COMBUSTION
3.2
POWER GENERATION
Combustion Constants for Fuels

Fuel
Constant, lb dry air per

million Btu (kg / MW)
Blast furnace gas

Bagasse
Carbon monoxide gas
Renery and oil gas
Natural gas
Furnace oil and lignite
Bituminous coals
Anthracite coal
Coke
575 (890.95)
650 (1007.2)
670 (1038.2)
720 (1115.6)
730 (1131.1)
745750 (1154.41162.1)
760 (1177.6)
780 (1208.6)
800 (1239.5)
To determine the energy input to the boiler, use the relation Qf (Qs) / Eh, where
energy input by the fuel, Btu / hr (W); Qs energy absorbed by the steam in the
boiler, Btu / Hr (W); Qs energy absorbed by the steam, Btu / hr (W); Eh efciency of the boiler on an HHV basis. Substituting for this boiler, Qf 100 /
0.83 120.48 million Btu / hr on an HHV basis (35.16 MW).
2. Estimate the quantity of dry air required by this boiler
The total air required Ta (Qf)(Fuel constant from list above). For natural gas,
Ta (120.48)(730) 87,950 lb / hr (39,929 kg / hr). With 15 percent excess air,
total air required (1.15)(87,950) 101,142.5 lb / hr (45,918.7 kg / hr).
3. Compute the quantity of wet air required
Air has some moisture because of its relative humidity. Estimate the amount of
moisture in dry air in M lb / lb (kg / kg) from, M 0.622 ( pw) / (14.7 pw), where
0.622 is the ratio of the molecular weights of water vapor and dry air; pw partial
pressure of water vapor in the air, psia (kPa) saturated vapor pressure (SVP)
relative humidity expressed as a decimal; 14.7 atmospheric pressure of air at sea
level (101.3 kPa). From the steam tables, at 80 F (26.7 C), SVP 0.5069 psia
(3.49 kPa). Substituting, M 0.622 (0.5069 0.65) / (14.7 [0.5069 0.65])
0.01425 lb of moisture / lb of dry air (0.01425 kg / kg).
The total ow rate of the wet air then 1.0142 (101,142.5) 102,578.7 lb / hr
(46,570.7 kg / hr). To convert to a volumetric-ow basis, recall that the density of
air at 80F (26.7C) and 14.7 psia (101.3 kPa) 39 / (480 80) 0.0722 lb / cu
ft (1.155 kg / cu m). In this relation, 39 a constant and the temperature of the air
is converted to degrees Rankine. Hence, the volumetric ow 102,578.7 / (60
min / hr)(0.0722) 23,679.3 actual cfm (670.1 cm m / min).
4. Estimate the rate of fuel ring and ue-gas produced
The rate of fuel ring Qf / HHV (120.48 106) / 23,000 5238 lb / hr (2378
kg / hr). Hence, the total ue gas produced 5238 102,578 107,816 lb / hr
(48,948 kg / hr).
If the temperature of the ue gas is 400F (204.4C) (a typical value for a naturalgas red boiler), then the density, as in Step 3 is: 39 / (400 460) 0.04535 lb /
cu ft (0.7256 kg / cu m). Hence, the volumetric ow (107,816) / (60 min / hr
0.04535) 39,623.7 actual cfm (1121.3 cu m / min).
Related Calculations. Detailed combustion calculations based on actual fuel
gas analysis can be performed to verify the constants given in the list above. For
example, let us say that the natural-gas analysis was: Methane 83.4 percent;
Ethane 15.8 percent; Nitrogen 0.8 percent by volume. First convert the analysis
to a percent weight basis:

COMBUSTION
3.3
COMBUSTION
Fuel
Percent volume
MW
Col. 2 Col. 3
Percent weight
Methane
Ethane
Nitrogen
83.4
15.8
0.8
16
30
28
1334.4
474
22.4
72.89
25.89
1.22
Note that the percent weight in the above list is calculated after obtaining the sum
under Column 2 Column 3. Thus, the percent methane (1334.4) / (1334.4
474 22.4) 72.89 percent.
From a standard reference, such as Ganapathy, Steam Plant Calculations Manual, Marcel Dekker, Inc., nd the combustion constants, K, for various fuels and
use them thus: For the air required for combustion, Ac (K for methane)(percent
by weight methane from above list) (K for ethane)(percent by weight ethane);
or Ac (17.265)(0.7289) (16.119)(0.2589) 16.76 lb / lb (16.76 kg / kg).
Next, compute the higher heating value of the fuel (HHV) using the air constants
from the same reference mentioned above. Or HHV (heat of combustion for
methane)(percent by weight methane) (heat of combustion of ethane)(percent by
weight ethane) (23,879)(0.7289) (22,320)(0.2589) 23,184 Btu / lb (54,018.7
kJ / kg). Then, the amount of fuel equivalent to 1,000,000 Btu (1,055,000 kJ)
(1,000,000) / 23,184 43.1 lb (19.56 kg), which requires, as computed above,
(43.1)(16.76) 722.3 lb dry air (327.9 kg), which agrees closely with the value
given in Step 1, above.
Similarly, if the fuel were 100 percent methane, using the steps given above,
and suitable constants from the same reference work, the air required for combustion is 17.265 lb / lb (7.838 kg / kg) of fuel. HHV 23,879 Btu / lb (55,638 kJ / kg).
Hence, the fuel in 1,000,000 Btu (1,055,000 kJ) (1,000,000) / (23,879) 41.88
lb (19.01 kg). Then, the dry air per million Btu (1.055 kg) red (17.265)
(41.88) 723 lb (328.3 kg).
Likewise, for propane, using the same procedure, 1 lb (0.454 kg) requires 15.703
lb (7.129 kg) air and 1 million Btu (1,055,000 kJ) has (1,000,000) / 21,661 46.17
lb (20.95 kg) fuel. Then, 1 million Btu (1,055,000 kJ) requires (15.703)(46.17)
725 lb (329.2 kg) air. This general approach can be used for various fuel oils and
solid fuelscoal, coke, etc.
Good estimates of excess air used in combustion processes may be obtained if
the oxygen and nitrogen in dry ue gases are measured. Knowledge of excess air
amounts helps in performing detailed combustion and boiler efciency calculations.
Percent excess air, EA 100(O2CO2) / [0.264 N2(O2CO / 2)], where O2
oxygen in the dry ue gas, percent volume; CO percent volume carbon monoxide; N2 percent volume nitrogen.
You can also estimate excess air from oxygen readings. Use the relation, EA
(constant from list below)((O2) / (21O2).
Constants for Excess Air Calculations
Fuel
Constant
Carbon
Hydrogen
Carbon monoxide
Sulfur
Methane
Oil
Coal
Blast furnace gas
Coke oven gas
100
80
121
100
90
94.5
97
223
89.3

COMBUSTION
3.4
POWER GENERATION
If the percent volume of oxygen measured is 3 on a dry basis in a natural-gas

(methane) red boiler, the excess air, EA (90)[3 / (213)] 15 percent.
This procedure is the work of V. Ganapathy, Heat Transfer Specialist, ABCO
Industries.
SAVINGS PRODUCED BY PREHEATING

COMBUSTION AIR
A 20,000 sq ft (1858 sq m) building has a calculated total seasonal heating load
of 2,534,440 MBH (thousand Btu) (2674 MJ). The stack temperature is 600F
(316C) and the boiler efciency is calculated to be 75 percent. Fuel oil burned has
a higher heating value of 140,000 Btu / gal (39,018 MJ / L). A preheater can be
purchased and installed to reduce the breeching discharge combustion air temperature by 250F (139C) to 350F (177C) and provide the burner with preheated
air. How much fuel oil will be saved? What will be the monetary saving if fuel oil
is priced at 80 cents per gallon?
1. Compute the total combustion air required by this boiler

A general rule used by design engineers is that 1 cu ft (0.0283 cu m) of combustion
air is required for each 100 Btu (105.5 J) released during combustion. To compute
the combustion air required, use the relation CA H / 100 Boiler efciency,
expressed as a decimal, where CA annual volume of combustion air, cu ft (cu
m); H total seasonal heating load, Btu / yr (kJ / yr). Substituting for this boiler,
CA (2,534,400)(1000) / 100 0.75 33,792,533 cu ft / yr (956.329 cu m).
2. Calculate the annual energy savings
The energy savings, ES (stack temperature reduction, deg F)(cu ft air per
yr)(0.018), where the constant 0.018 is the specic heat of air. Substituting, ES
(250)(33,792,533)(0.018) 152,066,399 Btu / yr (160,430 kJ / yr).
With a boiler efciency of 75 percent, each gallon of oil releases 0.75 140,000
Btu / gal 105,000 Btu (110.8 jk). Hence, the fuel saved, FS ES / usuable heat
in fuel, Btu / gal. Or, FS 152,066,399 / 105,000 1448.3 gal / yr (5.48 cu m / yr).
With fuel oil at $1.10 per gallon, the monetary savings will be $1.10 (1448.3)
$1593.13. If the preheater cost $6000, the simple payoff time would be $6000 /
1593.13 3.77 years.
Related Calculations. Use this procedure to determine the potential savings
for burning any type of fuelcoal, oil, natural gas, landll gas, catalytic cracker
offgas, hydrogen purge gas, bagesse, sugar cane, etc. Other rules of thumb used by
designers to estimate the amount of combustion air required for various fuels are:
10 cu ft of air (0.283 cu m) per 1 cu ft (0.0283 cu m) of natural gas; 1300 cu ft
of air (36.8 cu m) per gal (0.003785 cu m) of No. 2 fuel oil; 1450 cu ft of air (41
cu m) per gal of No. 5 fuel oil; 1500 cu ft of air (42.5 cu m) per gal of No. 6 fuel
oil. These values agree with that used in the above computationi.e. 100 cu ft per
100 Btu of 140,000 Btu per gal oil 140,000 / 100 1400 cu ft per gal (39.6 cu
m / 0.003785 cu m).
This procedure is the work of Jerome F. Mueller, P.E. of Mueller Engineering
Corp.

COMBUSTION
COMBUSTION
3.5
COMBUSTION OF COAL FUEL IN A FURNACE

A coal has the following ultimate analysis (or percent by weight): C 0.8339;
H2 0.0456; O2 0.0505; N2 0.0103; S 0.0064; ash 0.0533; total 1.000
lb (0.45 kg). This coal is burned in a steam-boiler furnace. Determine the weight
of air required for theoretically perfect combustion, the weight of gas formed per
pound (kilogram) of coal burned, and the volume of ue gas, at the boiler exit
temperature of 600F (316C) per pound (kilogram) of coal burned; air required
with 20 percent excess air, and the volume of gas formed with this excess; the CO2
percentage in the ue gas on a dry and wet basis.
1. Compute the weight of oxygen required per pound of coal

To nd the weight of oxygen required for theoretically perfect combustion of coal,
set up the following tabulation, based on the ultimate analysis of the coal:
Note that of the total oxygen needed for combustion, 0.0505 lb (0.023 kg), is
furnished by the fuel itself and is assumed to reduce the total external oxygen
required by the amount of oxygen present in the fuel. The molecular-weight ratio
is obtained from the equation for the chemical reaction of the element with oxygen
in combustion. Thus, for carbon C O2 CO2, or 12 32 44, where 12 and
32 are the molecular weights of C and O2, respectively.
2. Compute the weight of air required for perfect combustion
Air at sea level is a mechanical mixture of various gases, principally 23.2 percent
oxygen and 76.8 percent nitrogen by weight. The nitrogen associated with the
2.5444 lb (1.154 kg) of oxygen required per pound (kilogram) of coal burned in
this furnace is the product of the ratio of the nitrogen and oxygen weights in the
air and 2.5444, or (2.5444)(0.768 / 0.232) 8.4228 lb (3.820 kg). Then the weight
of air required for perfect combustion of 1 lb (0.45 kg) of coal sum of nitrogen
and oxygen required 8.4228 2.5444 10.9672 lb (4.975 kg) of air per pound
(kilogram) of coal burned.
3. Compute the weight of the products of combustion
Find the products of combustion by addition:

COMBUSTION
3.6
POWER GENERATION
4. Convert the ue-gas weight to volume

Use Avogadros law, which states that under the same conditions of pressure and
temperature, 1 mol (the molecular weight of a gas expressed in lb) of any gas will
occupy the same volume.
At 14.7 lb / in2 (abs) (101.3 kPa) and 32 F (0C), 1 mol of any gas occupies
359 ft3 (10.2 m3). The volume per pound of any gas at these conditions can be
found by dividing 359 by the molecular weight of the gas and correcting for the
gas temperature by multiplying the volume by the ratio of the absolute ue-gas
temperature and the atmospheric temperature. To change the weight analysis (step
3) of the products of combustion to volumetric analysis, set up the calculation thus:
In this calculation, the temperature correction factor 2.15 absolute ue-gas temperature, R / absolute atmospheric temperature, R (600 460) / (32 460). The
total weight of N2 in the ue gas is the sum of the N2 in the combustion air and
the fuel, or 8.4228 0.0103 8.4331 lb (3.8252 kg). The value is used in computing the ue-gas volume.
5. Compute the CO2 content of the ue gas
The volume of CO2 in the products of combustion at 600F (316C) is 53.6 ft3
(1.158 m3), as computed in step 4; and the total volume of the combustion products
is 303.85 ft3 (8.604 m3). Therefore, the percent CO2 on a wet basis (i.e., including
the moisture in the combustion products) ft3 CO2 / total ft3 53.6 / 303.85
0.1764, or 17.64 percent.
The percent CO2 on a dry, or Orsat, basis is found in the same manner, except
that the weight of H2O in the products of combustion, 17.6 lb (7.83 kg) from step
4, is subtracted from the total gas weight. Or, percent CO2, dry, or Orsat basis
(53.6) / (303.85 17.6) 0.1872, or 18.72 percent.

COMBUSTION
COMBUSTION
3.7
6. Compute the air required with the stated excess ow

With 20 percent excess air, the air ow required (0.20 1.00)(air ow with no
excess) 1.20 (10.9672) 13.1606 lb (5.970 kg) of air per pound (kilogram) of
coal burned. The air ow with no excess is obtained from step 2.
The excess air passes through the furnace without taking part in the combustion
and increases the weight of the products of combustion per pound (kilogram) of
coal burned. Therefore, the weight of the products of combustion is the sum of the
weight of the combustion products without the excess air and the product of (percent excess air)(air for perfect combustion, lb); or, given the weights from steps 3
and 2, respectively, 11.9139 (0.20)(10.9672) 14.1073 lb (6.399 kg) of gas
per pound (kilogram) of coal burned with 20 percent excess air.
8. Compute the volume of the combustion products and the percent CO2
The volume of the excess air in the products of combustion is obtained by converting from the weight analysis to the volumetric analysis and correcting for temperature as in step 4, using the air weight from step 2 for perfect combustion and
the excess-air percentage, or (10.9672)(0.20)(359 / 28.95)(2.15) 58.5 ft3 (1.656
m3). In this calculation the value 28.95 is the molecular weight of air. The total
volume of the products of combustion is the sum of the column for perfect combustion, step 4, and the excess-air volume, above, or 303.85 58.5 362.35 ft3
(10.261 m3).
By using the procedure in step 5, the percent CO2, wet basis 53.6 / 362.35
14.8 percent. The percent CO2, dry basis 53.8 / (362.35 17.6) 15.6 percent.
Related Calculations. Use the method given here when making combustion
calculations for any type of coalbituminous, semibituminous, lignite, anthracite,
cannel, or cookingfrom any coal eld in the world used in any type of
furnaceboiler, heater, process, or waste-heat. When the air used for combustion
contains moisture, as is usually true, this moisture is added to the combustionformed moisture appearing in the products of combustion. Thus, for 80F (26.7C)
air of 60 percent relative humidity, the moisture content is 0.013 lb / lb (0.006 kg /
kg) of dry air. This amount appears in the products of combustion for each pound
of air used and is a commonly assumed standard in combustion calculations.
Fossil-fuel-red power plants release sulfur emissions to the atmosphere. In turn,
this produces sulfates, which are the key ingredient in acid rain. The federal Clean
Air Act regulates sulfur dioxide emissions from power plants. Electric utilities
which burn high-sulfur coal are thought to produce some 35 percent of atmospheric
emissions of sulfur dioxide in the United States.
Sulfur dioxide emissions by power plants have declined some 30 percent since
passage of the Clean Air Act in 1970, and a notable decline in acid rain has been
noted at a number of test sites. In 1990 the Acid Rain Control Program was created
by amendments to the Clean Air Act. This program further reduces the allowable
sulfur dioxide emissions from power plants, steel mills, and other industrial facilities.
The same act requires reduction in nitrogen oxide emissions from power plants
and industrial facilities, so designers must keep this requirement in mind when
designing new and replacement facilities of all types which use fossil fuels.
Coal usage in steam plants is increasing throughout the world. An excellent
example of this is the New England Electric System (NEES). This utility has been
converting boiler units from oil to coal ring. Their conversions have saved cus-

COMBUSTION
3.8
POWER GENERATION
FIGURE 1 Energy Independence transports coal to central stations.

(Power.)
tomers more than $60-million annually by displacing about 14-million bbl (2.2
million cu m) of oil per year.
To reduce costs, the company built the rst coal-red collier, Fig. 1, in more
than 50 years in the United States, and assumed responsibility for coal transportation to its stations, cutting operating costs by more than $2-million per year. The
collier makes economic sense because the utility stations in the system are not
accessible by rail. This ship, the Energy Independence, has been an economic success for the utility. Measuring 665 ft (203 m) long by 95 ft (29 m) wide by 56 ft
(17 m) deep with a 34-ft (10-m) draft, the vessel discharges a typical 40,000-ton
load in 12 hours.
Data in these two paragraphs and Fig. 1 are from Power magazine.
PERCENT EXCESS AIR WHILE BURNING COAL

A certain coal has the following composition by weight percentages: carbon 75.09,
nitrogen 1.56, ash 3.38, hydrogen, 5.72, oxygen 13.82, sulfur 0.43. When burned
in an actual furnace, measurements showed that there was 8.93 percent combustible
in the ash pit refuse and the following Orsat analysis in percentages was obtained:
carbon dioxide 14.2, oxygen 4.7, carbon monoxide 0.3. If it can be assumed that
there was no combustible in the ue gas other that the carbon monoxide reported,
calculate the percentage of excess air used.
1. Compute the amount of theoretical air required per lbm (kg) of coal
Theoretical air required per pound (kilogram) of coal, wta 11.5C 34.5[H2
O2 / 8)] 4.32S, where C, H2, O2, and S represent the percentages by weight,
expressed as decimal fractions, of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and sulfur, respec-

COMBUSTION
COMBUSTION
3.9
tively. Thus, wta 11.5(0.7509) 34.5[0.0572 (0.1382 / 8)] 4.32(0.0043)

10.03 lb (4.55 kg) of air per lb (kg) of coal. The ash and nitrogen are inert and do
not burn.
2. Compute the correction factor for combustible in the ash
The correction factor for combustible in the ash, C1 (wfCf wrCr) / (wf 100),
where the amount of fuel, wf 1 lb (0.45 kg) of coal; percent by weight, expressed
as a decimal fraction, of carbon in the coal, Cf 75.09; percent by weight of the
ash and refuse in the coal, wr 0.0338; percent by weight of combustible in the
ash, Cr 8.93. Hence, C1 [(1 75.09) (0.0338 8.93)] / (1 100) 0.748.
3. Compute the amount of dry ue gas produced per lb (kg) of coal
The lb (kg) of dry ue gas per lb (kg) of coal, wdg C1(4CO2 O2 704) /
[3(CO2 CO)], where the Orsat analysis percentages are for carbon dioxide, CO2
14.2; oxygen, O2 4.7; carbon monoxide, CO 0.3. Hence, wdg 0.748
[(4 14.2) 4.7 704)] / [3(14.2 0.3)] 13.16 lb / lb (5.97 kg / kg).
4. Compute the amount of dry air supplied per lb (kg) of coal
The lb (kg) of dry air supplied per lb (kg) of coal, wda wdg C1 8[H2
(O2 / 8)] (N2 / N), where the percentage by weight of nitrogen in the fuel, N2
1.56, and atmospheric nitrogen in the supply air, N2 0.768; other values are
as given or calculated. Then, wda 13.16 0.748 8[0.0572 (0.1382 / 8)]
(0.0156 / 0.768) 12.65 lb / lb (5.74 kg / kg).
5. Compute the percent of excess air used
Percent excess air (wda wta) / wta (12.65 10.03) / 10.03 0.261, or 26.1
percent.
Related Calculations. The percentage by weight of nitrogen in atmospheric
air in step 4 appears in Principles of Engineering Thermodynamics, 2nd edition,
by Kiefer et al., John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
COMBUSTION OF FUEL OIL IN A FURNACE

A fuel oil has the following ultimate analysis: C 0.8543; H2 0.1131; O2
0.0270; N2 0.0022; S 0.0034; total 1.0000. This fuel oil is burned in a
steam-boiler furnace. Determine the weight of air required for theoretically perfect
combustion, the weight of gas formed per pound (kilogram) of oil burned, and the
volume of ue gas, at the boiler exit temperature of 600F (316C), per pound
(kilogram) of oil burned; the air required with 20 percent excess air, and the volume
of gas formed with this excess; the CO2 percentage in the ue gas on a dry and
wet basis.
1. Compute the weight of oxygen required per pound (kilogram) of oil

The same general steps as given in the previous calculation procedure will be
followed. Consult that procedure for a complete explanation of each step.
Using the molecular weight of each element, we nd

COMBUSTION
3.10
POWER GENERATION

The weight of nitrogen associated with the required oxygen (3.1593)(0.768 /
0.232) 10.458 lb (4.706 kg). The weight of air required 10.4583 3.1593
13.6176 lb / lb (6.128 kg / kg) of oil burned.
As before,

As before,
In this calculation, the temperature correction factor 2.15 absolute ue-gas

temperature, R / absolute atmospheric temperature, R (600 460) / (32 460).

COMBUSTION
COMBUSTION
3.11
The total weight of N2 in the ue gas is the sum of the N2 in the combustion air
and the fuel, or 10.4580 0.0022 10.4602 lb (4.707 kg).
CO2, wet basis, 55.0 / 387.82 0.142, or 14.2 percent. CO2, dry basis, 55.0 /
(387.2 43.5) 0.160, or 16.0 percent.
6. Compute the air required with stated excess ow
The pounds (kilograms) of air per pound (kilogram) of oil with 20 percent excess
air (1.20)(13.6176) 16.3411 lb (7.353 kg) of air per pound (kilogram) of oil
burned.
The weight of the products of combustion product weight for perfect combustion,
lb (percent excess air)(air for perfect combustion, lb) 14.6173
(0.20)(13.6176) 17.3408 lb (7.803 kilogram) of ue gas per pound (kilogram)
of oil burned with 20 percent excess air.
The volume of excess air in the products of combustion is found by converting
from the weight to the volumetric analysis and correcting for temperature as in step
4, using the air weight from step 2 for perfect combustion and the excess-air percentage, or (13.6176)(0.20)(359 / 28.95)(2.15) 72.7 ft3 (2.058 m3). Add this to the
volume of the products of combustion found in step 4, or 387.82 72.70 460.52
ft3 (13.037 m3).
By using the procedure in step 5, the percent CO2, wet basis 55.0 / 460.52
0.1192, or 11.92 percent. The percent CO2, dry basis 55.0 / (460.52 43.5)
0.1318, or 13.18 percent.
calculations for any type of fuel oilparafn-base, asphalt-base, Bunker C, no. 2,
3, 4, or 5from any source, domestic or foreign, in any type of furnaceboiler,
heater, process, or waste-heat. When the air used for combustion contains moisture,
as is usually true, this moisture is added to the combustion-formed moisture appearing in the products of combustion. Thus, for 80F (26.7C) air of 60 percent
relative humidity, the moisture content is 0.013 lb / lb (0.006 kg / kg) of dry air. This
amount appears in the products of combustion for each pound (kilogram) of air
used and is a commonly assumed standard in combustion calculations.
COMBUSTION OF NATURAL GAS IN A FURNACE

A natural gas has the following volumetric analysis at 60F (15.5C): CO2 0.004;
CH4 0.921; C2H6 0.041; N2 0.034; total 1.000. This natural gas is burned
in a steam-boiler furnace. Determine the weight of air required for theoretically
perfect combustion, the weight of gas formed per pound of natural gas burned, and
the volume of the ue gas, at the boiler exit temperature of 650F (343C), per
pound (kilogram) of natural gas burned; air required with 20 percent excess air,
and the volume of gas formed with this excess; CO2 percentage in the ue gas on
a dry and wet basis.

COMBUSTION
3.12
POWER GENERATION
1. Compute the weight of oxygen required per pound of gas

The same general steps as given in the previous calculation procedures will be
followed, except that they will be altered to make allowances for the differences
between natural gas and coal.
The composition of the gas is given on a volumetric basis, which is the usual
way of expressing a fuel-gas analysis. To use the volumetric-analysis data in combustion calculations, they must be converted to a weight basis. This is done by
dividing the weight of each component by the total weight of the gas. A volume
of 1 ft3 (1 m3) of the gas is used for this computation. Find the weight of each
component and the total weight of 1 ft3 (1 m3) as follows, using the properties of
the combustion elements and compounds given in Table 1:
The sum of the weight percentages 1.03 86.25 7.18 5.54 100.00. This
sum checks the accuracy of the weight calculation, because the sum of the weights
of the component parts should equal 100 percent.
Next, nd the oxygen required for combustion. Since both the CO2 and N2 are
inert, they do not take part in the combustion; they pass through the furnace unchanged. Using the molecular weights of the remaining components in the gas and
the weight percentages, we have
In this calculation, the molecular-weight ratio is obtained from the equation for
the combustion chemical reaction, or CH4 2O2 CO2 2H2O, that is, 16
64 44 36, and C2H6 72O2 2CO2 3H2O, that is 30 112 88 54.
See Table 2 from these and other useful chemical reactions in combustion.

TABLE 1 Properties of Combustion Elements*
COMBUSTION
3.13
TABLE 2 Chemical Reactions
COMBUSTION
3.14
COMBUSTION
COMBUSTION
3.15

The weight of nitrogen associated with the required oxygen (3.742)(0.768 / 0.232)
12.39 lb (5.576 kg). The weight of air required 12.39 3.742 16.132 lb /
lb (7.259 kg / kg) of gas burned.
3.
Compute the weight or the products of combustion

The products of complete combustion of any fuel that does not contain sulfur are
CO2, H2O, and N2. Using the combustion equation in step 1, compute the products
of combustion thus: CH4 2O2 CO2 H2O; 16 64 44 36; or the CH4
burns to CO2 in the ratio of 1 part CH4 to 44 / 16 parts CO2. Since, from step 1,
there is 0.03896 lb CH4 per ft3 (0.624 kg / m3) of natural gas, this forms
(0.03896)(44 / 16) 0.1069 lb (0.048 kg) of CO2. Likewise, for C2H6,
(0.003247)(88 / 30) 0.00952 lb (0.004 kg). The total CO2 in the combustion products 0.00464 0.1069 0.00952 0.11688 lb (0.053 kg), where the rst
quantity is the CO2 in the fuel.
Using a similar procedure for the H2O formed in the products of combustion by
CH4, we nd (0.03896)(36 / 16) 0.0875 lb (0.039 kg). For C2H6, (0.003247)(54 /
30) 0.005816 lb (0.003 kg). The total H2O in the combustion products
0.0875 0.005816 0.093316 lb (0.042 kg).
Step 2 shows that 12.39 lb (5.58 kg) of N2 is required per lb (kg) of fuel. Since
1 ft3 (0.028 m3) of the fuel weights 0.04517 lb (0.02 kg), the volume of gas which
weighs 1 lb (2.2 kg) is 1 / 0.04517 22.1 ft3 (0.626 m3). Therefore, the weight of
N2 per ft3 of fuel burned 12.39 / 22.1 0.560 lb (0.252 kg). This, plus the weight
of N2 in the fuel, step 1, is 0.560 0.0025 0.5625 lb (0.253 kg) of N2 in the
products of combustion.
Next, nd the total weight of the products of combustion by taking the sum of
the CO2, H2O, and N2 weights, or 0.11688 0.09332 0.5625 0.7727 lb (0.35
kg). Now convert each weight to ft3 at 650F (343C), the temperature of the combustion products, or:

COMBUSTION
3.16
POWER GENERATION
In this calculation, the value of 379 is used in the molecular-weight ratio because
at 60F (15.6C) and 14.7 lb / in2 (abs) (101.3 kPa), the volume of 1 lb (0.45 kg)
of any gas 379 / gas molecular weight. The fuel gas used is initially at 60F
(15.6C) and 14.7 lb / in2 (abs) (101.3 kPa). The ratio 2.255 (650 460) / (32
460).
CO2, wet basis 2.265 / 23.88 0.947, or 9.47 percent. CO2 dry basis 2.265 /
(23.88 4.425) 0.1164, or 11.64 percent.
With 20 percent excess air, (1.20)(16.132) 19.3584 lb of air per lb (8.71 kg / kg)
of natural gas, or 19.3584 / 22.1 0.875 lb of air per ft3 (13.9 kg / m3) of natural
gas. See step 4 for an explanation of the value 22.1.
Weight of the products of combustion product weight for perfect combustion, lb
(percent excess air) (air for perfect combustion, lb) 16.80 (0.20)(16.132)
20.03 lb (9.01 kg).
The volume of excess air in the products of combustion is found by converting
4, using the air weight from step 2 for perfect combustion and the excess-air percentage, or (16.132 / 22.1)(0.20)(379 / 28.95)(2.255) 4.31 ft3 (0.122 m3). Add this
to the volume of the products of combustion found in step 4, or 23.88 4.31
28.19 ft3 (0.798 m3).
By the procedure in step 5, the percent CO2, wet basis 2.265 / 28.19 0.0804,
or 8.04 percent. The percent CO2, dry basis 2.265 / (28.19 4.425) 0.0953,
or 9.53 percent.
calculations for any type of gas used as a fuelnatural gas, blast-furnace gas, cokeoven gas, producer gas, water gas, sewer gasfrom any source, domestic or foreign, in any type of furnaceboiler, heater, process, or waste-heat. When the air
used for combustion contains moisture, as is usually true, this moisture is added to
the combustion-formed moisture appearing in the products of combustion. Thus,
for 80F (26.7C) air of 60 percent relative humidity, the moisture content is 0.013
lb / lb (0.006 kg / kg) of dry air. This amount appears in the products of combustion
for each pound of air used and is a commonly assumed standard in combustion
calculations.

COMBUSTION
COMBUSTION
3.17
COMBUSTION OF WOOD FUEL IN A FURNACE

The weight analysis of a yellow-pine wood fuel is: C 0.490; H2 0.074; O2
0.406; N2 0.030. Determine the weight of oxygen and air required with perfect
combustion and with 20 percent excess air. Find the weight and volume of the
products of combustion under the same conditions, and the wet and dry CO2. The
ue-gas temperature is 600F (316C). The air supplied for combustion has a moisture content of 0.013 lb / lb (0.006 kg / kg) of dry air.
1. Compute the weight of oxygen required per pound of wood

The same general steps as given in earlier calculation procedures will be followed;
consult them for a complete explanation of each step. Using the molecular weight
of each element, we have
2. Compute the weight of air required for complete combustion

The weight of nitrogen associated with the required oxygen (1.493)(0.768 / 0.232)
4.95 lb (2.228 kg). The weight of air required 4.95 1.493 6.443 lb / lb
(2.899 kg / kg) of wood burned, if the air is dry. But the air contains 0.013 lb of
moisture per lb (0.006 kg / kg) of air. Hence, the total weight of the air 6.443
(0.013)(6.443) 6.527 lb (2.937 kg).
Use the following relation:

COMBUSTION
3.18
POWER GENERATION

Use, as before, the following tabulation:
In this calculation the temperature correction factor 2.15 (absolute ue-gas temperature, R) / (absolute atmospheric temperature, R) (600 460) / (32 460).
The total weight of N2 is the sum of the N2 in the combustion air and the fuel.
The CO2, wet basis 31.5 / 233.2 0.135, or 13.5 percent. The CO2, dry basis
31.5 / (233.2 28.6 35.9) 0.187, or 18.7 percent.
With 20 percent excess air, (1.20)(6.527) 7.832 lb (3.524 kg) of air per lb (kg)
of wood burned.
The weight of the products of combustion product weight for perfect combustion,
lb (percent excess air)(air for perfect combustion, lb) 8.280 (0.20)(6.527)
9.585 lb (4.313 kg) of ue gas per lb (kg) of wood burned with 20 percent
excess air.
The volume of the excess air in the products of combustion is found by converting
4, using the air weight from step 2 for perfect combustion and the excess-air percentage, or (6.527)(0.20)(359 / 28.95)(2.15) 34.8 ft3 (0.985 m3). Add this to the
volume of the products of combustion found in step 4, or 233.2 34.8 268.0
ft3 (7.587 m3).
By using the procedure in step 5, the percent CO2, wet basis 31.5 / 268
0.1174, or 11.74 percent. The percent CO2, dry basis 31.5 / (268 28.6
35.9 0.20 0.837) 0.155, or 15.5 percent. In the dry-basis calculation, the
factor (0.20)(0.837) is the outside moisture in the excess air.
calculations for any type of wood or woodlike fuelspruce, cypress, maple, oak,
sawdust, wood shavings, tanbark, bagesse, peat, charcoal, redwood, hemlock, r,
ash, birch, cottonwood, elm, hickory, walnut, chopped trimmings, hogged fuel,
straw, corn, cottonseed hulls, city refusein any type of furnaceboiler, heating,
process, or waste-heat. Most of these fuels contain a small amount of ashusually
less than 1 percent. This was ignored in this calculation procedure because it does
not take part in the combustion.

COMBUSTION
COMBUSTION
3.19
Industry is making greater use of discarded process waste to generate electricity

and steam by burning the waste in a steam boiler. An excellent example is that of
Agrilectric Power Partners Ltd., Lake Charles, LA. This plant burns rice hulls from
its own process and buys other producers surplus rice hulls for continuous operation. Their plant is reported as the rst small-power-production facility to operate
on rice hulls.
By burning the waste rice hulls, Agrilectric is confronting, and solving, an environmental nuisance often associated with rice processing. When rice hulls are
disposed of by being spread on land adjacent to the mill, they often smolder, creating continuous, uncontrolled burning. Installation of its rice-hull burning, electricgenerating plant has helped Agrilectric avoid the costs associated with landlling
and disposal, as well as potential environmental problems.
The boiler supplies steam for a turbine-generator with an output ranging from
11.2 to 11.8 MW. Excess power that cannot be used in the plant is sold to the local
utility at a negotiated price. Thus, the combustion of an industrial waste is producing useful power while eliminating the environmental impact of the waste. The
advent of PURPA (Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act) requiring local utilities
to purchase power from such plants has been a major factor in the design, development, and construction of many plants by food processors to utilize waste materials for combustion and power production.
MOLAL METHOD OF COMBUSTION ANALYSIS

A coal fuel has this ultimate analysis: C 0.8339; H2 0.0456; O2 0.0505; N2
0.0103; S 0.0064; ash 0.0533; total 1.000. This coal is completely burned
in a boiler furnace. Using the molal method, determine the weight of air required
per lb (kg) of coal with complete combustion. How much air is needed with 25
percent excess air? What is the weight of the combustion products with 25 percent
excess air? The combustion air contains 0.013 lb of moisture per lb (0.006 kg / kg)
of air.
1. Convert the ultimate analysis to moles

A mole of any substance is an amount of the substance having a weight equal to
the molecular weight of the substance. Thus, 1 mol of carbon is 12 lb (5.4 kg) of
carbon, because the molecular weight of carbon is 12. To convert an ultimate analysis of a fuel to moles, assume that 100 lb (45 kg) of the fuel is being considered.
Set up a tabulation thus:

COMBUSTION
3.20
POWER GENERATION
2. Compute the mols of oxygen for complete combustion

From Table 2, the burning of carbon to carbon dioxide requires 1 mol of carbon
and 1 mol of oxygen, yielding 1 mol of CO2. Using the molal equations in Table
2 for the other elements in the fuel, set up a tabulation thus, entering the product
of columns 2 and 3 in column 4:
3. Compute the moles of air for complete combustion

Set up a similar tabulation for air, thus:
In this tabulation, the factors in column 3 are constants used for computing the
total moles of air required for complete combustion of each of the fuel elements
listed. These factors are given in the Babcock & Wilcox CompanySteam: Its
Generation and Use and similar treatises on fuels and their combustion. A tabulation of these factors is given in Table 3.
An alternative, and simpler, way of computing the moles of air required is to
convert the required O2 to the corresponding N2 and nd the sum of the O2 and
N2. Or, 376O2 N2; N2 O2 moles of air required. The factor 3.76 converts
the required O2 to the corresponding N2. These two relations were used to convert
the 0.158 mol of O2 in the above tabulation to moles of air.
Using the same relations and the moles of O2 required from step 2, we get
(3.76)(7.942) 29.861 mol of N2. Then 29.861 7.942 37.803 mol of air,
which agrees closely with the 37.823 mol computed in the tabulation. The difference of 0.02 mol is traceable to roundings.

COMBUSTION
COMBUSTION
3.21
TABLE 3 Molal Conversion Factors
4. Compute the air required with the stated excess air

With 25 percent excess, the air required for combustion (125 / 100)(37.823)
47.24 mol.
5. Compute the mols of combustion products
Using data from Table 3, and recalling that the products of combustion of a sulfurcontaining fuel are CO2, H2O, and SO2, and that N2 and excess O2 pass through
the furnace, set up a tabulation thus:
In this calculation, the total moles of CO2 is obtained from step 2. The moles of
H2 in 100 lb (45 kg) of the fuel, 2.280, is assumed to form H2O. In addition, the
air from step 4, 47.24 mol, contains 0.013 lb of moisture per lb (0.006 kg / kg) of
air. This moisture is converted to moles by dividing the molecular weight of air,
28.95, by the molecular weight of water, 18, and multiplying the result by the
moisture content of the air, or (28.95 / 18)(0.013) 0.0209, say 0.021 mol of water
per mol of air. The product of this and the moles of air gives the total moles of

COMBUSTION
3.22
POWER GENERATION
moisture (water) in the combustion products per 100 lb (45 kg) of fuel red. To
this is added the moles of O2, 0.158, per 100 lb (45 kg) of fuel, because this oxygen
is assumed to unite with hydrogen in the air to form water. The nitrogen in the
products of combustion is that portion of the moles of air required, 47.24 mol from
step 4, times the proportion of N2 in the air, or 0.79. The excess O2 passes through
the furnace and adds to the combustion products and is computed as shown in the
tabulation. Subtracting the total moisture, 3430 mol, from the total (or wet) combustion products gives the moles of dry combustion products.
Related Calculations. Use this method for molal combustion calculations for
all types of fuelssolid, liquid, and gaseousburned in any type of
furnanceboiler, heater, process, or waste-heat. Select the correct factors from
Table 3.
FINAL COMBUSTION PRODUCTS TEMPERATURE

ESTIMATE
Pure carbon is burned to carbon dioxide at constant pressure in an insulated chamber. An excess air quantity of 20 percent is used and the carbon and the air are
both initially at 77F (25C). Assume that the reaction goes to completion and that
there is no dissociation. Calculate the nal products temperature using the following constants: Heating value of carbon, 14,087 Btu / lb (32.74 103 kJ / kg); constant-pressure specic heat of oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide are 0.240 Btu
/ lbm (0.558 kJ / kg), 0.285 Btu / lbm (0.662 kJ / kg), and 0.300 Btu / lb (0.697 kJ / kg),
respectively.
1. Establish the chemical equation for complete combustion with 100 percent
air
With 100 percent air: C O2 3.78N2 CO2 3.78N2, where approximate
molecular weights are: for carbon, MC 12; oxygen, MO2 32; nitrogen, MN2
28; carbon dioxide, MCO2 44. See the Related Calculations of this procedure
for a general description of the 3.78 coefcient for N2.
2. Establish the chemical equation for complete combustion with 20 percent
excess air
With 20 percent excess air: C 1.2 O2 (1.2 3.78)N2 CO2 0.2 O2
(1.2 3.78)N2.
3. Compute the relative weights of the reactants and products of the combustion
process
Relative weight moles molecular weight. Coefcients of the chemical equation
in step 2 represent the number of moles of each component. Hence, for the reactants, the relative weights are: for C 1 MC 1 12 12; O2 1.2
MO2 1.2 32 38.4; N2 (1.2 3.78)MN2 (1.2 3.78 28) 127. For
the products, relative weights are: for CO2 1 MCO2 1 44 44; O2
0.2 MO2 0.2 32 6.4; N2 127, unchanged. It should be noted that the
total relative weight of the reactants equal that of the products at 177.4.

COMBUSTION
COMBUSTION
3.23
4. Compute the relative weights of the products of combustion on the basis of

a per unit relative weight of carbon
Since the relative weight of carbon, C 12 in step 3; hence, on the basis of a per
unit relative weight of carbon, the corresponding relative weights of the products
are: for carbon dioxide, wCO2 MCO2 / 12 44 / 12 3.667; oxygen, wO2
MO2 / 12 6.4 / 12 0.533; nitrogen, wN2 MN2 / 12 127 / 12 10.58.
5. Compute the nal products temperature
Since the combustion chamber is insulated, the combustion process is considered
adiabatic. Hence, on the basis of a per unit mass of carbon, the heating value (HV)
of the carbon the corresponding heat content of the products. Thus, relative to
a temperature base of 77F (25C), 1 HVC [(wCO2 cpCO2) (wO2 cpO2)
(wH2 cpN2)](t2 77), where the heating value of carbon, HVC 14,087
Btu / lbm (32.74 103 kJ / kg); the constant-pressure specic heat of carbon dioxide,
oxygen, and nitrogen are cpCO2 0.300 Btu / lb (0.697 kJ / kg), cpO2 0.240 Btu
/ lb (0.558 kJ / kg), and cpN2 0.285 Btu / lb (0.662 kJ / kg), respectively; nal product temperature is t2; other values as before. Then, 1 14,087 [(3.667
0.30) (0.533 0.24) (10.58 0.285)(t2 77)]. Solving, t2 3320 77
3397F (1869C).
Related Calculations. In the above procedure it is assumed that the carbon is
burned in dry air. Also, the nitrogen coefcient of 3.78 used in the chemical equation in step 1 is based on a theoretical composition of dry air as 79.1 percent
nitrogen and 20.9 percent oxygen by volume, so that 79.1 / 20.9 3.78. For a more
detailed description of this coefcient see the Related Calculations under the procedure for Gas Turbine Combustion Chamber Inlet Air Temperature elsewhere
in this handbook.

COMBUSTION


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Source: HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS

Combustion of Natural Gas in a

COMBUSTION CALCULATIONS USING THE

1. Determine the energy input to the boiler

Combustion Constants for Fuels

Constant, lb dry air per

Blast furnace gas

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Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

If the percent volume of oxygen measured is 3 on a dry basis in a natural-gas

SAVINGS PRODUCED BY PREHEATING

1. Compute the total combustion air required by this boiler

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

COMBUSTION OF COAL FUEL IN A FURNACE

1. Compute the weight of oxygen required per pound of coal

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

4. Convert the ue-gas weight to volume

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6. Compute the air required with the stated excess ow

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FIGURE 1 Energy Independence transports coal to central stations.

PERCENT EXCESS AIR WHILE BURNING COAL

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tively. Thus, wta 11.5(0.7509) 34.5[0.0572 (0.1382 / 8)] 4.32(0.0043)

COMBUSTION OF FUEL OIL IN A FURNACE

1. Compute the weight of oxygen required per pound (kilogram) of oil

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

2. Compute the weight of air required for perfect combustion

4. Convert the ue-gas weight to volume

In this calculation, the temperature correction factor 2.15 absolute ue-gas

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COMBUSTION OF NATURAL GAS IN A FURNACE

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1. Compute the weight of oxygen required per pound of gas

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TABLE 1 Properties of Combustion Elements*

TABLE 2 Chemical Reactions

2. Compute the weight of air required for perfect combustion

Compute the weight or the products of combustion

4. Convert the ue-gas weight to volume

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Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

COMBUSTION OF WOOD FUEL IN A FURNACE

1. Compute the weight of oxygen required per pound of wood

2. Compute the weight of air required for complete combustion

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)

4. Convert the ue-gas weight to volume

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Industry is making greater use of discarded process waste to generate electricity

MOLAL METHOD OF COMBUSTION ANALYSIS

1. Convert the ultimate analysis to moles

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2. Compute the mols of oxygen for complete combustion

3. Compute the moles of air for complete combustion

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TABLE 3 Molal Conversion Factors

4. Compute the air required with the stated excess air

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FINAL COMBUSTION PRODUCTS TEMPERATURE

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4. Compute the relative weights of the products of combustion on the basis of

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