GTN 3202

Teknologi Pengeluaran Pertanian dan

Makanan
BY:
Dr. Wan Zawiah W. Abdullah

 2nd Test (20%)

5/12/16 (Monday)
8-9pm (BK 103 &BK 104)

Practical class
4th Dec 2016 (Sunday, 2-5pm)
Wear proper attire (covered shoe, lab coat)
Lab report 15% (Group)

FORMAT (LAB REPORT)

Introduction
Method
Results and Discussion
Conclusion
References
Deadline : 11th December 2016 (bef
12.30pm.

OUTLINE
Preparation of raw material before
processing
Techniques of food processing
Microbe processing (fermentation)

Steps in food production

Physical Hazards

Physical hazards

Chemical Hazards
Naturally occurring chemical hazards
Seafood: ciguatoxin, scrombotoxin, shellfish
toxin
Mycotoxin : toxin produce by mold

Synthetic chemicals
Cleaning compound
Pesticides

Biological Hazards
Most foodborne illness cause by biological
hazards
Bacteria, virus, parasites

FOOD DETERIORATION
Changes in:
Organoleptic quality
Nutritional value
Food safety
Aesthetic appeal
Colour
Texture
Flavour

Categories of Food
Deterioration
Physical, chemical, biological
i. Physical changes
Visible on the appearance / texture of the
food
E.g. rottenness, softness and change in
colour, taste / odour

ii. Chemical changes

Degradation of compounds in food with
enzymatic reaction
Result in production of other compounds rancidity, off taste, off-colours and
discoloration

iii. Biological changes

- Microorganisms growth - uses biological
content of the food for its own development

Food spoilage
Factors contributing to food spoilage:
Microorganisms growth & activity
Insects, parasites and rodents
Temperature
Natural food enzymes
Moisture & relative humidity
Oxygen / air
Time
Light

Post-harvest and post-slaughter

biochemical changes
Fruits & vegetables high-water-content
foods
- Promotes bacterial, yeast and mould
growth
- Need optimized techniques in handling,
transporting
- to minimize enzymatic deterioration

RIGOR MORTIS
Chemical changes in muscle after death
2/3 hours after animal dies the muscle start to stiff
Muscle pH

In living muscle, energy is stored as glycogen

In dying muscle, lactic acid accumulates and lowers pH.
Within 24 hours after death
(1) glycogen -> lactic acid
(2) muscle pH: 7.0 -> 5.6 (because of lactic acid)
(3) muscle color: purple changes to bright red or pink (pH 7.0 -> 5.6)
pH also is important in determining the water-holding capacity of meat
WHC -the ability of meat to retain its water during application of external
forces such as cutting, heating, grinding, or pressing.

Dark cutting beef or lamb

Cause: Beef Stress Syndrome
Factors involved : exposure to cold,
excitement, sudden feed withdrawal,
sickness
Solution: Proper handling and prevention
of stress -best way to reduce incidence.

Dark, firm and dry (DFD)

Long-term glycogen depletion
Cause: Extended transport-hauling of
pigs, without feeding, depletes muscle
glycogen
Limited lactic acid production occurs
(post-mortem)
Solution: Feed and rest for 24 or 48 hrs
prior to slaughter.

How to control food spoilage?

Food processing

Preservation Longer-term storage

Food preservation involves use of:

- heat and cold
- drying (water activity, Aw)
- acid (pH) lowered pH require less heat
for sterilization
- sugar, salt- increase affinity of food for
water
- smoke- contain formaldehyde and other
preservatives

- atmosphere- alteration of O2 composition

- chemicals- sorbic acid, sodium or calcium
propionate, sulphur dioxide
- radiation- X rays, microwave, UV light,
gamma rays
- mechanical methods

Food processing
High temperature processing (heat
processing)
Low temperature processing
High pressure processing

Milk Processing Plant

HIGH TEMPERATURE
PROCESSING
Desirable changes:

Destruction of microorganisms, insects, parasites

Destruction / inactivation of enzymes
Alteration of colour, flavour, texture
Improve digestibility

Undesirable changes:
Degradation of nutrients
Degradation of sensory attributes (colour, flavour,
texture)

Classification of food for heat processing

Low acid foods (pH > 4.6)
Milk, meat, fish, some vegetable
Processed to destroy spores of Clostridium
botulinum
Heat processed at 116C (specified length
of time) -destroy growth of Clostridium
botulinum (spores thrive in low acid)

 High / medium acid foods (pH < 4.6)

Tomato, pears, pineapples, berries etc.
Require heat processing to 100 C
Processed to destroy yeasts, moulds,
enzymes
High acid environments - inhibit growth of
bacteria & other spoilage organisms

Types of high temperature processing

Blanching
Pasteurization
Dehydration
Frying
Irradiation heating
Sterilization
Extrusion
Evaporation

Pasteurization

Extrusion

Blanching
Heating food rapidly to a predetermined
temp, hold for a pre-set time & cool rapidly to
ambient temp
Immersed in boiling water / steam
Purpose:
Enzyme deactivation in fruits & vegetables
Reduce microorganisms
Soften tissue, make food more compact
(facilitate filling)
Enhance colour

Blanching
Often used as preliminary step for freezing, canning,
dehydration
Effect on food
Nutrient loss minerals and vitamins
Colour & flavour change
Textural changes

Pasteurization
Heating liquid foods (e.g. milk, fruit juices) to a
specific mild temp (generally <100 C) to destroy
microorganisms
Purpose
inactivate enzymes
destroy heat-sensitive organisms & pathogens depending on
the pH of the food

Undesirable effects: reduction of nutrient value

(pasteurized fruit juices some losses vit.C; milk
unaffected)

 Common products- dairy products, canned food,

juices, vinegar etc.
Methods of pasteurization
Low temperature long time (LTLT)
High temperature short time (HTST)
Ultra high temperature (UHT)

Low temperature long time

(LTLT)
Original method of pasteurization
Vat pasteurization
Now primarily used in dairy industry preparing milk for making starter cultures in
cheese, yogurt, buttermilk processing
Temperature 63 C for not less than 30
minutes
Constant agitation for even heating

High temperature short time

(HTST)
Flash pasteurization
Uses metal plates and hot water to
raise milk temperatures to 72C for 15
second
Performed prior to filling - kill
microorganisms causing spoilage safer
& extend shelf life

Ultra high temperature (UHT)

Ultra-heat treating
Heating using commercially sterile equipment & filling
it under aseptic conditions into sealed packaging
Temperature 138C - minimum of 2 seconds
Product is termed "shelf stable - does not need
refrigeration until opened
Most common product- milk, fruit juices, cream, soy
milk, soups, honey etc.
Temperature required to kill spore

Dehydration
Controlled application of heat to remove most
water present in food by evaporation /
sublimation (freeze-drying)
One of oldest methods of preserving food
Microorganisms causing food spoilage & decay
- unable to grow & multiply in absence of
sufficient water
Freeze dryer

Many enzymes promoting undesired changes in

the chemical composition of food cannot
function without water
Types:
Sun-drying
Hot air-drying
Heated surface drying

Sun-drying

Largely used in agricultural products

Does not involve machinery
Weather-dependent
Advanced development - solar drying

Solar drying machine

Sun-drying
Grape, peaches, dates, apricots, spices,
fish, legumes
Sultanas- dip in 2.5% potassium
carbonate solution & 0.3% sodium
hydroxide before drying (drying agent)
Larger fruit- halves, pitted and treated
with sulphur dioxide - prevent
enzymatic browning

Hot-air drying

Tray Dryers
Tunnel Dryers
Spray Dryers
Belt Dryers
Pneumatic Dryers
Trough Dryers
Bin Dryers

Tray Dryers
Food is spread out thinly on trays
Hot air sweep across the trays
Removes moist vapors

Heated surface drying

Rotary dryers
Food is contained in a horizontal inclined
cylinder
Conduction of heat from the cylinder walls
Cylinder rotates / stationary with paddle
rotating within the cylinder conveying the
material through
Roller / drum dryers

Rotary dryer

Heated surface drying

Vacuum shelf driers
Similar with tray dryers except they
operate under a vacuum
Trays are enclosed in a large cabinet
Heat transfer is largely by conduction
Water vapor produced is condensed

Frying
Heat processing using hot oil
Preserve food by:
Reduction of water activity (aw)
Destruction of enzymes and
microorganisms
Improve taste, flavour, acceptability
Types of food:
Low moisture food (dry)- long shelf life
High moisture food short shelf life (fries,
doughnuts)