Chapter 2

An Overview of
Commercial Explosives

Chapter 2

;4 n Overview of Commercia{ C"EJQJ{osives

The usc of explosive for breaking rock is a technique accepted worldwide. Most of
the mining and construction operations use blasting. Many a types of mining ventures
and construction projects would not be feasible or economically justified without the
use of explosive. Coal, cement, steel, aluminum, copper and other metals are the
basic needs of any country. The supply of all these necessities depends to a great
extent on explosives.
To meet the growing demand of minerals, large open cast mines were planned. Large
open cast mining projects designed for high production rates required large size blasts
and huge quantity of explosives to be charged. The need was felt for automation of
explosive charging system to cope up with the demands of the industry in terms of
higher charging rates, less manpower, higher efficiency, low cost and complete safety.
The use of water as an ingredient in rock-blasting explosives greatly increased the
safety in processing, storage and loading. It gave a way to the introduction of
mechanical charging (bulk loading) of water based blasting agents. As a result, charging
up to I 00 tonnes of explosives in a single day could be done using 2-3 pump trucksa task which could not be even dreamt with cartridge explosive system (Ghose, 1991).
A major switchover from conventional packaged products to bulk delivery system
took place all over the world. Bulk loading systems have now-a-days become
synonymous with large open cast mining projects.
Many rock breaking explosives are now available in the market. In India, ANFO,
slurry and emulsion are the popular commercial explosives. All these explosives can
be used in bulk form. Emulsion explosive is a recent development in the field of
commercial explosives which has a strength of a dynamite and safety of ANFO. It has
compltely phased out the dynamite and is a threat to the other commercial explosives.
This chapter presents an overview of commercial explosives. It incorporates the
development story, a brief note on important characteristics and a short account of

An ( hetTiew of ( 'ummaciul/,\p/o.lil't'S

commonly used wmmncial explosives with spcdal reference to the emulsion explosive.

2.1 Development of Commercial Explosives

Although the usc of commercial explosives for breaking the rock began in early l 7'"
century but their large scale application has a history of only one hundred fifty years.
The history of the development of commercial explosives can be divideded into three
eras, as detailed below (see Xuguang,l994):

Black Powder Era (1627-1870)

Black powder was invented by the Chinese about 2000 years ago and then it spreaded
to Arabian countries and Europe. The first documented proof of nitre, the basic
ingredient of black powder was found in the scripts written by Arabian author, Abd
Allah in l3'"century. In 1242, Roger Bacon published a formula for black powder.
The first documentary proof of the use of black powder for breaking the rock in
mines is by Kasper Weindl at Royal Mines ofSchemnitz at Ober-Biberstollen, Hungry.
The use of black powder for rock breaking continued until the invention of dynamites
by Alfred Nobel in 1866.

Dynamite Era (1870-1950)

Ascanio, an Italian chemist discovered the Nitroglycerin in 1846. It was highly sensitive
to shock. Alfred Nobel invented Dynamite in 1866 by mixing nitroglycerin with
kieselguhr and named it "Nobels Safety Podwer". In 1875, Nobel formed gelatin
dynamite by dissolving nitrocellulose in nitroglycerin. Since dynamite was more
powerful than black powder, it had a higher detonation velocity and was more effective
in rock breakage; soon it replaced the black powder and dominated the market of
commercial explosives. It played an important role in rock blasting.

Blasting Agents Era (1950 onwards)

In mid 1950s, industrial explosives entered a new development period- the modern
blasting era of blasting agents. J. R.Glauber synthesized ammonium nitrate in 1659
for the first time and named it Nitrum Flammans. In 1955, H. B. Lee and R. L. Akre
exploited the economic potential of ammonium nitrate as a blasting agent and
carbonaceous fuel sensitizer. The solid fuels, like coal, used initially were later on
replaced by fuel oil. Fertilizer grade ammonium nitrate was replaced by ammonium

I 'Jwprer

:!

All ( )l't'rl'i<'ll' of ( 'ommercia/1:\p/osil't'.l'

nitrate prills devcluped hy ( 'onsolidated Mining and Smelting Corporation, Canada.

ANH> .:aplllred the 70% of the gluhal market of commercial explosives due to its
low cost, casy prcparution and safety in usc. llowcvcr, the major disadvantages of
ANFO cxplosive arc Jack of water resistance and low bulk strength.
In !956, Prof Cook and Farnam invented slurry explosives hy mixing the aqueous
solution of ammonium nitrate with fuel and then gelatinizing the mixture. The slurries
overcame the two of the above-mentioned disadvantages ofANFO explosive. Cook
and Farnam developed a slurry with TNT and aluminum powder as sensitizer. In 1963,
lreco Chemicals, USA developed slurry explosives with non-metallic sensitizers. In
!969, DuPont, USA produced a mono-methylamine nitrate (MMAN) sensitized slurry.
In 1970s, non-explosive sensitized, small diameter, cap-sensitive and bubble-sensitized
slurry explosives came into existance one after the other. The emergence of slurry
loading trucks and pumpable slurry fulfilled the needs of surface mines for high charging
rate.
The initial form of the emulsion explosives was developed by R. S. Egly in 1961 by
mixing water-in-oil emulsion with ordinary water bearing slurry explosives. In 1963,
N. E. Gehrig developed the emulsions without slurries. In 1969, H. Bluhm of Atlas
Chemical Industries Limited fully described the technique of emulsion explosives.
Therefore, it is generally believed that emulsion explosives were revealed by Bluhm.
The emulsion explosives revealed by Bluhm, were non-cap sensitive and initiated with
the help of booster charge. In 1972, G. R. Catermole of DuPont described a formula
which increased the detonation sensitivity of the emulsion explosives by using organic
amine nitrates. This type of emulsion could detonate steadily in small diameter blast
holes. In 1973, Charles G. Wade oflmperial Chemical Industries Inc. patented emulsion
explosives containing entrapped gases and emulsion explosives containing strontiumion explosion catalyzer, which improved detonation sensitivity of the emulsion
explosives. In 1973, E. A. Tomic ofDu Pont patented a technique to manufacture
free-flowing, water-in-oil emulsion explosives by using ammonium stearate or alkali
stearates as emulsifier. In 1977, Charles G. Wade of Atlas Powder Company
developed a cap sensitive emulsion explosive which did not contain explosive sensitizer
and other organic amine nitrate sensitizer. The sensitization was achieved by maintaining
proper grain size and by using hollow glass micro-balloons.
In I 978, Wade published another patent about continuous manufacturing equipment
and techniques. Afterwards, many a new patents on controlling techniques for emulsion

.In ( Jierl'iew o/ ( olll!llerciall::rp/osiw.,

( 'hllf'lt'f" }

density, compound cmulsilio:r. emulsifying equipment and proccss.tidd cmulsionloading

truck. water free emulsion explosiws. emulsion gelatin explosives and emulsion ANFO
explosives were published
2.2 Characteristics of Commercial Explosives
I:xplosivcs arc characterized by their properties such as strength, density, velocity of
detonation, detonation pressure, water resistance, sensitivity, thermal stability, fume
characteristics etc. These properties have been described below:

2.2.1 Strength
Strength is a measure of the ability of an explosive to do useful work. It refers to the
amount of energy stored in an explosive. Strength is generally expressed as absolute
weight strength, absolute bulk strength, relative weight strength and relative bulk
strength(see Nitro Noble, 2002).

Absolute Weight Strength (AWS)- It is a measure of absolute amount of

energy in calories available in a unit mass of explosive. This is a theoretical
absolute heat energy based on the ingredients of the explosive and is generally
quoted in kcallkg of explosive. AWS of ANFO is 930 kcal/kg for 94% AN
and 6% fuel oil.

Absolute Bulk Strength (ABS)- It is a measure of absolute amount of energy

in a unit volume of explosive. ABS of an explosive is density times the AWS.
It is expressed in kcal/m3
ABS exp =AWS exp

exp

Relative Weight Strength (RWS) - It is a measure of the energy available in

a given weight of explosive compared to an equal weight of ANFO. (RWS for
an explosive is the ratio of AWS of the explosive to AWS of ANFO, expressed
as a percentage).
RWS.,.= (AWS.,/AWSANF 0 )xl00%

Relative Bulk Strength (RBS)- It is a measure ofthe energy available in a

given volume of explosive compared to an equal volume of bulk ANFO at
0.8lglcc density. (RBS for an explosive is the ratio of ABS of the explosive to
7

.In 0l't'rl'iell' of ( 'olll/1/t'l'cia/ f.\p/osil't'.\'

( 'haJ!It'r l

ABS ofANHl, cxpn:sscd as a percentage).

RBS.,,. (ABS .. ,/ ABS,". 0 )x l 00%

2.2.2 I>cnsity
Density is defined as the mass per unit volume and in practice, it is expressed in
glee. Density of explosives is an important characteristic because explosives are
purchased and used on weight basis. It has an influence on sensitivity and the VOD of
an explosive.
The prime purpose of varying the density of an explosive is to enable the total energy
charge in a blast hole to meet the particular field conditions. In case of hard massive
rocks, denser explosives are used since more energy is required to break them. In
watery holes also, the explosive should have a density higher than that of water,
otherwise they will float.
A useful expression of density, particularly in case of bulk products, is the loading
density which is the weight of the explosive per unit length of the hole. This helps in
determining the weight ofthe explosive loaded per running meter of blast hole.The
densities of most of the commercial explosives vary between 0.8 and 1.35 glee.

2.2.3 Velocity of Detonation (VOD)

Velocity of detonation is the rate at which the detonation wave travels through an
explosive column. It is expressed in mls. It is an excellent means for checking the
explosive performance. The VOD of a blasting agent depends heavily on formulation
characteristics,confinement,blast hole diameter and priming (Bilgin & Essen, 2005).
VODs of the most of the commercial explosives vary between 2000 and 5500 m!s.

2.2.4 Detonation Pressure

The detonation pressure is a near instantaneous pressure derived from the shock wave
moving through the explosive column. It is the pressure in the reaction zone behind
the detonation zone, at the C-J plane. It is expressed in kilo bar. The detonation
pressure is important since it controls the stress level in the rocks. The stress level is
important for fragmentation.

.In ( heniell' o/ ( 'ommercia/1:\p/osile.,

2.2.5 Water Resistance

Water resistance is the ability of an explosive to withstand exposun: to water without

any detrimental effects on its performance. Explosive products have two types of
water resistances; internal and external. Internal water resistance is delined as the
water resistance provided by the explosive ingredients themselves. External water
resistance is provid.:d not by th.: .:xplosivc ingredients themselves but by the packaging
into which explosive is placed. Water can either dissolve in or leach out some of the
explosive ingredients or reduce the temperature to such a degree that the ideal products
of detonation may not form even though the explosive is oxygen balanced.
2.2.6 Sensitivity

The sensitivity of an explosive is the amount of input energy needed to cause a reliable
initiation of the explosive. It is also called the minimum booster rating or minimumpriming requirement. Sensitivity of an explosive is affected by the presence of water
in blast hole, inadequate charge diameter and extreme temperature conditions.
2.2. 7 Temperature Resistance

Explosive compounds can suffer in performance if they are stored under extremely
hot or cold conditions. In hot storage conditions, beyond 90F, many compounds
may slowly decompose and change their properties. Most of the commercial explosives
contain ammonium nitrate. Storage of ammonium nitrate based blasting agents in
temperature above 90F can result in cycling which affects the performance of the
product. Cycling is the ability of a material to change its crystal forms depending on
temperature. The two temperatures at which cycling will occur in ammonium nitrate
are 0F and 90F (Konya & Walter, 1990).
Cold conditions can also affect the performance of some explosive products. Some
products may become stiff and firm after prolonged exposure to a low temperature
and may become difficult to use in the field. Slurry explosives can have serious
detonation problem if stored in cold temperature and is not allowed to warm up before
they are detonated (Konya & Walter, 1990).
2.2.8 Fume Characteristics

The fume characteristic of an explosive is a measure of the amount of toxic gases

produced in the detonation process. Carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides are the
9

An ( herl'it'\1' of ( 'ollllllt'rL'ial F\p/osile.1

mDsl common gases that an: consitkred in the fume class rulings. ( 'arhon dioxide is
nDt considered as fume since it is not toxic. llowever, it can result in death due to
su!Tocation if generated in large quantity during blasting in the con!incd area.
Commercial cxplosiv.:s an: oxygen balanced to minimize fumes. However, fumes can
still occur as a result of hlast environmental conditions such as insuf!icient charge
diameter, inadequate water resistance and inadequate priming ( Konya & Walter, 1990).

2.3 Commercial Explosives

The commonly used commercial explosives in India are ANFO, slurry and emulsion.
Dynamite is completely phased out from the market. All these explosives are available
in bulk form. The properties of these explosives have been summarised in Table 2.1.
Bulk emulsion explosive is dominating the market of bulk products in India and is
being used by all major explosive consumers namely; Coal India Ltd., National Mineral
Development Corporation, Singreni Collieries Company Ltd. etc. Market ofbulk slurry
is restricted only to few mines of Coal India Ltd., Hindustan Copper Ltd. and National
Mineral Development Corporation. The use of bulk ANFO (mechanically loaded) is
limited only to bauxite mine ofNational Aluminum Company Ltd. Manually loaded
ANFO is popular among small mine operators and construction work. Slurry is leading
the market oflarge diameter cartridge explosives (LD explosive). Production of these
explosives in India in the year 2002-03, 2003-04 and 2004-05 is given in Table 2.2.
A brief description of these explosives is given below with special emphasis on the
emulsion explosives.

2.3.1 Ammonium Nitrate-Fuel Oil (ANFO)

ANFO, also known as dry blasting agent, is a simple physical mixture of prilled
ammonium nitrate and fuel oil (diesel oil) in the ratio 94:6 by weight. ANFO is still the
most popular explosive in the world because of its low cost, but in India, it is not such
popular because ofthe non availability of prilled ammonium nitrate in sufficient quantity.
In India, it is mostly used by small mine operators and in civil construction projects as
manually site mixing form. Though, ANFO has a high weight strength (930 kcal/kg)
and a good gas volume, it has several drawbacks such as low density, low VOD, low
bulk strength, low detonation pressure and very poor water resistance. It is not suitable
for use in hard, dense, massive rocks and watery holes. But in soft to medium hard
rocks and in jointed strata, where heaving action is preferred, it works very well.
10

An Owniew tJ(( 'ommercia/l:~rp/Mive.\

I 'hapra:!

'l(thlt: :?..1 : Properties of Bulk bplosivcs (l'radhan, 1996: Pradhan & Kate, 2005).

Property
Physical condition
Oxidizer
Initiation
Impact sensitivity,
kgm
Density, glee
VOD, m/s
RBS (%AN)
RWS (%AN)
Energy, kcal/kg
Water resistance
Low temperature
resistance, C
High temperature
resistance, C

ANFO
Powder
Prilled AN
Booster
3-3.5

Slurry
Slurry_
Liquid salt solution
Booster
>10

Emulsion
Greasy emulsion
Liquid salt solution
Booster
>10

0.8-0.9
2400-4500
100
100
930
Poor
32.2

0.65 to 1.1 ,variable

3000-4500
110-135
80-100
600-1100
Excellent
4.0

1.0-1.3, variable
4000-5500
135-150
100-120
600-850
Excellent
4.0

< 100

100

100

Table 2.2 :Production of Explosives in India in the Year 2002-03, 2003-04 & 2004-05
(Petroleum and Explosive Safety Organisation).
Sr
No
A

B.
C.

D.

Production, Tonnes
2002-03
2003-04
2004-05

Description
Blasting Explosives
Gun Powder:
Nitrate Mixture:
Permitted Small Dia. (SD)
Non Permitted Small Dia. (NPSD)
Large Dia. (LD)
Site Mixed Bulk Explosives
ANFO (Manufactured and used)
Total Class 2
Nitro Compounds:
Permitted Small Dia. (SD)
Non Permitted Small Dia.(NPSD)
Large Dia. (LD)
Booster
Total Class 3
Safety Fuse (million meter)
Detonating Fuse (million meter)
Detonators (million number)

II

123

295

515

19103
15034
106249
215645
14051
370205

25511
29787
108664
217120
14315
395692

22857
43312
98855
190924
26094
382557

3992
23943
2515
1189
31639
99
135
451

2984
20023
299
873
24179
155
164
419

-----

--875
875
109
209
432

( 'hupl.:r :!

An Ol't'rl'iew oj ( 'ommerciul Exp/o.l'i\'1!.\'

2.3.2 Slurry Explosives

Slurry explosives wen: lirst developed as a result of attempts to water proof, improve
the density and strength of ANFO. Slurry is a mixture of nitrate (such as ammonium
nitrate and sodium nitrate), a fuel sensitizer either explosive or non explosive and
varying amounts of water. The mixture is thickened with guar gum to slurry consistency
and cross linked with some transition metal ions to form an effective gel matrix.
Slurry explosives are available both in bulk and cartridge form. Cartridge slurry
explosives are available as both cap sensitive and non-cap sensitive. They exhibit an
excellent water resistance. Their VODs vary from 3000 to 4500 m/s. Since they are
water based explosives, they are less sensitive to shock and friction and are extremely
safe in transportation, storage and use.

2.3.3 Emulsion Explosives

Emulsion explosives have become quite an important blasting means because of their
comparatively high detonation parameters and exceptionally good safety characteristics.
Emulsion explosives are prepared by agitation the of a super saturated aqueous solution
of some oxidizers and a fuel doped with an emulsifying agent. The composition thus
prepared is extremely insensitive to initiation and hence requires gas bubbles for
sensitization. The basic oxidizer used in emulsion explosives is ammonium nitrate.
Sodium nitrate and calcium nitrate are frequently used to modify the properties of the
oxidizer solution. The fuel phase consists of various mineral oils and waxes. A
distiguinshed feature of emulsion explosives is that in the aqueous solution, the oxidizer
is present in the form of tiny droplets covered with a very thin fuel layer. Consequently,
the interfacial surface of the emulsion is very large, as a result of which emulsion
explosives have high VOD. The VOD of emulsion explosives vary from 4000 to 5500

mls.

Composition of Emulsion Explosives

Emulsion explosives are multi component explosives. They essentially consist of an

aqueous solution of oxidizer salts, fuel, emulsifier, density modifier and small amount
of additives. The main components of an emulsion explosive with their functions are
discussed below (see Xuguang, 1994):

12

( 'lwpter 2

An ( >wrview ofC 'ommerdul fxp/osive.1

Oil-phase Material

The oil-phase material is one of the key components of emulsion explosives. It is a

group of water-insoluble compounds which form a water-in-oil emulsion together with
an aqueous oxidized salt solution in presence of an emulsifier. The primary functions
of oil-phase material are to form continuous phase of emulsion in an emulsion explosive
system and to act as a combustion agent. It also provides water resistance and
consistency to the emulsion explosive system. Any hydrocarbon having a proper
consistency can be used as an oil-phase material for emulsion explosives. All waxes,
oils and various polymers are commonly used in emulsion explosives.
The waxes which are commonly used in emulsion explosives are the ones extracted
from petroleum such as vaseline wax, microcrystalline wax, and paraffin wax; mineral
waxes such as earth wax and montan wax; insect wax such as beeswax etc. All liquid
petrolium products having proper consistency may be used as oil phase material. The
commonly used petroleum oils are diesel oil, machine oil and vash oil.
Polymers are often used to thicken the oil-phase material. Commonly used polymers
are natural rubber, synthetic rubber, copolymers of butadiene-styrene etc. Saturated
fatty acids like caprylic acid, capric acid, lauric acid, higher alcohols like hexanol,
nonanol, lauric alcohol and some plant oils like corn oil, cotton seed oil, soybean oil
etc. may also be used as oil-phase material.

Aqueous Oxidizer Solution

The aqueous oxidizer solution is another important component of emulsion explosives.

It provides dispersion phase to emulsion explosives and also acts as an oxidizer. It
also decides the density of the final product as it accounts for about 90% of the total
mass ofthe explosive.
Generally, aqueous solution of ammonium nitrate is used as a dispersion phase in
emulsion explosives but other organic and inorganic oxidizer salts compatible with
emulsion, may also be used together with ammonium nitrate. Ammonium nitrate is an
inexpensive and efficient oxidizer. It is easily soluble in water but its solubility goes
down as the temperature decreases and it leaches out from the solution thereby affecting
the stability of the emulsion explosive. The solubility of saturated ammonium nitrate
solution at various temperatures is shown in Table 2.3. To improve the stability of
emulsion, a mixture of ammonium nitrate, sodium nitrate and /or calcium nitrate is
13

An ( )l't'n'iew o/ ( 'ommercial l:xp/o.liws

( 'lwpler 2

Tab I.: 2.3 :Solubility of Ammonium Nitrat<: in Water at Varying Temperatures

(X uguang.l 994 ).
T.:mpcraturc,"C
()

10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100

In I 00 g water
20
150
187
233
280
339
411
50!
618
772
994

Solubility, g
In I 00 g solution
54.5
60.0
65.2
70.0
73.7
77.2
80.4
83.4
86.1
88.5
90.9

generally used to prepare the aqueous oxidizer solution for emulsion explosives. Use
of mixed salt solution increases the oxygen-supplying quantity and density and lowers
the fudge point of the explosive. The density of the powdered and grained ammonium
nitrate is usually in the range 0.8-0.95 g/cc. It supplies 200 g of oxygen per kg.
Sodium nitrate is the most common supplemental oxidizer suitable for emulsion
explosives. It raises the dissolubility and drops the fudge point of aqueous oxidizer
solution and thus improves the stability of the emulsion explosive. Its density is 2.265
glee and oxygen-supplying quantity is 2.35 times that of AN. It also increases the
density of the emulsion matrix and oxygen supplying quantity of the oxidizer solution.
Calcium nitrate is also a good supplementary oxidizer for emulsion explosives. It not
only drops the fudge point of the aqueous oxidizer solution but also promotes the
emulsification, thus improves the quality of emulsions. Its oxygen supplying quantity is
about 2.5 times more than ammonium nitrate.
Sodium percolate is also used in emulsion explosive as it is a good oxidizer and a
sensitizer. It improves the detonating sensitiveness, performance and storage stability
of the explosive.

Density Modifier

Density modifier refers to a group of substances which can introduce a large number
of micro-bubbles into emulsion explosives. The main functions of a density modifier in
14

An 01eniew of ('om mercia/ Exp/osiws

~mulsion

explosive arc to control the density of the explosive and to sensitize the

~xplosivc

according to th.: hot spot theory of initiation.

The commonly used density modilicrs arc occluded gases, chemical foaming agents
and gas retaining closed solid particles.
Occl udcd gases refer to micro-bubbles of air, nitrogen, carbon di-oxide, nitrogen
monoxide, gaseous hydrocarbons etc. retained and evenly distributed in emulsion
explosives by mechanical stirring.
The chemical foaming agents are those agents which can enter into a chemical reaction
and hence produce a large number of micro-bubbles, evenly dispersed throughout the
explosive. The chemical foaming agents are of two types-inorganic and organic. The
inorganic foaming agents include nitrites such as sodium and potassium nitrites,
carbonates such as sodium hydrocarbonates, ammonium carbonate and ammonium
chloride. The organic foaming agents include azo compounds such as azoamino-benzene,
azo-isobutyric dinitrate and hydrazine compounds such as hydrazine hydrate etc.
Inorganic foaming agents particularly sodium nitrite is extensively used in emulsion
explosives as foaming agents. Sodium nitrite reacts with ammonium nitrate and produce
ammonium nitrite which is unstable and decomposes into nitrogen and water. Nitrogen
micro-bubbles spread through out in the emulsion and modify its density and sensitize it.

NH4NO,= N, +2H 20
Gas retained solid particles added to emulsion explosives may be either glass or resin
hollow micro-balloons or expanded particulate perlite. As compared to gas-occluded
or chemical sensitization methods, emulsion explosives sensitized by this method are
able to bear tremendous external pressure. Glass micro-balloon is made up of a new
silicate material which is light in weight and has good roundness and chemical stability.
Expanded particulate perlite is a white porous loose particulate material made by
crushing, preheating and roasting acidic volcanic glass lava (perlite ore).

Emulsifiers

Emulsifiers are one of the key components of emulsion explosives and usually their
content is 0.5 to 2.0% of the total massoftheexplosive. They play an important role in
15

An 0\'C!rl'iell' tJj'( 'ommrrciul F.xplosive.\

( 'hapter 2

maintaining the quality of an emulsion explosive. Emulsifying efliciency of aqueous

oxidizer salt solution and carbonaceous fuel depend mainly on the type and activities
ofth.: sckcted emulsitiers.
Emulsifiers used in emulsion explosives are composed ofderivants formed by esterifying
the sorbitol after removing one mole water from it. These derivants may include sorbitan
fatty acid esters such as sorbitan mono laurate, sorbitan mono olerate, sorbitan mono
palmitate, sorbitan tristerate. Other emulsifiers which may also be used include; sorbitan
polyoxyethylene esters such as sorbitol polyoxyethylene beewax derivants and other
substances such as polyxyethylene(4) lauric ether, polyoxyethylene (2) oleyl ether,
polyoxyethylene (2) stearoyl ether, polyoxylalkylene oleic acid layrate oleic phosphate
substituted oxazoline etc.

Other Additives

To improve the performance of the emulsion explosives, small quantities of some other
components are also added to them which are as described below:

Crystal-shape Modifier

To control the

dissolution~

crystallization balance of oxidizer salts, crystal shape

modifiers are added to emulsion explosive in the range 0.1-0.3% by weight. These are
added to oxidizer salt solution prior to emulsification. These agents include alkyl alcohol
alkali metal sulphonate, alkyl alcohol alkali metal sulphate, phenyl or naphthyl alkali
metal sulphonate and phenyl and naphthyl alkali metal sulphate. Amongst these, dodecyl
sodium sulphate, dodecyl sodium sulphonanate and dodecanol acyl phosphate are
commonly used.

Emulsification Promoter

Highly chlorinated paraffinic-hydrocarbons are used to promote emulsification of

emulsion explosives. It also improves the detonation sensitivity and longer storage
stability of emulsion matrix. Its addition amount ranges between 0.2-0.8% of the
total mass of explosive. It is used in conjunction with carbonaceous fuel and emulsifier
in a pre-mixture form.

Emulsion Stabilizer

To improve the long-term storage stability of emulsion explosives, emulsion stabilizers

16

An Oeni<!l\'11/ ( 'o111111t'rdt1/ Erp/o.ive.1

< 'haf>la :!

an: added to emulsion explosives in small quantity. These stabilizers together with
emulsifier arc dissolved in oil-phase prior to emulsification. Some commonly used
emulsion stabilizers arc phosphatide compounds like soybean lecithin, solid tine powder,
and beeswax and borax.
Soybcan is a plant lccithin. Addition of about 0.5% of this stabilizer improves the
long-term storage stability of emulsion explosives. Solid fine powder ofzinc stearate,
tctradecoic acid zinc, aluminum stearate, tetradecoic acid magnesium, carbon black,
silicon dioxide, iron oxide, titanium dioxide, sulphur, aluminum and zinc improve the
stability of emulsion explosive in storage and performance under low temperature.
Addition amounts of solid fine powder are usually in the range 0.1-1%. Beeswax and
borax have also been found to improve the storage stability of emulsion explosives.
Addition amount of beeswax in an emulsion explosive is about 0.3% and that of borax
is about 0.4 to 0.7% of the mass of explosive.

2.4

Bulk Emulsion Explosives

Bulk explosive systems are essentially those where explosives are delivered directly
into the blast hole through mechanized and mobile delivery systems. Explosives which
are amenable to bulk loading are ANFO, slurry and emulsion. The bulk explosive
systems offer the following advantages (Pradhan, 1996; Xuguang, 1994):

Only non-explosive ingredients are stored in all stages.

No inventory of explosives is required to be maintained.

Construction of expensive magazines is not required.

No need for a large fleet of explosive vans. Explosive vans are required only
for transportation of cast boosters, detonating cord, detonators etc.

Significant savings in manpower costs since magazine staff, van drivers,

magazine security, and blasting crew are reduced.

Significant cost advantage since cartridging, packing and transportation from

far-off manufacturer's plant is eliminated.

Swift charging rate upto 250 kg/min or more.

Ability to customize explosives on site the as per the field requirement.

17

( 'lwpler 2

An ( )vervit'\1'11/ ('om mercia/ f:xp/oJive.1

Full bore coupling of bulk products results in beth:r blast efficiency.

Better transfer of explosive energy to rock due to full bore coupling permits
larger spacing and burden ami thus results in reduction in drilling cost.

No chances ofcxplosivc pilferage.

Emulsion explosives are available both in bulk and cartridge form. Bulk emulsion
explosives are booster sensitive. They are usually mixed and prepared on the site and
directly loaded into the drill holes. Basically, there are two systems for bulk delivery of
emulsion explosives namely; site mixed emulsion explosive system and re-pumpable
emulsion explosive system.
In site mixed emulsion explosive system, a support facility is erected near the mine
site where the intermediaries for the production of explosive on truck such as oxidizer
and fuel blends are prepared. The truck carries different ingredients in different
compartments. The mixing of various ingredients in pre-determined calibrated quantities
is carried out on the truck and the final mixture is pumped into the blast hole through
a loading hose. The advantage of this system is that explosive material is neither
manufactured at the plant nor carried on the truck. The mixture becomes an explosive
only after gassing that takes place in the hole. Also, explosive formulations can be
customized by controlling the addition of ingredients. The main disadvantage ofthis
system is that the pump trucks are of complex design. Moreover, quality assurance is
difficult as the emulsion matrix is prepared on the truck at the site (Persson eta!.,
2001 ).
In re-pumpable emulsion explosive system, non-explosive emulsion matrix is prepared
in a support plant erected near the mine. The non-explosive matrix is carried on the
pump trucks to the blasting site. Only gassing agent is mixed in batches to the matrix
on the pump truck just before the charging ofthe holes. The pump trucks of this
system are of simple design. In India, re-pumpable system is more popular.

2.5 Chemically Sensitized Bulk Emulsion Explosives

The bulk emulsion explosives are generally sensitized either by addition of glass microballoons (GMB) or chemicals. In India, chemical gassing method is often selected by
the explosive manufacturers because glass micro-balloons are expensive and not
manufactured in India. A comparison of GMB sensitized with chemically sensitized

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An ( )teniew t!(l 'ommerciul Explosive.\

t 'hapter :?

lab!.: 2.4: Comparison of Glass mi~ro-balloon Sensitized Emulsion Explosive with

Chemically S.:nsitizcd Emulsion Explosive.
Parameter
Cost
Size of the bubbles,

Gl8ss mlcro-b8lloons sensitized

emulsion explosives
Costly
10 to 160

Chemicnlly sensitized
emulsion explosives
Cheap
0.5 to I 00, Mostly 5-50

More uniform size

Not of uniform size

Low

High

High
Good

Low
Better than Glass microballoons
Can bear comparatively low
hydrostatic pressure

rn icron

Uniformity of
bubbles
Tendency to
agglomerate or
escape
Storage stability
Sensitive effect
Hydrostatic pressure

Can bear high hydrostatic

pressure. Best suited in deep
holes.

emulsion explosives is given in Table 2.4. In chemically sensitized bulk emulsion

explosives, an aqueous solution of sodium nitrite (15% by weight) is added to emulsion
matrix stream, in the range of 0.6 to 2.0% by weight just before charging of the holes
(Manka, 2004). Sodium nitrite on reaction with ammonuim nitrate from the matrix
produces nitrogen bubbles. These nitrogen bubbles evenly spread throughout the
emulsion matrix and sensitize it. Under unfavorable conditions such as low temperature
and/or high pH value, sodium thiocyanate accelarator is also added to gassing solution
to facilitate the generation of nitrogen gas. This gassing solution consists of 15-20%
of sodium nitrite, 15-30% of sodium thiocyanate and 50-70% of water by weight
(Manka, 2004).

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