EX. NO.

: 16
AIM: - To study various gear parameters.
GEAR: A gear is a rotating machine part which has cut teeth, that mesh with another toothed
part in order to transmit torque. The cut teeth are also called 'cogs'. Gears are one of the most
important parts of any machine or a mechanism. Some of the sectors in which gears play a
vital role are:

Turbine plant
Hot and Cold Rolling

Construction machinery

Elevator industry

GEAR TOOTH TERMINOLOGY:

Standard system of Gear Teeth

In a gear drive, two types of curves, the cycloidal and the involute, are generally used. In a
gear drive, the shape of the tooth depends upon the pressure angle. Gears of involute profile
with 14.5, 20 full-depth and 20 stub pressure angles are most commonly used in

industries. A 20 pressure angle full-depth involute gear tooth has various advantages over
the other pressure angles. BIS has recommended the use of 20 pressure angle full depth
involute gear tooth.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS: The accuracy of the output of a gear depends on the

accuracy of its design and manufacturing. The correct manufacturing of a gear requires a
number of prerequisite calculations and design considerations. The design considerations
taken into account before manufacturing of gears are:

Strength of the gear in order to avoid failure at starting torques or under dynamic
loading during running conditions.
Gear teeth must have good wear characteristics.

Selection of material combination.

Proper alignment and compactness of drive

Provision of adequate and proper lubrication arrangement.

SELECTION OF MATERIALS: The gear material should have the following properties:

High tensile strength to prevent failure against static loads

High endurance strength to withstand dynamic loads

Low coefficient of friction

Good manufacturability

Generally cast iron, steel, brass and bronze are preferred for manufacturing metallic gears
with cut teeth. Where smooth action is not important, cast iron gears with cut teeth may be
employed. Commercially cut gears have a pitch line velocity of about 5 metre/second. For
velocities larger than this, gear sets with non-metallic pinions as one member are used to
eliminate vibration and noise. Non-metallic materials are made of various materials such as
treated cotton pressed and moulded at high-pressure, synthetic resins of the phenol type and
rawhide. Moisture affects rawhide pinions. Gears made of phenolic resins are self-supporting
on the other hand other two types are supported by metal side plates at both ends of the plate.
Large wheels are made with fretting rings to save alloy steels. Wheel centre is commonly
cast from cast iron. The ring is forged or roll expanded from steel of the respective grade
specified by the tooth design.
GEAR WHEEL PROPORTIONS: A gear has three important parts

Hub
Web or arms

Rim

Hub of gears are of two types, solid or split. The advantage of split hub is that it reduces the
cooling stresses in the gear and facilitates the mounting of the gear on the shaft. The solid
hub gear is to be mounted overhung on the shaft. The key is placed under the arm in case of
solid hub while in case of split hub, the key is placed at right angles to the hub joint. Small
gears up to 250 mm pitch circle diameter are built with a web, which joins the hub and the
rim. The thickness of the web of the gear should be such that it is capable of transmitting the
torque without shearing off at the hub where it joins. The gear is designed such that the
thickness of its web is equal to half the circular pitch. Gear of larger diameter are provided
with arms. The number of arms depends on the pitch circle diameter of the gear. Following
are the prevailing practices of the number of arms and gear diameters
GEAR DIAMETER(MM)
300-500
500-1500
1500-2400
>2400

ARMS
4-5
6
8
10-12

While calculating the dimensions of the arms it is assumed that they transmit the stalling
torque safely. Elliptical cross sections are preferred for lighter loads while remaining cross
sections are used for large and heavy gears. The following aspects are considered while
determining cross sectional diameter of the arm.
Empirical formulas are used to determine the rim thickness.

where is the number of teeth and

are the number of arms.
A good design is a one in which the rim has a central rib of thickness equal to half the
circular pitch.
If the lay out of the shaft is known, the diameter of the gear shaft can be calculated. Toothed
wheels fixed on the shaft are fitted by interference-for example, press or light press fit. For
impact load or speeds above 2000 r.p.m. press fit is employed. If the wheel is to be removed
from the shaft medium fit are used.
The following types of gears are most commonly used in industry for power transmission
purposes:

Spur gears
Helical gears

Bevel gears

Worm and worm gears

BASIC GEAR PARAMETERS:

1. THE TYPE OF GEARING: One has to be sure on the type of gearing being used. The
gear system can belong to various subcategories like parallel axis gearing, perpendicular axis
gears, planetary gear systems, etc.
2. THE GEAR RATIO: This is one of the important parameters that one has to know about
the gears. Gear ratio is termed as the ratio between the number of teeth on the pinion (this is
normally smaller in diameter and the driving member) and the number of teeth on the gear
(this is normally larger in diameter and the driven member). Mathematically it can be
expressed as Ratio = No. of teeth on Pinion / No. of teeth on the gear. This is denoted by the
term i.
3. THE MODULE: This is the important parameter in the gearing. The size of the gear tooth
is defined by the module. The smaller the size of the gear teeth the smaller the module and
bigger the size of the gear teeth the bigger the module. This is denoted by the term M.
4. CENTRE DISTANCE: The centre distance is another important parameter designated for
knowing the gear pair. This is the distance between the centre of the pinion and the centre of
the gear. This is normally denoted by the term a. This is common for most major types of
gearing except for bevel gears.
5. HELIX ANGLE: This is the angle in which the teeth are inclined to. This is applicable
only for helical gears. For spur gears, the helix angle is normally 0 Degrees. This is denoted
by the term .
These are some of the common terms in gear terminology. One should really know all these
terms before proceeding with gear selection and design.
RESULT: Thus the various gear parameters are studied.

EX.NO. : 17
AIM: - To study various types of gear trains- simple, compound, reverted, epicyclic and
differential.
THEORY: -

1. Definition of. Geart rain

2. Classification of Geartrain
3. Diagrams of different types of Gear train.
4. Working & Construction of different types of Gear train.
5. Advantages & Disadvantages of Gear train
6. Applications of Gear train
.
7. Examples of Gear train

GEAR TRAIN :- A gear train is a combination of gears used to transmit motion from one
shaft to another. It becomes necessary when it is required to obtain large speed reduction
within a small space. The following are the main types of gear trains:
(i) Simple gear train
(ii) Compound gear train
(iii) Reverted gear train
(iv)Planetary gear train
SIMPLE GEAR TRAIN :- A series of gears, capable of receiving and transmitting motion
from one gear to another is called a simple gear train. In it, all the gear axes remain fixed
relative to the frame and each gear is on a separate shaft.
Train Value = Number of teeth on driving gear / Number of teeth on driven gear
COMPOUND GEAR TRAIN :- When a series of gears are connected in such a way that
two or more gears rotate about an axis with the same angular velocity, it is known as
compound gear train. In this type, some of the intermediate shafts.
Train Value = Product of Number of teeth on driving gear / Product of Number of teeth on
driven gear
REVERTED GEAR TRAIN :- If the axes of the first and last wheels of a compound gear
coincide; it is called a reverted gear train. Such an arrangement is used in clocks and in
simple lathes where back gear is used to give a slow speed to the chuck.
Train Value = Product of Number of teeth on driving gear / Product of Number of teeth on
driven gear

PLANETARY OR EPICYCLIC GEAR TRAIN :- When there exists a relative motion

of axis in gear train, it is called a planetary or an epicyclic gear train (or simply epicyclic
gear or train). Thus in an epicyclic train, the axis of at least one of the gears also moves
relative to the frame.
Consider two gear wheels S and P, the axis of which are connected by an arm a.
if the arm a is fixed, the wheels S and P constitute a simple train. However, if the wheel
s is fixed so that the arm can rotate about the axis of S, the wheel P would also move
around S. therefore, it is an epicyclic train.
DIFFERENTIAL GEAR :- When a vehicle takes a turn, the outer wheels must travel
farther than the inner wheels. In automobiles, the front wheels can rotate freely on their
axis and thus can adapt themselves to the conditions. Both rear wheels are driven by the
engine through gearing. Therefore, some sirt of automatic device is necessary so that the
two rear wheels are driven at slightly different speeds. This is accomplished by fitting a
differential gear on the rear axle.
APPLICATIONS :(i) Gear trains are used in automobiles.
(ii) Reverted gear train are used in clock and simple lathe
(iii) Epicyclic gear are used in transmission, computing devices.
(iv)Gears are used in different machinery.
RESULT: Thus the various types of gear trains- simple, compound, reverted, epicyclic
and differential have been studied.

EX. NO. : 18
AIM: To study the kinematics of Four Bar, Slider Crank, Crank Rocker, Double crank,
Double rocker, Oscillating cylinder Mechanisms .
MECHANISM: Amechanism isaconstrainedkinematicchain.Thismeansthatthe
motionofanyonelinkinthekinematicchainwillgiveadefiniteandpredictablemotion
relativetoeachoftheothers.Usuallyoneofthelinksofthekinematicchainisfixedina
mechanism.

Fig.1.20Slidercrankandfourbarmechanisms.
If,foraparticularpositionofalinkofthechain,thepositionsofeachoftheotherlinks
ofthechaincannotbepredicted,thenitiscalledasunconstrainedkinematicchainandit
isnotmechanism.

Fig.1.21Unconstrainedkinematicchain
MACHINE: Amachineisamechanismorcollectionofmechanisms,whichtransmit
forcefromthesourceofpowertotheresistancetobeovercome.Thoughallmachinesare
mechanisms,allmechanismsarenotmachines.Manyinstrumentsaremechanismsbut
arenotmachines,becausetheydonousefulworknordotheytransformenergy.Eg.
Mechanicalclock,drafter.

Fig.1.21Drafter

PLANARMECHANISMS:Whenallthelinksofamechanismhaveplanemotion,itis
calledasaplanarmechanism.Allthelinksinaplanarmechanismmoveinplanesparallel
tothereferenceplane.
INVERSIONSOFMECHANISM:Amechanismisoneinwhichoneofthelinksofa
kinematicchainisfixed.Differentmechanismscanbeobtainedbyfixingdifferentlinks
of the same kinematic chain. These are called as inversions of the mechanism. By
changingthefixedlink,thenumberofmechanismswhichcanbeobtainedisequaltothe
numberoflinks.Exceptingtheoriginalmechanism,allothermechanismswillbeknown
asinversionsoforiginalmechanism.Theinversionofamechanismdoesnotchangethe
motionofitslinksrelativetoeachother.
FOURBARCHAIN:

Fig1.22Fourbarchain
Oneofthemostusefulandmostcommonmechanismsisthefourbarlinkage.Inthis
mechanism,thelinkwhichcanmakecompleterotationisknownascrank(link2).The
linkwhichoscillatesisknownasrockerorlever(link4).Andthelinkconnectingthese
twoisknownascoupler(link3).Link1istheframe.
INVERSIONSOFFOURBARCHAIN:

SLIDERCRANKCHAIN:Thisisakinematicchainhavingfourlinks.Ithasonesliding
pair andthreeturningpairs.Link2hasrotarymotionandiscalledcrank.Link3hasgot
combined rotary and reciprocating motion and is called connecting rod. Link 4 has
reciprocatingmotionandiscalledslider.Link1isframe(fixed).Thismechanismisusedto
convertrotarymotiontoreciprocatingandviceversa.

Fig1.27
CRANKROCKERMECHANISM:Inthismechanism,eitherlink1orlink3isfixed.Link
2(crank)rotatescompletelyandlink4(rocker)oscillates.Itissimilarto(a)or(b)offig.1.23.

Fig.1.24
DOUBLECRANKMECHANISM:Thisisonetypeofdraglinkmechanism,where,links
1&3areequalandparallelandlinks2&4areequalandparallel.

Fig.1.26

DOUBLEROCKERMECHANISM:Inthismechanism,link4isfixed.Link2makes
completerotation,whereaslinks3&4oscillate

INVERSIONSOFSLIDERCRANKCHAIN: Inversionsofslidercrankmechanismis
obtainedbyfixinglinks2,3and4.

(a)crankfixed

(b)connectingrodfixed

(c)sliderfixed

Fig.1.28
OSCILLATINGCYLINDERENGINE [IIinversionofslidercrankmechanism
(connectingrodfixed)]:

RESULT: Thus the study the kinematics of Four Bar, Slider Crank, Crank Rocker, Double
crank, Double rocker, Oscillating cylinder mechanisms is completed.

EX. NO. : 19
AIM: To study the kinematics of single and double universal joints.
UNIVERSAL JOINT : A universal joint, (universal coupling, U-joint, Cardan joint, HardySpicer joint, or Hooke's joint) is a joint or coupling in a rigid rod that allows the rod to 'bend'
in any direction, and is commonly used in shafts that transmit rotary motion. It consists of a
pair of hinges located close together, oriented at 90 to each other, connected by a cross shaft.
The universal joint is not a constant velocity joint.[1]

Equation of motion

Diagram of variables for the universal joint. Axle 1 is perpendicular to the red plane and axle
2 is perpendicular to the blue plane at all times. These planes are at an angle with respect to
each other. The angular displacement (rotational position) of each axle is given by and
respectively, which are the angles of the unit vectors and with respect to their initial
positions along the x and y axes. The and vectors are fixed by the gimbal connecting the
two axles and so are constrained to remain perpendicular to each other at all times.

Angular (rotational) output shaft speed

of the joint

Output shaft rotation angle,

angles, , of the joint

versus rotation angle

, versus input shaft rotation angle,

for different bend angles

, for different bend

The Cardan joint suffers from one major problem: even when the input drive shaft axle
rotates at a constant speed, the output drive shaft axle rotates at a variable speed, thus causing
vibration and wear. The variation in the speed of the driven shaft depends on the
configuration of the joint, which is specified by three variables:

the angle of rotation for axle 1

the angle of rotation for axle 2
the bend angle of the joint, or angle of the axles with respect to each other, with zero
being parallel or straight through.

These variables are illustrated in the diagram on the right. Also shown are a set of fixed
coordinate axes with unit vectors and and the planes of rotation of each axle. These planes
of rotation are perpendicular to the axes of rotation and do not move as the axles rotate. The
two axles are joined by a gimbal which is not shown. However, axle 1 attaches to the gimbal
at the red points on the red plane of rotation in the diagram, and axle 2 attaches at the blue
points on the blue plane. Coordinate systems fixed with respect to the rotating axles are
defined as having their x-axis unit vectors ( and ) pointing from the origin towards one
of the connection points. As shown in the diagram, is at angle with respect to its
beginning position along the x axis and is at angle with respect to its beginning position
along the y axis.
is confined to the "red plane" in the diagram and is related to

by:

is confined to the "blue plane" in the diagram and is the result of the unit vector on the x
axis

being rotated through Euler angles

]:

A constraint on the and vectors is that since they are fixed in the gimbal, they must
remain at right angles to each other:

Thus the equation of motion relating the two angular positions is given by:

with a formal solution for

The solution for is not unique since the arctangent function is multivalued, however it is
required that the solution for be continuous over the angles of interest. For example, the
following explicit solution using the atan2(y,x) function will be valid for
:

The angles and in a rotating joint will be functions of time. Differentiating the equation
of motion with respect to time and using the equation of motion itself to eliminate a variable
yields the relationship between the angular velocities

and

As shown in the plots, the angular velocities are not linearly related, but rather are periodic
with a period twice that of the rotating shafts. The angular velocity equation can again be
differentiated to get the relation between the angular accelerations and :

DOUBLE CARDAN SHAFT:

Universal joints in a driveshaft

A configuration known as a double Cardan joint drive shaft partially overcomes the problem
of jerky rotation. This configuration uses two U-joints joined by an intermediate shaft, with
the second U-joint phased in relation to the first U-joint to cancel the changing angular
velocity. In this configuration, the angular velocity of the driven shaft will match that of the
driving shaft, provided that both the driving shaft and the driven shaft are at equal angles with
respect to the intermediate shaft (but not necessarily in the same plane) and that the two
universal joints are 90 degrees out of phase. This assembly is commonly employed in rear
wheel drive vehicles, where it is known as a drive shaft or propeller (prop) shaft.
Even when the driving and driven shafts are at equal angles with respect to the intermediate
shaft, if these angles are greater than zero, oscillating moments are applied to the three shafts
as they rotate. These tend to bend them in a direction perpendicular to the common plane of
the shafts. This applies forces to the support bearings and can cause "launch shudder" in rear
wheel drive vehicles. The intermediate shaft will also have a sinusoidal component to its
angular velocity, which contributes to vibration and stresses.
Mathematically, this can be shown as follows: If and are the angles for the input and
output of the universal joint connecting the drive and the intermediate shafts respectively, and
and are the angles for the input and output of the universal joint connecting the
intermediate and the output shafts respectively, and each pair are at angle with respect to
each other, then:

If the second universal joint is rotated 90 degrees with respect to the first, then
. Using the fact that

yields:

and it is seen that the output drive is just 90 degrees out of phase with the input shaft, yielding
a constant-velocity drive.
DOUBLE CARDAN JOINT: A double cardan joint consists of two universal joints
mounted back to back with a center yoke; the center yoke replaces the intermediate shaft.
Provided that the angle between the input shaft and center yoke is equal to the angle between

the center yoke and the output shaft, the second cardan joint will cancel the velocity errors
introduced by the first cardan joint and the aligned double cardan joint will act as a CV joint.
THOMPSON COUPLING: A Thompson Coupling is a refined version of the double
Cardan joint. It offers slightly increased efficiency with the penalty of great increase in
complexity.
RESULT: Thus the study of kinematics of single and double universal joints is completed.