English language

Grammar lessons:
I.

Subjects, Verbs, and Objects

Subjects, verbs, predicates and objects are the building blocks of any sentence. To
be able to identify and use them correctly is one of the first steps to writing and
speaking good English.
A sentence is the conventional unit of connected speech and writing. It is a group of
words that together makes sense as a statement, question, command or
exclamation.
Sentences:
Begin with a capitalised letter,
Conclude with a full stop, a question mark or an exclamation mark,
And are, at the most basic level, comprised of a subject and a predicate.
The subject is the word that is the main component of the sentence, it can be
defined as the who or the what of the sentence. A subject is always required in a
sentence in the English language; it can be a noun or a noun phrase or a pronoun.
The dog barked. - Here there is a single noun as the subject
The five dogs barked. - Here there is a noun phrase as the subject
It started barking. - Here there is a pronoun as the subject
The next thing you must know is the predicate which is a phrase in the sentence,
which tells us what exactly is the subject doing. The predicate informs us about the
relation between the subject and the action performed; it always contains the verbs
which are the words that show the action being performed.
The dog was barking. - Here the predicate containing the verb is was barking and
the verb is barking
The ball was kicked by the boy. - Here the subject is the boy and the predicate is
was kicked by and the verb is kicked
The next building block is the object which is not a necessity in a sentence. The
object is the thing that is directly or indirectly receiving the action that was performed
by the subject. For example
The dog barked at the postman. - Here we see that the object is postman who is
the person who is being barked at by the dog which is the subject.
The ball was kicked by the boy. - Here the object is the ball which is being kicked
by the subject the boy

To conclude, let us analyse another sentence and see if we can identify the subjectpredicate-object pattern:
Rita was furious with me.
Here,
1. The subject is Rita as she is the one who is performing the action
2. The predicate is was furious with which is connecting the subject Rita with the
verb
3. The verb is furious which is describing a state of anger
4. The object is me as it is the word that is receiving the subject Ritas verb action
furious .

II.

Nouns

Nouns are simply the names we give to everything around us, whether it be a
person, an event, a place or an object, etc. Every particular name used to define
something is a noun. E.g. : Amsterdam, Anita, Blackberry, Honesty, Waiter, etc.
The names given to a group of noun to identify them as a whole are called Collective
Nouns. E.g.: pride of lions, gaggle of geese etc.
Most nouns can be converted into plural forms by adding -s or -es at the end of the
word. E.g.: box-boxes, cat-cats, echo-echoes , etc.
But some nouns require the last consonant to be modified before adding -es. For
example: the Y in city changes to I to form cities, kitty to kitties and f to v in
dwarf to dwarves, wharf to wharves, etc.
Some nouns become plurals irregularly by changing the entire word: mouse- mice,
ox - oxen, etc.
PROPER NOUNS
These nouns are the names of specific people and places. These nouns also refer to
the names of the days of weeks and months, and also the various names for
religions, organizations, institutions, etc. Proper nouns basically refer to the names
that are specific to that particular noun. These nouns are always capitalised as they
need to be distinct from other nouns.

- William Shakespeare was a playwright. - Proper noun that is the name of a

specific person.
- I will be visiting New York next month. - Proper noun that is the name of a
specific place.
- Everyone dislikes Monday mornings. - The names of days are proper
nouns.
- The holy book of Islam is the Koran. - Name of a religion and religious text.

COMMON NOUNS
These are the nouns that are used to denote a general category of people, places or
things. They are capitalized only when they are at the beginning of a sentence.

Common Nouns dont refer to something specific rather they are a general term used
for every noun of a particular kind or type.

- The boys went to play cricket. - Both boys and cricket are common nouns
as they can refer to any boy or any cricket match. There is nothing specified
by these nouns.
- This neighbourhood is one of the best in the area. - Here neighbourhood
is the common noun as there are innumerable neighbourhoods all over the
world.
- She was trying to answer her phone while buying coffee. - Here we see
phone and coffee that both are general indicators of the object and the drink.

ABSTRACT NOUNS
These nouns are the names of things that we cannot perceive through our five
senses of touching, smelling, seeing, hearing and tasting. These nouns can also
refer to medical conditions related to the mind and are also used to express
thoughts.

- She screamed with great delight. - Delight is an abstract noun as it tells

about the state of a persons mind and any actual physical thing.
- His bravery in the war won him a medal. - The abstract noun bravery is
used to name the motivation behind certain actions made by people.
- One should learn to be as independent as possible. Here, independent
describes a state or a way of being, hence it is an abstract noun.

COUNTABLE NOUNS
The nouns that fall under this category are the ones that have both singular and
plural forms. They can be counted either relatively or completely, and form plurals to
associate with plural verbs in a sentence. They can also be expressed in numerical
terms

- I need to buy four new suitcases for my trip. - Suitcase (s) is a countable
noun as adding s to it makes it plural.
- Does anyone want some oranges? - Here some is being used to count the
noun orange(s).
- She had a pet dog. - Dog is also a countable noun as its plural is dogs.

UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
These nouns are the exact opposite of Countable Nouns. These nouns are the
names of things that cannot be counted and have only a singular form. These nouns
use singular verbs in a sentence.

- The furniture was damaged in moving out. - Furniture is an uncountable

noun and therefore, we use the singular was in referring to it.
- Is 250gms of sugar enough? - Here, sugar is an uncountable noun as
sugar itself cannot be counted. It can only be weighed.
- He always answers questions with honesty. - Honesty is an uncountable
noun as it has no plural and cannot be counted in physical terms either.

Collective Nouns
Collective noun is the name we give to a group of nouns to refer to them as one
entity. The most common method of doing this is by using words like group or bunch
that can be applicable to most of the nouns in the language today. But there are
some specific names given for certain groups of nouns to make things more
interesting and funny.
These collective nouns are commonly used under the category of people.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

A class of students.
An army of soldiers.
A choir of singers.
A crew of sailors.
A band of musicians.

6. Possessive Nouns
7. In singular nouns (person, place, thing or idea), we add apostrophe and s
after the noun. For example:
8. - Rons car is in the garage. (Car belonging to Ron is in the garage)
Noun as Adjective
Sometimes in the English language, a noun is used to describe another noun; in
other words, the first noun performs the function of an adjective. Look at the
following examples:
- Basketball coach here the noun basketball is being used to describe the noun
coach
In all the above examples, the first noun acts as an adjective.

III.

Verbs

Verbs are the most important component of any sentence. These words talk about
the action or the state of any noun or subject. This means that verbs show what the
subject is doing or what is the state or situation of the subject.
For example:
- He ran to the store. - Here the verb ran describes the action of the subject he
- She is a creative person. - Here there is no action being done. Instead the
auxiliary verb is shows the state of the subject she as being creative.
There are different types and classifications of Verbs; some of the most important
ones are listed below:
Action Verbs
These verbs talk about what the subject is doing in the sentence. Action Verbs are
one of the most easily identifiable types of verbs. To recognize them, you simply

have to look for the word in the sentence that answers the question What is the
subject doing? e.g. - Rose is painting the kitchen walls.
The subject here is Rose, and what is Rose doing? Rose is painting. Hence
painting is our action verb.
- My dog is sleeping on the sofa.
The subject here is dog, and what is the dog doing? The dog is sleeping. So
sleeping is our action verb.
There are two types of Action Verbs which describe the Verb and the Subject doing
the action and the Object on which the action is done, they are Transitive Verbs These Action Verbs have a definite object on which, or for which the action is being
performed. That means that the action has a definite recipient or object. To identify
them you can ask the question what is the/did the subject -verb-?
- Rose is painting the kitchen walls.
Here the verb is painting and the subject is Rose.
If we form the question - what is Rose painting?
The answer is- The kitchen walls.
Thus, we see that there was a specific object on which the action of painting was
being done.
- Hannah gave him a big hug.
Here we see that the action gave is being performed by the subject Hannah. So the
question is what did Hannah give? And the answer is - A big hug.
Here, we also have a indirect object as him. This indirect object would be the
answer to the questionWho did the subject (Hannah) - verb - (give) the object (hug) to?
Intransitive Verbs These verbs also show an action but here there is no specific object on which the
action is being done. To recognize these verbs, we ask the question what is the/did
the subject -verb- ? If there is no answer present, then the verb in the sentence is
an Intransitive Verb.
- Rose is painting right now.
Here, if we ask the question what is Rose painting? There is no answer which
means that in this sentence painting is an Intransitive Verb.
It is telling us about the action of the subject but there is no specific object for the
action.
- Hannah sneezed repeatedly.

Here, the verb is sneezed. If we ask the question what did Hannah sneeze? There
is no answer present for it making sneezed a intransitive verb.
Dynamic and Stative Verbs
This category of verbs deals with the verb words themselves; and whether they
indicate an action or a state of the subject. This category is not concerned with the
object in particular.
Linking Verbs
These verbs are unlike other verbs as they do not tell anything about a subject
themselves, instead Linking Verbs connect the subject to a noun or adjective that
helps in describing or providing additional information about the subject. Those
nouns or adjectives are called the subject complements.
- Lisa is fussy about food.
Here we see the subject is Lisa and the linking verb is is which is connecting Lisa
to the subject complement fussy about food which is giving additional information
about Lisas preferences.
- They are stubborn children.
Here the linking verb is are which is combining the subject They to the subject
complement of stubborn which is an adjective.
The best to recognize linking words in a sentence is to see whether the verb can be
replaced by is, am or are. If the sentence still sounds logical you know you have a
linking verb.
The students felt relieved. - The students are relieved.
Hence felt was a linking verb and not an action verb. As felt here is simply
connecting the subject to the adjective.
Every student felt the relief. - Every student is/am/are the relief.
Hence in this sentence felt is action verb as it is the action of feeling an emotion.
Regular and Irregular Verbs
The distinction between regular verbs and irregular verbs is a very simple one:
Regular Verbs
Those verbs that form their past participle with d or ed are regular verbs. These
verbs do not undergo substantial changes while changing forms between tenses.
1. If the verb ends with a vowel, only d is added. For example:
PRESENT TENSE

PAST TENSE

Share

Shared

Scare

Scared

Dare

Dared

Want

Wanted

Shout

Shouted

Finite and Non-Finite Verbs

Finite Verbs
Finite Verbs are those verbs that have a definite relation with the subject or noun.
These verbs are usually the main verb of a clause or sentence and can be changed
according to the noun. They are used only in present and past tense. They can be
indicative of passive or active voice and also of number (singular or plural).
She walks home. - Here we see that the finite verb is walks and the pronoun is
'she'.
She walked home. - Here we can see how the verb changed/modified to change the
tense of the sentence.
Non-Finite Verbs
These verbs cannot be the main verb of a clause or sentence as they do not talk
about the action that is being performed by the subject or noun. They do not indicate
any tense, mood or gender. They are used as nouns, adverbs and adjectives. They
are also used to form non-finite clauses which are simply dependent clauses that
use non-finite verbs.
He loves camping in the woods. - Here the non-finite verb is camping and it is used
as a noun. These kind of non-finite verbs are called Gerunds.
I need to go to sleep. - Here the non- finite verb phrase is to sleep, it is acting as a
noun. Non-finite verbs that use to before them are called Infinitives.
The sleeping dog caused a delay. - The nonfinite verbs that have -ing or -ed as
suffixes and cause the verb to come an adjective are called Participles.
Auxiliary Verbs
These verbs are also called Helping Verbs, as they help the main verb to denote
the actions of the subject. They help in making compound tenses of the main verb
and also help in making negative statements, questions and passive voice
statements. There are only four auxiliary verbs - Be, Have, Will and Do.
BE

The verb be can be used as an auxiliary and a full verb, we can distinguish between
the two uses as the auxiliary be will always have another main verb coming after it
in a sentence. Be is an irregular verb with many different forms according to the
different tenses. Please refer to the Irregular Verbs list to avoid confusion.
Progressive Tense Use of Be:
In progressive tense sentences made with be, we always use the -ing suffixed
version of the main verb.
Tense

Meaning

Use of Be

Present Progressive

The action which is

ongoing

She is baking a cake

today.

Past Progressive

An action that was

ongoing in the past.

She was baking a cake

yesterday.

Present Perfect
Progressive

Action that began in the She has been baking a

past and is still going on. cake today.

Past Perfect
Progressive

Action that started in

past and finished at
another time in the past.

She had been baking a

cake last night.

Passive Voice Use of Be:

Using passive voice means when we want to put the emphasis on the object, to
which the action is being done instead of on the subject or not include the subject at
all e.g. - The dishes are washed.
Here the dishes are the object that received the action of washing but no subject is
mentioned to show who was washing the dishes.
Passive

Use of Be

Simple Present

The cake is made.

Simple Past

The cake was made.

Present Perfect

The cake has been made.

Past Perfect

The cake had been made.

Future

The cake will be made.

HAVE

The verb have can also be used as full verb or a helping verb. The way to
differentiate between them is that if have is used as an auxiliary verb, then it has to
be followed by a main verb as well. The verb have is used to make compound
tenses in active and passive voices, and also used in the making of negative
sentences and questions. It is an irregular verb that changes form according to
tense.
Using Have in Compound Tenses:
When we use have in simple tense with an active voice, we use the -ed suffixed
form of the main verb unless it is an irregular verb. While for progressive tenses we
use the -ing suffixed form of the main verb. Have is used for only two compound
tenses in the passive voice.
Tense

Meaning

Use of Have

Present Perfect

Action that happened at

She has baked a
unspecified time before now cake.

Past Perfect

Action that happened before She had baked a

another action in the past
cake.

Present Perfect
Progressive

Action that began in the

past and is still going on.

She has been

baking a cake.

Action that started in past

She had been
Past perfect Progressive and finished at another time
baking a cake.
in the past.
Present Perfect (Passive Action that happened at
The cake has been
Voice)
unspecified time before now made.
Past Perfect (Passive
Voice)

Action that happened before The cake had been

another action in the past
made.

Future Tense Use of Will:

Tense

Meaning

Future I

An action promised/assumed in She will not bake a

the future.
cake.

Future I I

An action that will be finished in She will have baked a

the future.
cake.

Negative Sentences:

Use of Will

In negative sentences, the verb will does not change its form when used with not.
But it does form the contraction wont that is equally correct to use depending upon
the language and flow of the sentence.
- She will not have cake. = She wont have cake.
As will can only be an auxiliary verb, both the sentences are grammatically correct.
DO
The helping verb do can also act as a full verb only in positive sentences. When do
is used in a negative sentence, it is an auxiliary verb. The helping verb do is also
used to make questions for most verbs except other auxiliary verbs and the modal
verbs. Do is an irregular verb that changes its form according to the tense.
Modal Verbs
There are 10 modal verbs in the English language:

- Can
- Could
- May
- Might
- Will
- Would
- Must
- Shall
- Should
- Ought to

Uses of Modal Verbs:

1. To indicate that something is probable or possible, or not so. For example:

- It is sunny today; it must be warm outside. = It is sunny today; it is probably

warm outside.
- His mobile is not reachable; he may/might/could be travelling by metro. = His
mobile is not reachable; it is possible that he is travelling by metro.
- This cant be our bill. = It is not possible that this is our bill.
2. Can and could are used to refer to skills and abilities. For example:

- He can cover a hundred metres in under ten seconds.

- My father could see perfectly before the age of fifty.
- I cant ride a horse.
3. Must is used to indicate that something is necessary or of extreme
importance, and should is used to suggest that something is advisable. For
example:

- You must do your homework.

- You mustnt skip school.

- You should say sorry.

- You shouldnt smoke.

4. Can, could and may are used to ask for, give and withhold permission. For
example:

- Can I try my hand at it?

- Could we disperse early today?
- You may not enter the premises.
5. Will and would are used to refer to habits and inclinations.

- When I was a child, I would often climb trees.

- I will never refuse you anything.
- He would never do such a thing.

These verbs differ from ordinary verbs in 3 respects.

When used with the third person singular (he, she), they dont require the addition
of an s.
They can be used to form questions by inverting the structure of the sentence.
They can be followed directly by the verb, without the use of to

IV.

Adjectives

Adjectives are words that are used to describe (what kind of?) nouns and pronouns
and to quantify (how much of?) and identify (which one?) them. In a nutshell,
Adjectives are what define nouns and give them characteristics to differentiate them
from other nouns. For example:

- He was wearing a blue shirt.

Here blue is an adjective as it is describing the noun shirt by answering the

question what kind of shirt?

- There are seven rooms in the house.

Here Seven is also an adjective as its telling the quantity/the number of the noun
rooms, answering the question how many rooms?.
There are different types of adjectives based upon their effect on a noun and what
do they tell about the noun. There are five categories of adjectives
1. Adjectives of Quality - These adjectives are used to describe the nature of a
noun. They give an idea about the characteristics of the noun by answering
the question what kind.
- Honest, Kind, Large, Bulky, Beautiful, Ugly etc.

- New Delhi is a large city with many historical monuments.

- Sheila is a beautiful woman.
2. Adjectives of Quantity - These adjectives help to show the amount or the
approximate amount of the noun or pronoun. These adjectives do not provide
exact numbers; rather they tell us the amount of the noun in relative or whole
terms.
All, Half, Many, Few, Little, No, Enough, Great etc.
- They have finished most of the rice.
- Many people came to visit the fair.
3. Adjectives of Number - These adjectives are used to show the number of
nouns and their place in an order. There are three different sections within
adjectives of number; they are Definite Numeral Adjective - Those which clearly denote an exact number of
nouns or the order of the noun.
One, Two, Twenty, Thirty-Three etc. also known as Cardinals.
First, Second, Third, Seventh etc. also known as Ordinals.
Indefinite Numeral Adjective - Those adjectives that do not give an exact
numerical amount but just give a general idea of the amount.
Some, Many, Few, Any, Several, All etc.
E.g.: There were many people present at the meeting.
Distributive Numeral Adjective -Those adjectives that are used to refer to
individual nouns within the whole amount.
Either, Neither, Each, Another, Other etc.
E.g: Taxes have to be paid by every employed citizen.
4. Demonstrative Adjectives - These adjectives are used to point out or
indicate a particular noun or pronoun using the adjectives - This, That, These
and Those.
- That bag belongs to Neil.
- Try using this paintbrush in art class.
- I really like those shoes.
- These flowers are lovely.
5. Interrogative Adjectives - These adjectives are used to ask questions about
nouns or in relation to nouns, they are - Where, What, Which and Whose.
Where did he say he was going?
- What assignment did I miss out on?
- Which is your favorite author?
- Whose pen is this?

In some instances, we find that we need to use more than one adjective to describe
a noun in a satisfactory manner. In these cases, commas are used to separate the
adjectives but some series of adjectives do not require a comma. Therefore, we
need to know the difference between Coordinate and Non-coordinate Adjectives Coordinate Adjectives - Are those words which can be re-arranged in the series
easily and are still grammatically sound. This kind of series makes use of commas.
This series can also insert and between them and still be correct.
- She was a kind, generous, loving human being.
- She was a generous, loving, kind human being.
- She was a loving, kind and generous human being.
Here we can see that all three sentences are grammatically correct. In this case, the
adjectives only need to be separated by commas.
Non-coordinate Adjectives - These are those adjectives which cannot be
rearranged in the series. These do not use commas to separate the adjectives. Also,
this kind of series do not make sense if we insert and between them.
She has two energetic playful dogs.
She has playful two energetic dogs.
She has energetic and playful and two dogs.
Here we see that only the first sentence makes sense and is grammatically correct.
The second and third ones are incorrect. Hence, the sentence uses non-coordinate
adjectives and does not need commas.

V.

Adverbs

Adverbs are words that are used in sentences to describe or change the meaning of
a Verb or Adjective or even another Adverb. They add description to the sentence to
make it more detailed and interesting. For example:
He walked slowly across the square.
Here, one can see that the Adverb slowly is describing the Verb walk by telling that
the person was walking slowly.
Types of Adverbs
Adverbs are used in sentences to answer many questions about the
Verbs/Adjectives/Adverbs themselves. The different types of Adverbs are as
following:
Adverb of Time
E.g.: The results were announced yesterday.
Here the Adverb is yesterday which is answering the question: When were the
results announced? Announced is the verb in this sentence.
She will visit the hospital tomorrow.
Here the Verb is visit and the Adverb is tomorrow as the question being asked is:
Whenwill she visit the hospital?

Other examples of Adverbs of Time are Once, Never, Tomorrow, Daily etc.
Adverb of Place
E.g.: They will meet you there.
The Adverb here is there that is specifying a place for the Verb meet and the
question being answered is: Where will they meet you?
In spring, flowers bloom everywhere.
Here the Verb is bloom and the Adverb is everywhere, answering the question:
Where do the flowers bloom in spring?
Other examples of Adverbs of Place are - Anywhere, Somewhere, Near, Far etc.
Adverb of Manner
E.g.: He quietly slipped away.
The Adverb here is quietly which is telling the way or manner in which the action
was carried out and the Verb is slipped which is telling: How did he slip away.
She works fast.
The Verb here is work and the Adverb is fast and the question being asked is: How
does she work?
These Adverbs tell about the manner of the action being done, whether it is done
happily or haltingly etc. Other examples of Adverbs of Manner are - Honestly,
Joyfully, Cunningly etc.
Adverb of Frequency
He likes to watch TV every day.
Here, the Adverb is every day and it is telling about the amount of time spent in
doing the Verb, which is watch. The question in this sentence is: How often does he
watch TV?
They meet every week.
The Adverb here is every week and it is telling the frequency and the Verb is meet.
The sentence is telling us: How often do they meet?
These Adverbs are used to show the duration or timing of the action that is
happening/had happened/will happen. They also tell us how often and how long
these actions would be. Other examples of Adverbs of Frequency are - Frequently,
Often, Yearly, Briefly etc.
Adverbs of Degree
She almost finished the work.
The Verb here is finished and the Adverb is almost which is telling us about the
amount of the work finished. The question being asked is: How much of the work
did she finish?
They were completely surprised by the windfall.

The adverb here is completely which is showing the degree to which they were
surprised which is the Verb. The question being asked here is: How much were they
surprised?
The Adverbs of Degree are used to show to what extent or how much has an action
been done or will be done. Other examples of these Adverbs are - Fully, Partially,
Altogether etc.
Adverbs of Confirmation and Negation
They will certainly like this vase.
The Adverb here is certainly which is reinforcing the Verb like in answer to the
question: Will they like this vase?
He never leaves his house.
The Adverb never is negating the Verb leave. It is answering the question in denial:
Does he ever leave his house?
These Adverbs either confirm or deny the action of the Verb. They are also used to
reinforce the action that is described by the Verb. Other examples of Adverbs of
Confirmation are - Definitely, Absolutely, Surely etc. Examples for Adverbs of Denial
or Negation are - No, Dont, Cant etc.
Adverbs of Comment
These Adverbs are used to make a comment on the entire sentence. They give a
look at the speakers viewpoint or opinion about the sentence. These Adverbs dont
just change or describe the Verb; they influence the whole sentence.
They found his secret easily.
+
Unfortunately
Unfortunately, they found his secret easily.
Here, we see that adding the Adverb unfortunately has changed the entire tone of
the sentence. Earlier, it was a passive tone, now it has a negative or disappointed
tone.
Other examples of Adverbs of Comment are

Luckily, the dog did not bite the children.

Happily, the power returned before the big match.
Did he honestly expect me to lie for him? (Adverb adds comment on the
anger of the speaker.)
And they would win the world cup, obviously. (Can be said in a sarcastic as
well as positive manner)

Adverbs of Conjunction
These Adverbs are used to connect ideas or clauses, they are used to show
consequence or effect or the relation between the two clauses. To use these
Adverbs to conjugate two clauses you need to use a semicolon (;) to connect them.

Clause 1: He was going for an important interview.

Clause 2: He made sure he reached on time.
He was going for an important interview; accordingly, he made sure he reached on
time.
Here, we see how the Adverb accordingly is joining the two clauses and showing
the relation between them with the use of a semicolon (;). Accordingly meanstherefore or that is why.
A few other Adverbs of Conjunction are

However - Yet, on the other hand, in spite of

Consequently - As a result, resulting in
Moreover - Beside, in addition
Conversely - Opposite of, contrary to

Placement of Adverbs
Adverbs can be used in diverse ways, which means that they are very flexible in
sentences; they can be moved around quite a bit without causing any grammatical
irregularities.
Take a look at the following sentence: The speaker grimly faced the audience. The
adverb in this sentence is grimly; moving it around a little, we get The speaker faced
the audience grimly. There is nothing wrong with either of the two sentences. What
this goes to show is that an adverb can be positioned at multiple points in a
sentence, and the guide below will help you decide where your chosen adverb
should go:
Adverbs used to begin sentences/clauses
Connecting adverbs
To place an adverb at the beginning of a sentence or clause is also known as initial
position adverb placement, and the adverbs that are commonly used in these
positions are known as connecting adverbs, such as:
Consequently
However
Next
Still
Then
These adverbs are known as connecting adverbs, quite simply, because they are
used at the beginnings of phrases and sentences to connect them to what has been
said before. For example:
I did not care for her tone. However, I let it go.
I began to dislike my course within months having signed up for it.
Consequently, I never did well.

That was the Medieval section of the museum; next, we have the Industrial
Revolution.
Adverbs of time
Time adverbs, like tomorrow, yesterday and sometimes, are among the most
flexible of all adverbs, and can often take initial position. For example:
Yesterday I was very busy, which is why I was unable to meet you.
Tomorrow I am leaving for Calcutta.
Sometimes we feel as if we do not belong in this group.
Adverbs in the middle
Focusing adverbs
Focusing adverbs are those adverbs that emphasise a part of the clause or
sentence to which they belong, and are generally used mid-sentence. Focusing
adverbs include adverbs of frequency (often, rarely, never, always, etc), adverbs of
certainty (perhaps, probably, certainly, maybe, etc) and adverbs of comment
(adverbs that are used to express opinion, such as smartly, responsibly, intelligently,
etc). For example:
You are always late.
I will probably be absent at the party.
He acted responsibly by informing the authorities about the wallet he had found.
Note: Adverbs of frequency are used before the main verb, not the auxiliary verb.
Adverbs to end sentences
This is the most common position for adverbs in sentences.
Adverbs of manner
Adverbs of manner are used to describe how something is done, and are generally
placed at the ends of sentences or clauses. For example:
He wrote the answers correctly.
His stammer caused him to speak haltingly.
Adverbs of place
Adverbs of place are used to describe the place where an event occurs, and are also
positioned at the ends of sentences or clauses. For example:
Father is sleeping upstairs.
In a couple of days I will be travelling north.
Adverbs of time
Adverbs of time, as discussed earlier, can also find their ways to the ends of
sentences or clauses. For example:

I leave tomorrow afternoon.

Article:
An article is a word that modifies or describes the Noun. It is used before the noun to
show whether it refers to something specific or not. So, in a way, articles can also be
described as a type of adjectives as they also tell us something about the nouns, like
adjectives.
Types of Articles
There are two types of Articles in the English language. They are as follows:
Definite article: Definite means to be clear, exact or obvious about something. It is
called definite because it is used in relation to a particular thing or person. The is
the definite article in English, which is used to refer to particular nouns, the identities
of which are known. The definite article indicates that the noun is specific. The
speaker talks about a particular thing. For example:
The cat sat on the couch.
The dog attacked me and ran away.
Notice how the reference is not left indefinite in both the sentences. It is clear that a
particular cat sat on the couch in the first sentence and a specific dog that attacked
the speaker is being spoken about in the second example.
Indefinite articles: Indefinite means something which is not clear, obvious or exact.
They are called indefinite because the identity of the thing or person being spoken
about is left unclear or indefinite. The indefinite article indicates that the noun is not
someone or something in particular. The speaker talks about any one of that type of
things. The indefinite articles in English are "a" and "an." For example:
Do you have a pencil?
I want to have an apple.
Notice how the speaker is not asking for a particular pencil or apple, but any pencil
or apple in the above sentences.
Difference between A and An
Indefinite articles a/an are used as follows:
A is used before a word beginning with a consonant sound. Consonant letters in
the English alphabet are B,C,D,F,G,H,J,K,L,M,N,P,Q,R,S,T,V,W,X,Y,Z.
For example: A boy, a cat, a dog, a fight, a gym, a horse, a joke, a kite, a lion, a
mirror, a noise, a pin, a quilt, etc.
An is used before a word beginning with a vowel sound. Vowel letters in the
English alphabet are A, E, I, O, U.
For example: An apple, an elephant, an idiot, an orange, an umbrella, etc.
Note here that the usage is on the basis of sound and not only the letter the word
starts with.

For example:
An hour
An honest man
A one eyed dog
Do these seem wrong to you?
Theyre not and the reason is that the usage is on the basis of sound. The words
'hour' and 'honest' both begin with a vowel sound, as the consonant 'h' is not
pronounced. Similarly, the word 'one' begins with the consonant sound of 'w' and
hence is written as 'a one eyed dog', not 'an one eyed dog'

VI.

Prepositions

Prepositions are the words which are used to connect the different nouns, pronouns
and phrases in a sentence. It functions to introduce or precede the word or phrase to
be connected, called the object of the preposition.
The preposition usually indicates the relation between the words it is connecting. It
tells whether the words are connected in actual space or a place, or related through
time or are they part of a thought or process.
Prepositional phrases are the preposition and its object and any adjectives or
adverbs that were applied to the object. The prepositional phrase as a whole can
also be used as a noun, adverb or adjective.
- He found the book on the table.

Here the preposition is on as it shows the relation in place between the book
and the table.
The prepositional phrase is on the table which is acting as an Adverb telling
where the book was found.

- She went to sleep early.

In this sentence the preposition is to which is introducing where or in what

state had the noun gone into.

- Her house was beside a steep hill.

The preposition here is beside which is telling the place where the house
was.
The prepositional phrase is beside a steep hill which is acting as an adverb.

Kinds of Prepositions Simple Prepositions

These prepositions are constructed by only one word like On, at, about, with, after, for, etc.
- He found the book about dogs on the table, in the bedroom.

Double Prepositions
These prepositions are formed by combining two words or two Simple PrepositionsInto, within, upon, onto, etc.
- The dog jumped onto the bed and left marks upon the sheets.
Compound Prepositions
These prepositions are two word prepositions.
According to, because of, next to, due toetc.
- He was upset because of his son's behaviour.
Participle PrepositionsParticiples are actually verbs that end with -en or -ing. As these verbs were
commonly and very popularly used as prepositions by the people, these verbs have
been given a special status as prepositions.
Considering, during, given, including etc.
-Considering what he had to work with, he did a pretty good job.
Phrase Prepositions
These prepositions are a combination of the preposition + a modifier (optional) +
the object. They are used to modify the nouns, verbs or sentences and also
complete clauses.
At home, in time, with me, from my father, under the blanket, etc.
- The clothes left on the bed have been ironed and kept back.
These classifications are based on the construction of the prepositions themselves.
Apart from this, prepositions are also categorized based on their use in a sentence
as

Prepositions of Place
Prepositions of Time
Prepositions of Movement

List of Prepositions
Prepositions can only be learnt by memory; unfortunately there is no method or
particular way to recognize and learn them. To help you with memorizing the
different prepositions, here is a list of common prepositions.
Simple Prepositions
For
By
At
On
Of

Off
To
Double Prepositions
Into
Onto
Upto
From Behind
From Beneath
Out Of
Upon
Compound Prepositions
Across
Along
Beside
Behind
Before
Without
Inside
Participle Prepositions
Concerning
Notwithstanding
Pending
During
Given
Failing
Excluding
Phrase Prepositions
At high speed
By all means
For a change
In accordance with
On a journey
Out of curiosity

To the best of
Prepositions of Place
Prepositions of place refer to those prepositions that can be used to show where
something is located.
There are three prepositions of place:
At
At is used for a point:
At the end of the lane.
At the door/entrance/exit.
At the corner.
At the desk.
Note: There are many standard expressions that are exceptions to this rule:
At home.
At work.
At school/college/university.
At the side.
In
In is used for enclosed spaces:
In Mumbai/India.
In the room.
In the store.
In my pocket/bag.
In the building/tower.
Note: There are some standard expressions that are an exception to this rule:
In the book/magazine/newspaper.
In the sky.
On
On is used for surfaces:
On the table.
On the rug.
On the floor.
On the cover.
On the page.

Note: There are many standard expressions that are exceptions to this rule:
On the bus/train/plane/ship.
On the radio/television.
On the left/right.
On the way.
Prepositions of Time
There are three prepositions of time:
At
At is used for precise times:
At ten oclock.
At 10.30am.
At the moment/present/same time.
At sunrise/sunset/noon/dinnertime/bedtime/dusk/dawn.
Note: At night is a standard expression that is an exception in this case.
In
In is used for months, years, decades, centuries, and long periods of time:
In January.
In 1991.
In the 70s.
In this century.
In the Dark Ages.
Note: In the morning(s)/afternoon(s)/evening(s) are standard expressions that are
exceptions in this case.
On
On is used for days and dates:
On Wednesday.
On Friday.
On the 10th of January
On Christmas.
Prepositions of Movement
There are 9 prepositions that pertain to movement:
To

To is used when there is a specific destination in mind. The destination can be a

number of things:
A place:
- Im going to the doctors.
- Can you direct me to the nearest post office?
An event:
- Are you going to the party?
- I have never been to a concert.
A person:
- She came up to me.
- I go to my father for advice.
A position:
- The bathroom is to your left.
- Keep to the left.
Towards
Towards is used in the following instances:
When one has movement in a particular direction in mind, rather than simply a
destination:
- He was walking menacingly towards me.
Or to refer to a position, in relation to a direction from the point of view of the
speaker:
- He was sitting with his back towards me.
Through
Through refers to the following types of movement:
Within a space, which can be thought of as surrounding, enclosing or around the
object:
- The train went through the tunnel.
Movement across something, i.e. from one side of it to the other:
- He cut through the gauze.
Into
Into refers to the following types of movement:
Movement from the outside to the inside of something that can be imagined as
surrounding, enclosing or around the object:
- He got into the car.

Movement causing something to hit something else:

- He swerved into the tree.
Across
Across is used to describe:
Movement from one end of something to the other:
- He walked across the road.
- He strode across the bridge.
Somethings position when it stretches over the surface it is on:
- There was a barricade across the road.
To describe somethings position when it is at the opposite end from ones position:
- We went to the restaurant across the road.
Over
Over is used in the following instances:
To describe somethings position when it is above something else:
- The bottle is in the cabinet over the sink in the kitchen.
To describe somethings position when it covers a surface:
- A white cloth had been spread over the corpse.
Along
Along is used to describe:
- Movement in a line:
- We walked along the river.
The collective position of a group of things that are in a line:
-He lived in one of the houses along the river.
In
In is used in the following instances:
Somethings position in relation to the area or space or place surrounding it:
- We are going to have our picnic in the park.
- I left my car in the garage.
To express towards the inside of something:
- Put the pickle in the cabinet.
On
On is used in the following instances:
To describe somethings position in relation to a surface:

- There was an array of food on the table.

To describe movement in the direction of a surface:
- The rain falling on the roof kept me from sleeping

VII.

Pronouns

Pronouns are words that we use in place of Nouns (or other Pronouns) in a sentence
to make it less repetitive and less awkward. Some of the most common Pronouns
are - he, she, you, they, it, etc. These Pronouns are divided into different categories
based on their use Personal Pronouns
These pronouns are used for a specific object or person and they change their forms
to indicate the different genders, numbers, case and persons speaking - Tanya told him to take the food to them as soon as possible as it was urgently
needed.
- Him is a Pronoun of gender.
Them is a Pronoun of number showing that there is more than one person, and it is
also a Pronoun of case as it is referring to a specific group in an objective manner.
It is also a Pronoun of gender showing the object (food).
So we can see that the Personal Pronouns can be based on Gender
- He went to the market.
He is used for the male gender. Other examples are - His, Him, He, etc.
- She is doing the laundry.
She is used for the female gender. Other examples are - Her, Hers, etc.
- It is important to them.
It is gender neutral as it shows an object, them is also gender neutral as them can
consist of both genders. Other gender neutral pronouns are - Their, They, Its, etc.
Number
Singular Pronouns - Where the pronoun is only referring to one specific noun.
- That book belongs to me.
Me refers to one singular person only.
Plural Pronouns - Where the pronoun is used to refer to a number of nouns.
- That is their book, not yours.
Their shows a number of people, hence its a plural personal pronoun. Whereas the
yours in this sentence is another example of singular personal pronoun.
Cases -

Subjective Case - She is at work.

She is the main subject of the sentence, hence in this sentence, she is the
subjective personal pronoun. You can ask the question who/what is doing
______? to recognize whether a pronoun is subjective or objective.
Objective Case - He will meet us later.
Us is the objective personal noun as it the object of the verb meet. He is the
subject as he is the person who will be doing the action of meeting.
Possessive Case - That is our clubhouse.
Our shows the possession of the object clubhouse. Possessive pronouns can also
be used to show possession over people.
Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative Pronouns are used to show or identify one or a number of nouns that
may be far or near in distance or time. They are only four in number - This, That,
These and Those. This and That are singular demonstrative pronouns and These
and Those are plural demonstrative pronouns. They can also be used to show an
unspecified quantity in a sentence.
- That is a beautiful house.
That is a demonstrative pronoun that is referring to a specific noun (house). This is a
singular pronoun as it is referring to only one house.
These were made by me. - These is showing an unspecified quantity of something
that was made by a person. This is a plural demonstrative pronoun as its referring to
a number of objects.
Everyone remembers those days. - Those is showing a particular time or period of
days in the past; it is being used in place of a noun that could be - school, summer,
college, etc. Here also those is a plural demonstrative pronoun as its indicating a
number of days.
This is what he is charging? - This is used as pronoun in place of a number and it is
also acting as a quantifier by referring not only to the noun but to the amount/number
of the noun as well. This is a singular demonstrative pronoun.
Interrogative Pronouns
Who, Whom, Which and What are Interrogative Pronouns as they are used to ask
questions about a person or object that we do not know about. Compounds of these
words are made by attaching -ever to the words to strengthen the emphasis on the
word.
Which one would you like? - Here, which is being used to ask someone to make a
choice between different things, instead of naming every single choice that is
available.

What is your name? - What is used to ask a personal noun that the speaker doesnt
know.
Who will be managing the buffet? - Who is used to ask about a specific person
related to a task.
Whom did you tell about this? - Whom is showing/asking the person who was told
something by you.
Whoever could have done this? - Whoever is the compound of Who and it is used
here to emphasise the feeling of confusion in the sentence while still asking a
question.
Whichever one will you choose? - Whichever is used here to show strong emotion
while asking a persons choice.
In the case of Who and Whom Who is always the subject of the verb. The emphasis is on the identity of the person
who did the action.
Who rang the bell? Here, we can see that the verb phrase rang the bell is secondary
and the main emphasis is on the identity of the person ringing the bell.
Whom is never the subject of the verb. It is used to show the person to or for whom
the action is being done. In other words, it is the object of the verb.
Whom were you meeting with? Here, we can see that the subject of verb or the
person who was meeting someone is you. Whom is the object of the verb or the
person you were meeting.
Relative Pronouns
Relative Pronouns are used to join or relate two different clauses together by
referring to the noun in the previous clause using the pronouns - Who, Whom,
Whose, Which and That.
Which and That are generally used for objects; while Who and Whom are used for
people, and Whose is used to show possession.
She will choose the colour which looks good on everyone.
Here, which is joining the two related clauses about choosing a colour and a colour
which would look good on everyone.
She is complaining to whoever she comes across nowadays.
Here, the whoever is the object of the verb complaining and it is linking the two
clauses about someone complaining and the frequency of their complaints.
There is a car in the parking lot that someone has painted a bright pink.
That is joining the two sentences related to the object and its location in the first and
its appearance in the second.
She needs to know by tomorrow who will be accompanying her on the trip.
Who here stands for the unknown person and it also joins the two different clauses
together.

Is there anyone here whose mobile phone has a signal?

Whose is used here to ask if anyone has possession of something that the speaker
needs.
Indefinite Pronouns
These pronouns are used to show unspecified objects or people, whether in plural or
in singular. They are used to indicate the entire noun or some of the noun or none of
the noun. They are used when we want to refer to group of nouns without actually
specifying who or how much.
Some common indefinite nouns are - anyone, someone, none, everything, many,
few, etc.
If anyone has seen my notebook please return it to me. Here, we see the pronoun
anyone is being used to refer to everyone without any specification.
A few of the members were not satisfied with the service. - Few means a small
number of people/objects. Hence, it is a plural indefinite pronoun.
Nobody was answering when I called them last. Here, we see a pronoun nobody
being used to show no one at all. It is a singular indefinite pronoun.
Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns
Reflexive Pronouns are those which are used to indicate a noun which has been
used in an earlier part of the same sentence. These pronouns are - Myself,
Themselves, Yourself, Ourselves, Herself, Himself and Itself.
Rosa was going to take it to the shop but ended up fixing it herself one afternoon.
Here, we can see that herself is being used to refer to Rosa again at the end of the
sentence.
He prefers to be by himself after a game. Here, himself is used to refer to him.
Apart from ordering in, they cooked a few snack themselves. Here themselves is
used to show that they cooked something.
The horse hurt itself while trying to escape. - Since itself is a gender neutral
pronoun, it is used to show the nouns that have no definite gender. E.g. : material
things or ideas, etc.; or whose gender is unknown. E : animals.
These same words are also called Intensive Pronouns, which are used to lay
emphasis on the pronoun that comes before them in the sentence.
They themselves knew that the prank was in bad taste. - Here, the pronoun
themselves is used to emphasise they.
Avoid reporting things that you yourself havent witnessed. - Here yourself is used
to emphasise the pronoun you.
Reciprocal Pronoun
There are just two Reciprocal Pronouns - Each other and One another. They are
used when two or more nouns are doing or being the same to one another. Both of
these pronouns are plural in nature as they can only be used in situations where
there is more than one noun.

Jamie and Jack always sit beside each other in break. Here, the reciprocation is
between the children as they both sit together.
They havent seen one another since last year. Here, neither of the two parties
has seen each other in some time.
The trees seem to reach towards each other in a strong wind. Here, we have an
unspecified amount of trees bending towards the others in a strong win

VIII.

Conjunctions

A conjunction is a word which connects two words or clauses or sentences and

shows the relation between them. They are used to avoid making the text seem like
bullet points and to make the text flow. E.g. Jai saw a dog on the road. He decided to adopt the dog. Jai brought the dog home.
Jai saw a dog on the road and decided to adopt the dog, so he brought the dog
home.
Here and and so are conjunctions which are used to join the sentences and show
the relation between them.
There are three main categories of conjunctions that are explained below. Apart from
these, there are also Adverbs of Conjunctions,. To learn more about the Adverbs of
Conjunctions visit the Adverbs page.
Coordinating Conjunctions
These conjunctions are used to link or join two words or phrases that are equally
important and complete in terms of grammar when compared with each other. That
is to say, the sentences or words do not depend on anything to give themselves
meaning.
There are seven main coordinating conjunctions

For
And
Nor
But
Or
Yet
Soon

As you can see, these conjunctions are arranged in this way to provide the
mnemonic acronym of FANBOYS so that it is easier to remember them. These
conjunctions are always placed between the two clauses or words that they are
joining. The following are some examples of the coordinating conjunctions Chris does not want tea. Chris does not want coffee. - Chris does not want tea or
coffee.

Here, we see how or was used to combine the two words and make a
cohesive sentence using them. Also, notice how the or is between the two
words.

I scored 60% in the exams this year. Anita scored 7% more than me this year. - I
scored 60% in the exams but Anita scored 7% more than me this year.

Here we see that but was used in the middle to combine and show the
relation between the two sentences that were both equally important and
cohesive by themselves.

Subordinating Conjunctions
These conjunctions are used to join an independent and complete clause with a
dependent clause that relies on the main clause for meaning and relevance. The
dependent clause cannot exist on its own as a sentence and often does not make
sense without the main clause.
The subordinating conjunction always comes before the dependent clause but the
dependent clause itself can be placed either ahead of or following the independent
clause.
Since they had misbehaved, the boys were given one week suspensions from
school.
Here, we see the dependent clause is they had misbehaved which is not a valid
sentence by itself.
The independent main clause is the boys were given one week suspensions from
school.
They are joined by the subordinating conjunction since.
He was fond of playing basketball because it was his fathers favourite game.
In this sentence, because is the subordinating conjunction as it introduces the
dependent clause it was his fathers favourite game
The main clause in this sentence is he was fond of playing basketball as it is the
sentence which can be said independently and still be grammatically correct.
Other subordinating conjunctions are - Although, As, Before, Once, Though, Until,
Whether, etc.
Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative Conjunctions are simply pairs of conjunctions used in a sentence to join
different words or groups of words in a sentence together. Correlative Conjunctions
are generally not used to link sentences themselves, instead they link two or more
words of equal importance within the sentence itself. Some of the more commonly
used correlative conjunctions are Both the shoes and the dress were completely overpriced.

This is an example of using the correlative conjunctions both/and in a

sentence. As you can see in this sentence, the shoes and the dress were
equally important elements that needed to be given the same importance.

They should either change their strategy or just forfeit the game.

The either/or conjunctions are used to suggest a choice between two

options. Here the choice being suggested is between - change their strategy
or forfeit the game.

Just as she loves hiking so she enjoys travelling as well.

The correlative conjunctions just as/so are used to link two phrases that
have a similar theme or are referring to a similar thing together. This
conjunction is used to show the correspondence between two phrases or
words.

He neither helps around the house nor does he look for a job.

Neither/nor are conjunctions that are used to deny or negate words and
phrases. In the case of neither, it gives two options that are both negated.
Nor is the negative form of or.

Not only does he play the lead guitar but he is also the bands songwriter.

The correlative conjunctions not only/but are used to show an additional

and important element in the sentence that is used to indicate excess when
combined with the first element. For instance, in this sentence the fact that he
is a guitarist and a song writer are equally important but when shown
together, they indicate an excess of talent in the person.

It doesnt matter whether the roses are fresh or if they are drooping, just buy them.

IX.

Whether/or is used as a conjunction to show two different options in the

sentence. The conjunction can be used both in a manner of negation and
confirmation.

Interjections

Interjections are small words that bear no grammatical connection with the
sentences in which they are used. They express the emotions or sentiments of the
speaker or convey hesitation or protest. They are usually followed by an exclamation
mark.
Since many interjections are mainly written forms of actual sounds that were
produced by humans, they are hardly used in academic or scholarly writing, unless
they are a part of a direct quote or otherwise.
Ah! Now thats what I call a good shot! Bravo!

Both Ah and Bravo are interjections used to show the speakers admiration in the
sentence. There are many different uses for various interjections; the following is a
list of the common interjections you may hear around you in daily life Interjection

Meaning

Use

Aah

Exclamation of fear

Aah! The monsters got me!

Ahh

Realization or
acceptance

Ahh, now I see what you mean.

Aww

Something sweet or cute Aww! Just look at that kitten.

Bingo

Acknowledge something Bingo! Thats exactly what we were

as right
looking for!

Eh

Question something

So that was all she said, eh?

Eww

Something disgusting

Eww! That movie was so gory.

Hmph

To indicate displeasure

Hmph. I could do that for half the

amount he charged.

Oh

I see/ I think

Oh, its been around a week since I

saw her.

Oops

Making a mistake

Oops! Sorry I didnt see those

skates there.

Ouch

Exclamation of pain

Ouch, that hurt! Stop pinching me!

Shh

An indication for silence

Shh! The show is about to start.

Uh oh

Showing dismay

Uh oh! The teachers caught him.

Whew

Amazement and/or relief

Whew! I cant believe we actually

finished it all.

Wow

Expressing surprise or
admiration

Wow! Thats really great news!

Yay/Yaay

Congratulatory
exclamation

I cant believe youre actually

coming here! Yaay!

Yeah

Variant of yes

Yeah, Id love some orange juice.

Yikes

For fear or concern (not

serious)

Yikes, my mothers home!

Yippee

Exclamation of
celebration

Yippee! We won, lets head to the

bar.

Some interjections are used to stall for time or indicate that the speaker is thinking of
something. These interjections are also used when someone doesnt know what to
say. The following is a list of these sounds or words; they are also called Hesitation
Devices Interjection Meaning

Use

Uh

Indicates a pause/ need

for more time

Hmm

Thinking/Hesitating about Hmm, Im not sure this colour is

something
the best for this room.

Er

Not knowing what to say

I dont thinker wait let me

call my boss.

Um

Pausing or being
skeptical

Not that I dont believe you but,

um, you say its a ghost?

X.

Wait I know this uh is it

Ruskin Bond?

Tenses

The concept of time can be split into:

1. The Present - What you are currently doing.
I eat, I am eating
2. The Past - What you did some time back.
I ate, I was eating
3. The Future - What you will do later.
I will eat, I will be eating
In the English language, tenses play an important role in sentence formation.
The tense of a verb shows the time of an event or action.

There are four types of tenses. Simple, Perfect, Continuous and Present
Perfect Continuous and each of these has a present, past and future form.
PRESENT TENSES
SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE
In Simple Present, the action is simply mentioned and there is nothing being said
about its completeness.
I eat.
I sleep.
I play.
PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE
In Present Continuous, the action is on-going/ still going on and hence continuous.
I am eating.
I am sleeping.
I am playing.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
In Present Perfect, the action is complete or has ended and hence termed Perfect.
I have eaten.
I have slept.
I have played.
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
In Present Perfect Continuous, the action has been taking place for some time and is
still ongoing.
I have been eating.
I have been sleeping.
I have been playing.
PAST TENSES
SIMPLE PAST TENSE
In Simple Past, the action is simply mentioned and understood to have taken place
in the past.
I ate.
I slept.
I played.
PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE
In Past Continuous, the action was ongoing till a certain time in the past.
I was eating.
I was sleeping.
I was playing.
PAST PERFECT TENSE

Past Perfect is used to express something that happened before another action in
the past.
I had eaten.
I had slept.
I had played.
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
Past Perfect Continuous is used to express something that started in the past and
continued until another time in the past.
I had been eating.
I had been sleeping.
I had been playing.
FUTURE TENSES
SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE
Simple Future is used when we plan or make a decision to do something. Nothing is
said about the time in the future.
I will eat.
I will sleep.
I will play.
FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE
The future continuous tense is used to express action at a particular moment in the
future. However, the action will not have finished at the moment.
I will be eating at 9 a.m.
I will be sleeping when you arrive.
I will be playing at 5 p.m.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
Future Perfect expresses action that will occur in the future before another action in
the future.
I will have eaten before 10 a.m.
I will have slept before you arrive.
I will have played before 6 p.m.
FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
Future Perfect Continuous is used to talk about an on-going action before some
point in the future.
I will have been sleeping for two hours when you arrive.
I will have been playing for an hour when it is 5 p.m.
Conditionals
Conditionals are structures in English that establish what will happen if a certain
event takes place or if a certain action is performed. This means that if a certain
condition is true, a certain result occurs.

There are four types of commonly used conditionals in the English language that are
differentiated on the basis of the degree of possibility implied by each of them. They
are the first conditional, the second conditional, the third conditional and the zero
conditional.
First Conditional
This conditional is used to talk about future events that might happen. It uses the
present tense to discuss the possible future events. For example:
If it rains, we will have to cancel the picnic.
If you come with me, I will make it worthwhile for you.
If I go abroad, I will get something back for you.
If you wait till 1pm, you can go back with him.
If you visit Paris, you must see the Eiffel Tower.
Second Conditional
This conditional is used to talk about unreal possibility or impossible events. They
establish the course of action that would follow, where something to happen is either
hypothetical or surreal.. For example:
If I had a million dollars, I would buy a penthouse on Park Avenue.
I could stop working if I won the lottery.
If I were well-versed in the subject, I would help you with your assignment.
If I were you, I would ask her to marry me.
What would you do if it were to rain later?
Third Conditional
This conditionals talks about the past, unlike the first and second which discusses
events in the real or unreal future. These conditions, too, are therefore impossible,
because they have either already occurred or might have occurred but wont
anymore. For example:
If I had studied a little more in college, life would have been easier.
If we had gotten to the airport on time, we would have caught our flight.
I could have asked him about the matter if he had shown up.
Sometimes the if clause is merely implied, as in:
I would have done it. (...if you had asked me to)
I wouldnt have allowed it. (...if it had been tried with me)
Zero Conditional
The zero conditional discusses an absolute certainty; the result of the condition is
always true. The most common types of zero conditionals are scientific facts. For
example: If you cool water to zero degrees, it turns into ice.

Zero conditionals, therefore, do not deal with the future or the past; they simply deal
with facts. The if in these conditionals can be replaced with when:When you cool
water to zero degrees, it turns into ice.

XI.

Punctuation

Punctuation marks are important in both written and spoken English. In written
English, the correct usage of these symbols helps to express the intended meaning
of the sentence. In spoken English, punctuation marks denote the pauses and
intonations to be used when reading aloud.
Incorrect punctuation can change the meaning of a sentence.
For instance, compare the following two sentences:
Lets eat Mom.
Lets eat, Mom.
Do you see how the usage of a comma changes the entire meaning in both the
sentences? The disappearance of comma in the first sentence indicates that the
speaker is asking to eat their Mom, which does not make sense. Whereas, the
comma after lets eat in the second sentence helps to convey the meaning that the
speaker is suggesting to their Mom to go and start eating, which sounds more
sensible and also saves a life.
Symbols of Punctuation
Some of the commonly used punctuation marks are:
Full Stop- (.) Usually used at the end of a sentence.
Question Mark- (?) Usually used at the end of an interrogative sentence to form a
question.
Comma- (,) Usually used to denote a pause in a sentence.
Exclamation Mark- (!) Used to denote shock, surprise, anger or a raised voice.
Colon (:) Used to indicate what is to follow next
Semi Colon (;) Used to link two independent clauses not joined by a conjunction or
used to separate two independent clauses in place of comma
Apostrophe- (') Used to show possession or for contraction of word.
Comma
A comma is a punctuation used to denote a pause in the sentence. A comma is used
to structure a sentence and helps the reader understand the meaning of the
sentence.
The following are the most common usages of the comma in the English language.
1. To separate a series of words (nouns, adjectives, verbs or adverbs) in a
sentence.

Ramesh, Shravan, Dilip and Radha went for the meeting.

Sheetal is an intelligent, loyal and hardworking employee.
You must complete the assignment honestly, correctly and quickly.
Manish ran, swam and cycled to complete the athletic event.
2. To separate a series of phrases in a sentence.
Amit completed his homework, packed his bags, polished his shoes and went to
sleep.
I went to the market, bought the present, got it gift wrapped and came to the birthday
party.
3. To separate the parenthetical elements (a part of a sentence that can be
removed without changing the meaning of the sentence).
M.S. Dhoni, Indias cricket captain, hit a six to win the match.
Vishnu, the head boy of the school, has been absent for the last three days.
4. To separate the quoted parts from the rest of the sentence.
The great leader told the crowd, I will fast till death until our demands are met.
Colon and Semi Colon
Many English speakers are uncertain about the correct usage of the colon and the
semi colon.
The colon ( : ) is a punctuation mark consisting of two dots one over the other
whereas the semi colon ( ; ) consists of a dot above a comma.
In the majority of the cases, the colon is used to introduce a list of things while a
semi colon is used to separate sentences where the conjunction has been left out.
The following examples will make the usage clear.
COLON

SEMI COLON

I have packed my cricket kit with the

equipment I need: bats, gloves and
pads.

Sumit likes to play cricket; Amit likes to

play soccer.

A man needs three things to survive: air, I drank lemonade; Manish drank tea.
water and food.
The following sentence will illustrate the use of both these punctuation marks I talked to four men: Amit, who is from Delhi; Manoj, who is from Lucknow; Vinod,
who is from Mumbai; and Mohan, who is from Patna.
Punctuation Rules

Punctuation is a very important aspect of writing; good writing presupposes correct

punctuation. Incorrect punctuation is the sign of weak writing, or carelessness. But
this sort of thing is eminently avoidable, because punctuation is quite simple to
master. Here are some basic rules to keep in mind:
1. Every sentence must end with a full stop.
2. Proper nouns (names of people, places, brands, etc, i.e. unique instances of a
class) must always be capitalised.
3. When you use opening quotation marks, do not forget to use closing quotation
marks at the end of the quoted word or phrase.
4. Quotation marks are when quoting or sometimes to convey irony, not for
emphasis; emphasis is conveyed by emboldening or italicisation, followed by
an exclamation mark.
5. Do not use an apostrophe when you are pluralising a word. The plural of toy is
toys, not toys. Apostrophes are used to form contractions (it is = its) and
indicate possession.
6. The ellipsis, used to indicate variously the intentional omission of a section of
text, an unfinished thought, and a trailing off into silence, consists of only 3
dots. It is pointless to add more dots to an ellipsis. This is excessive
punctuation, which is in other words incorrect punctuation.
7. As per the rules of British English, any punctuation mark that is not part of a
quoted section of text must be placed outside the quotation marks. However,
in the case of direct speech, punctuation marks must be enclosed within the
quotation marks.
8. Do not link independent clauses with commas. Independent clauses are
groupings of words that can stand alone as sentences. For example, in He
knew how to drive, that he didnt do it very often was a matter more nerves,
not inability both the parts before and after the comma are full sentences. In
such cases, the comma is not the correct punctuation mark of connection. In
needs to be replaced with a semi-colon (;). The sentence becomes: He knew
how to drive; that he didnt do it very often was matter of nerves, not inability.
9. Use a comma after the introductory element of a sentence. The introductory
element is a word or a phrase that begins a sentence by providing
background, or simply modifies it. For example, Honestly I dont know how I
managed to escape is wrong, because the word honestly modifies the
sentence. Hence, it should be Honestly, I dont know how I managed to
escape.