ELECTRIC FIELD

1. The space around a charge or a group of charges in which electric

influences can be detected is called an electric field.
2. The space surrounding a charge or a group of charges in which another
charge experiences a force is said to contain an electric field.
3. A test charge placed at any point in the field experiences a force.
The electric intensity at any point in an electric field is given by the
force experienced by a unit positive charge kept at that point.
If a charge q is placed at a point where the electric intensity is E,
F
the force experienced by the charge is F=q E. Thus E .
q
Thus, the electric intensity at any point is defined as the force per unit positive
charge when a test charge is placed at that point.
The S.I. unit of electric field is Newton/coulomb(N/C)
The direction of the force on a positive charge in an electric field will be
opposite to the direction of the field.
If the force on the test charge is the same at all points, the field is said to be
uniform electric field.
An electric field in which the magnitude and direction are the same at all
points is called a uniform electric field.Electric intensity is a vector.

Electric intensity due to an isolated point charge

Let P be a point at a distance r from a point charge q in free space. Let a
unit positive charge (upc) be imagined at P. Then by definition the force on the
upc is the electric intensity.
1 q 1
F
4 r 2

Hence Electric intensity is

1 q
E
4 r 2
In any other medium of relative permitivity r ,
1 q
E
.
4 r r 2
Note: If a number of charges produce electric fields, E1,E 2 ,E3 etc at a given
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point, then the resultant field at that point is E E1,E 2 ,E3 ..... i.e, the total
electric field if given by the vector sum of the individual field strengths.

Electric field lines (electric lines of force): An electric line of force is an imaginary
line in an electric field, along which a free isolated positive test charge moves or tends to
move.
The lines of force radially diverge from a positive charge and radially
converge on a negative charge.

Properties of lines of force:

1) A line of force is purely a geometric conceptual representation. It has no
physical existence.
2) Electric lines initiate from a positive charge and terminate at negative
charge.
3) The tangent at any point to a line of force gives the direction of the force
on a unit positive charge placed at that point.
4) Two electric lines of force never intersect one another. If they intersect,
then there will be two directions for the field at that point at the same time.
This is impossible.
5) Electric lines of force never enter a conductor.
6) Crowding of lines of force indicates a stronger field and spreading out
indicates a weaker field.
7) For a charged conductor in equilibrium, the lines of force are always
perpendicular to the surface.
8) A uniform electric field is represented by a set of parallel lines having the
same direction.

Surface density of charge:

Surface density of charge at any point is defined as the ratio of the charge
over a small area considered around that point to the area of the surface
considered, the area being chosen so that the distribution of charge
(or may assumed to be ) uniform over it.
If a charge q is distributed uniformly over an area ds, then by definition,
q
the surface charge density is
ds
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Surface charge density depends on the curvature of the surface. It can be

shown that the surface density of charge is inversely proportional to the radius of
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curvature of the surface at that point of consideration
r
Surface density of charge will be the greatest where the curvature is
the greatest OR the radius of curvature is the least.
Surface density of charge will be the least where the curvature is the least
OR the radius of curvature is the greatest.
At pointed ends on a conductor, the radius of curvature will be the least
and hence the surface density of charge will be the greatest. At such pointed
ends, due to the mutual repulsion between the like charges, the charges leak into
the surrounding air or medium. This is known as discharging action of points.
To avoid discharging, the surface should have a smooth surface. To store
charges, a conductor with a smooth surface is preferred.
Discharging action of points is the principle behind the working of a
lightning arrestor.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL:
Similar to the gravitational potential energy of a body above the surface of
the earth, a charge will have a potential energy in an electric field.
Potential energy is taken to be ZERO at infinite distance from a charge or
group of charges which produce the field.
The electric potential at a point in an electric field is given by the work
done in bringing a free isolated unit positive charge from infinity (point of zero
field ) to that point against the field direction.
The electric potential at a point in an electric field is defined as the
potential energy stored by a unit positive charge placed at that point.
In bringing the unit positive charge from infinity to a point if the work is
done
1) against the field, the potential is taken to be positive.
2) by the field, the potential is taken to be negative.
The potential difference between two points in an electric field is the work
done in moving a unit positive charge from one point to another against the
field direction.
Electric potential is a scalar quantity since it is measured in terms of
work, which is a scalar.
The S.I. unit of electric potential is volt.
The electric potential at a point is said to be 1 volt if one joule of
work is to be done in bringing a unit positive charge (+ 1 coulomb) from
infinity to that point against the field.

Potential of the earth

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Since earth is a huge body, addition or removal charges does not affect its
electrical state. Earth has enormous capacity to accept or give out charge without
any significant change in its electrically neutral nature. Thus the potential of the
earth remains unaffected. Hence the surface of the earth is taken to be a zero
potential and earth is chosen as the reference as a body of zero potential.
Let a charged body be connected to the earth. The body is said to be at
positive potential if electrons flow to it from the earth.
The body is said to be negative potential if electrons flow from it to earth.

Electrostatic potential due to a point charge:

Let A be a point at a
distance x from a point charge

+q in vacuum(or air). Consider

a unit positive charge at A. The
force on the unit positive charge
at A is
1 q
F
(Acting away from A along OA)
4 x 2
Let the unit positive charge be moved from A to B through a small
distance dx, against the field direction. Then the work done in this process is
1 q
dW
(dx)
4 x 2
The negative sign indicates that the work is done against the field dx is so
small that the force can be assumed to be constant over it.
Let P be appoint at a distance r from +q. Then the total work done in
bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to P is given by

1 q
q
W dW
dx

4 x 2
4

1
q x 1
q
dx

x2
4 1 4

1 1
r

1 q
4 r
Then by definition, the electric potential at P is given by the amount of
work to be done in bringing a free isolated unit positive charge from infinity to P
against the field direction.
1 q
V
4 r
Thus W

If P is in any other medium of relative permittivity r , V

1 q
4 r r

1 (q)
4 r r
Note: The net electric potential at a point due to a large number of charges is
given by the algebraic sum of the potentials due to the individual charges.
If the charge is q , then, V

Relation between electric field and electric potential :

Let E be the electric intensity at a point P in an electric field. Let a unit
positive charge be moved from P to Q through a small distance dx against the
field direction. dx is so small that the force can be assumed to be constant over
it. Then the work done in moving a charge is given by

Work = force distance

dW = E ( dx) = E dx
Negative sign indicates that the work is done against the field direction.
The potential difference P and Q is given by
dV
dV = dW= EdX
E
dx
The electric intensity at a point in an electric field is defined as the
negative of the rate change of electric potential with respect to distance.
dV
is called the potential gradient.
dx
dV
volt
V
Note: Since E
, the unit of electric intensity is ,
.....
dx
metre m

Equipotential surface:
1. A surface on which the potential is the same at all points is called an
equipotential surface.
2. A line on which the potential is the same at all the points is called an
equipotential line.
3. The work done in moving unit positive charge or a test charge or any
charge between two points on an equipotential surface is ZERO.

Electric flux:
The electric flux through a surface is the number of electric field lines
passing through that surface.
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The electric flux through a surface is given by the product of the area of
that surface and the normal component of the electric lines passing through it.
Electric flux per unit area at any point in the electric field is a measure of
the electric intensity at that point.
electric flux

Electric int ensity

E
area
A

Expression for the electric flux:

Let E be the electric intensity at pointP in an
electric field. Let ds be an infinitesimally small
area around P. Let E make an angle with the
normal to the surface at P. Then the normal
component of E at p is Ecos
Then the electric flux through ds is d ds Ecos .
Then the total electric flux through over a larger area is
d ds Ecos . ds

Gauss theorem:
Gauss theorem gives the relation between the electric flux and the charge
responsible for it. Gauss theorem is stated as follows;
1
The total electric flux over a closed surface is
times the total

charge enclosed by it.

If a closed surface encloses a charge q and is the electric flux through
the surface
1
1
Then, (Total charge enclosed) q

Note:
1. is taken to be positive if the field lines are directed outwards and area are
taken as negative if the lines are directed inwards.
2. The surface or the imaginary surface enclosing the charges is called the
Gaussian surface. This can be of any shape and size. But for convenience,
the surface is generally chosen such that the field lines are perpendicular to
its surface.
3. The total outward flux is independent of
(a) The nature, shape and size of the Gaussian surface,
(b) The distribution of charges and
(c) The state of rest or motion of the charges
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4. Two equal and unlike charges separated by a finite distance constitutes

an electric dipole.
5. The total electric flux over a closed surface enclosing an electric dipole
is equal to zero.
6. Coulombs law deals with point charges only. Gauss theorem can deal
with charges which are distributed on a body or a collection of charges
in air or vacuum.

Applications of Gauss theorem

Electric intensity due to a charged spherical conductor
Let +q be the charge on a spherical

conductor of radius R. Let P be a point at a

distance r from the centre of the conductor.To determine, the electric intensity
at P,imagine a sphere with O as centre and r as radius. This imaginary surface
represents the guassian surface. By spherical symmetry it is self evident that the
magnitude of the electric intensity E is the same at all points on this sphere.
Case(i) When P is outside the charged sphere
The flux of the electric field through the gaussian surface is
1
E cos ds q

Since the electric field is radial, it is normal to the Gaussian surface at every
point.
1
Hence 0 cos cos0 1. Thus, Eds q

q q , the total charge enclosed by the guassian surface.

Also ds 4r 2 , is the surface area of the Gaussian sphere.
Thus E(4r 2 )

1
1 q
(q) E

4 r 2

This indicates that for a point outside a charged sphere, the charges on the
sphere behaves as though they are concentrated at the centre of the sphere.
Case(ii) When P lies just on the surface of the charged sphere.

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Since the point is very close to the surface of the sphere, it can be
1 q
approximated that r R. Then E
4 R 2
Case (iii) When P is inside the sphere
The Gaussian sphere does not enclose any charge because all the charges
will be residing on the outer surface of the sphere i.e, q = 0. Hence E = 0.
This implies that the electric intensity at any point inside the sphere is
ZERO.

Electric intensity near the surface of a charged conductor:

Let the surface charge density be . Let P be a point
Very close to the above said surface. To calculate the electric
intensity E at P, imagine a right cylinder of very small area
of cross section ds as the Gaussian surface. One end face of
the cylinder will contain P and the other will be inside the
conductor as shown. The electric field lines will be perpendicular to the
surface of the conductor. The electric flux through ds inside the conductor
will be ZERO as the field inside the conductor is zero. The flux through the
curved surface of the cylinder will also be zero because the field lines will
parallel to it. Thus the electric flux through the surface ds outside the conductor
will be,
The charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is .ds.
According to Gauss theorem, the electric flux through the surface is
1
1
[Total charge enclosed] [.ds] ......(2)

From (1) and (2) E.ds

[.ds] E

Thus electric intensity near a charged conductor is directly proportional to

the surface intensity of charge and inversely proportional to the dielectric
constant of the surrounding medium.

Electric dipole:
Two points charges of equal magnitude and of
opposite kind separated by a finite distance constitutes
an electric dipole.
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The line joining the two charges is called the axis of the dipole.

A molecule made up a positive ion and a negative ion is an example of a

dipole.
Dipole moment is defined as the product of the magnitude of one of the
charges and the separation between them.
If +q and q are two charges separated by a distance 2a, the dipole moment
is given by q 2a.

2aqp where p is a unit

Dipole moment is a vector. It is given by P
vector along the dipole axis (from q to +q).

Electric field due to a dipole

The total charge of the electric dipole is zero but the effective field of the
electric dipole is not zero. At any point, the effective field due to a dipole is given
by the resultant of the electric fields due to the individual charges.

Electric field due to a dipole at any point on the dipole axis

Let P be a point at a distance r from the centre O of an electric dipole as
shown. Let the separation between the charges =q and q fo the dipole be 2a.
It can be shown that the electric intensity at a
1
2Pr
point on the axial lines is E axial
2
4 (r a 2 ) 2
The net electric intensity acts along the dipole axis.
P = 2aq is the dipole moment.
In the vector form

1
2Pr
p
2
2 2
4 (r a )

Where, p is the unit vector along the dipole axis.

1 2P
4 r 3
Note: The perpendicular bisector of the dipole axis is called the equatorial line.
If P is at a large distance i.e r a,a 2 can be neglected to r 2 . E

Electric field at any point on the equatorial line of a dipole

Let P be appoint on the equatorial line at a distance r from the centre O
of an electric dipole with charges +q and q separated by a distance 2a.
It
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can be shown that the electric intensity at a point on the equatorial Line is

, E equatorial

1
P
4 (r 2 a 2 )3/ 2

The net electric intensity will be acting parallel and opposite to the dipole
axis.

1
P
P
2
2 3/ 2
4 (r a )

If P is at a large distance i.e r a,a 2 , can be neglected compared to r .

2

1 P
1 P
. In the vector form E
P
3
4 r 3
4 r

Note: The electric intensity at any point due to a

dipole is given by

1 P
4 r 3

3cos 2 1

Torque on a dipole
Consider a permanent dipole with a dipole moment P to be placed in a
uniform electric field of strength E, making an angle with the direction of E.
Then there will be force qE on +q in the direction of E and force qE on q
opposite to the direction of E. These two equal and opposite forces
Constitutes a torque on the dipole. The magnitude of the
torque on the dipole. The magnitude of the torque is given by

qE BC qE AB sin

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 qE 2a sin 2a q E sin .
Hence PE sin
In the vector form, P E
The torque tends to rotate the dipole aligns it along the direction of the
electric field. When becomes zero, i.e the dipole sets along the direction of E,
the torque becomes zero.
When 90 , the torque will be maximum. P E
If E = 1(field of unit strength), then P
Dipole moment is numerically equal to the torque acting on the dipole ,
when it is placed perpendicular to a uniform electric field of unit strength.

Dielectrics
Dielectrics are essentially insulators. They do not have free electrons as
conductors. In certain dielectrics, the molecules act like tiny electric dipoles and
have a permanent dipole moment. Such molecules are called polar molecules. In
certain materials, the effective centers of positive and negative charges coincide.
Such molecules are called non polar molecules. When a non polar molecule is
subjected to an electric field, the positive and negative charges are slightly
displaced in opposite direction and act like dipoles. Such molecules are called
induced dipoles. Such molecules will have an induced dipole moment.

Effect of dielectric
In the absence of any external field, the permanent dipoles will be at
random. Hence the net dipole moment will be zero. When a dielectric slab is
placed in an electric field, the permanent and induced dipoles orient themselves
in the direction of the field. Thus the individual dipole moments add up to give a
net dipole moment in the direction of the applied field. This phenomenon is
called dielectric polarization. With this the dielectric is said to be polarized. The
dipole moment per unit volume of a substance is called polarization. The
polarization of a dielectric will be directly proportional to the strength (E), of the
electric field applied.

P E P E

where

is a constant for a

given dielectric and is known as electric susceptibility. Due to polarization an

electric field is et up inside the dielectric. The field will be such that it opposes
the applied electric field. As a result, the net electric intensity and potential in
that region decreases. The ability of the dielectric to decrease the electric field
strength is determined by its dielectric constant.
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Dielectric strength
Dielectric will not have charge carriers. When subjected to an electric
field, the material gets polarized. As the strength of the applied field becomes
suitably strong, electrons can move away from their normal position in the
molecule. This causes a drift of +ve and ve ions towards ve and +ve
electrodes respectively. This implies that the dielectric develops charge carriers.
Thus the dielectric property breaks down and the material acquires conductance.
The magnitude of the electric field at which the dielectric breakdown occurs in a
dielectric (insulator) is called dielectric strength of the material. For air it is
3000kV/m, for mica it is 104 kV / m
for rubber it is 40,000kV/m, etc.

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