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Ohms law
The branch of physics, which deals with motion of electric charges, is called
current electricity.
Electric charges in motion constitute electric current.
The charged particles whose flow in a given direction constitutes electric
current are called charge carriers.
Solids: In solid conductors like metals, the loosely bound valence electrons are
moved in a particular direction by the application of a suitable electric field. Thus the
valence electrons are the charge carriers in solid conductors.
Liquid: In electrolytes, the positive ions and the negative ions move in opposite
directions by the application of a suitable electric field and constitute a current. Thus
the +ve ions and the ve ions are the charge carriers in liquids.
Gases: Normally gases are insulators. But under a strong electric field, ionization of
the gases takes place. The positive ions and electrons generated move to constitute
the current and hence they are the charge carriers in gases.
The rate of flow of electric charges across the cross section of a conductor is
called electric current.
dq
If dq charges flow in a time dt, the electric current is given by I
.
dt
ch arg e Q
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Drift velocity
V
d
Electrical field
E
Mobility of the charge carriers is defined as the drift velocity acquired per unit
electric field strength.
Hence
Potential difference
In order to move electric charges amount of works has to be done. Such a work
is given by W = QV, Work = Charge potential difference.
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eE
(1)
m
The current flowing across the cross section A of a conductor is given by
I neAVd (2)
Where n is the number of electrons per unit volume of the conductor, e is the
charge on the electron. Substituting (1) in (2),
eE
ne2
I neA
EA
m
m
V
If L is the length of the conductor across which a pd V is applied , E
L
2
2
ne A
ne V
I
AI
V
m L
mL
Vd
ne2 A
mL
mL
is known as the
I
V V 2 I V RI , where R 2
ne
A
mL
ne
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Unit of resistivity:
L
RA
ohm m2
We have R
......ohm metre
A
L
m
Memorize this way: B.B.ROY of Great Britain had a Very Good Wife.
E.g. (1) Bands are brown, green, black and silver
10
15 15 1.5 13.5 or 16.5 ohm
Resistance is 15 10% 15
100
(2) Colour code for 120 10% ohm ,
Hence 120 10% ohm is coded as brown Red Brown Silver.
Note: If the resistor has only 3 bands the third band silver or gold, then
(1) the first two digits are to be multiplied by 0.01 if the third band is silver and
(2) The first two digits are to be multiplied by 0.1 if the third band is gold.
E.g. (1) Orange, Yellow, silver, Resistance is 34 0.01 0.34 ohm
E.g. (2) Green, brown, gold, Resistance is 51 0.1 5.1ohm
Combination of resistances:
1. Series Combination:
Resistances are said to be connected in series, if the same Current passes
through all of them and the p.d. across the combination is equal to the sum of the
p.d.s across the individual resistances.
M.N.Sharath kumar
R1
R2
R3
V1
V2
V3
RS
I
Let R1,R 2 and R 3 represent three resistances connected in series across a p.d.
V. Let I be the current through the combination.
Let V1,V2 and V3 be the p.d.s across R1,R 2 and R 3 respectively.
By definition V V1 V2 V3
By Ohms law V = RI
Then V R1I R 2I R 3I
(R1 R 2 R 3 )I (1)
If R s is the effective resistance of the above said combination, then
V R s I (2)
From (1) and (2) R s I R1 R 2 R 3 I R s R1 R 2 R 3
For n resistances in series R s R1 R 2 R 3 ....R n
Thus the effective resistance of a series combination of resistance is equal to the
sum of the individual resistances.
Parallel combination:
Resistances are said to be connected in parallel if all of them posses a
common p.d and the total current in the combination is equal to the sum of the
current through the individual resistances.
R1
R2
RP
R3
I
V
Let R1,R 2 and R 3 represent three resistances connected in parallel across a common
p.d V. Let the main current I branch out as I1,I2 and I3 respectively through
R1,R2,&R3.Then by definition, I I1 I2 I3 .
By ohms law, V RI I V / R .
1
V V V
1
1
(1)
R1 R 2 R 3
R
R
R
2
3
1
Let R p be the effective resistance of the parallel combination.
I
Then I
V
-------(2)
Rp
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1
1
1
1
R p R1 R 2 R 3
1
1
1
1
1
.......
R p R1 R 2 R 3
Rn
Thus the reciprocal of the effective resistance of a parallel combination of
resistances is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.
For n resistors in parallel
Also R p
R1R 2 .......R n
R1R 2 ....R n 1
Parallel Combination
R s R1 R 2 R 3 ........ R n
1
1
1
1
1
......
R p R1 R 2 R 3
Rn
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R1
I1
I2
R2
I1R1 I1R 2 IR 2
(R1 R 2 )I1 IR 2 I1
R2
R1
I Similarly I 2
I
R1 R 2
R1 R 2
(R1t 2 R 2 t1 ) R 2 R1
R 2 R1
/ C
R 1t 2 R 2 t 1
R1
R0
0o
toC
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Slope
Y Intercept
T2 T1
Superconductivity
H.K. Onnes
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The zero resistance of a superconductor implies that the current flows with no
expenditure of energy. Once a current is set up in a ring shaped superconducting
material, it maintains itself
indefinitely even in the absence of a potential difference.
Super conductivity is destroyed by applying an external magnetic field of a
suitable strength.
The magnetic field that causes a transition from the superconducting
state to the normal state at a given temperature is called the critical field.
Applications:
1) To transmit electrical power over superconducting cables without any loss
of power across transmission lines.
2) To develop highly powerful superconducting magnets.
3) To develop magnetic levitated trains.
4) SQID (Superconductor Quantum Interference Device) that can detect very
low magnetic fields.
5) In MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), intense magnetic fields are
developed using superconductors.
P VI
By definition, Power
Time
t
10
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V
V2
Since I {V / R},P V P
R
R
The SI unit of power is watt.
Note: When a current flows through a resistor, heat is generated within the
material of the resistor. The resistor must be capable of dissipating the heat to the
surrounding otherwise the temperature of the material increases continuously and it
may burn up the material itself. Therefore for larger dissipation of heat, the physical
size of the material must be adequately large.
Thermistor:
Thermistors are devices which are sensitive to heat. The electrical resistance of
a thermistor changes by a large magnitude against a small change in temperature.
Thermistors whose resistance increases with the increase in temperature are
called positive temperature coefficient thermistors (PTC).
Thermistors whose resistances decreases with the increase in temperature are called
negative temperature coefficient thermistors (NTC).
Thermistors are usually made up of oxides of semiconducting materials.
In principle a thermistor is obtained by fusing two platinum leads into a lump
of suitable material. Thermistors can be obtained in various sizes and shapes.
The electrical resistances of a thermistor
(semiconductor) is given by,
R aeb / t Where a and b are constants.
1 dR
b
2
The temperature coefficient of a thermistor is given by
R dT
T
On plotting log e R along Y axis and 1/ T along X axis, a
Straight line is obtained. The slope of the line gives the value of b and the Y intercept
gives log e a .From these values, the temperature coefficient of the thermistor can be
calculated.
The circuit symbol of a thermistor is as shown.
Uses: Because of their high sensitivity to heat, thermistors are used to sense the
variations and measure the temperature. In thermometers, they work in a wide range
of temperature with high efficiency sensitivity. Thermistors are easy to handle,
sensitive, inexpensive, rugged and available in a wide range of working temperature
and resistance.
Thermistors are used in various types of heat
control devices, thermostats etc. Thermistors are also used log R
e
in refrigerators, ovens, dynamos, motors, communication
equipments etc.
M.N.Sharath kumar
Note: The TPd is always less than the emf of the cell.
E
rR
r
RE
r R r
TPD
= E 1
r R
rR
r R
RE
E
Also TPD
R 1 r / R 1 r / R
Consider TPd E rI E r
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Note:
1. A device which obeys Ohms law is called an Ohmic device.
2. A device which does not obey Ohms law is called a non Ohmic device.
3. A standard cell in one whose e.m.f remains constant with time and
temperature.
The famed physicist and mathematician Andre Marie Ampere was famously absent-minded.
While riding in a carriage to an important meeting at the Academy in Paris one day, he was
struck by a brilliant notion which he immediately noted: dH=ipdl/r^2...
Arriving at the Academy, Ampere paid the driver, raced into the building to share his discovery,
and promptly realized that, in his excitement, he had scribbled his notes not on a page but on the
carriage itself! Ampere's equations were found - after an extensive search of the surrounding
streets.
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