POLARISATION OF LIGHT

According to Huygens wave theory, light travels in the form of waves. In general, the
waves are of 2 types:
a)

Longitudinal Waves: in which vibrations of the particles of the medium takes

b)

place in the direction of propagation of the wave.

Transverse Waves: in which the vibrations of the particles of the medium
take place perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave.

The phenomenon of reflection, refraction, interference and diffraction are common to

both longitudinal and transverse waves. But the phenomenon of polarization is shown
exclusively by the transverse between two types of waves.
Experimental demonstration for the transverse nature of light:

Consider A a tourmaline crystal, A cut in such a way that its crystallographic axis
(optical axis) is parallel to its faces as shown in figure. A tournament crystal in its natural
form will be hexagonal in structure as shown in figure.
Allow a light beam to fall on the crystal. Now if the transmitted beam is observed,
there will be no change in the intensity of light beam.
When the crystal is rotated, i.e. when the orientation of the topic axis of the crystal
changes. Now allow this transmitted beam from A to fall on another similar crystal B. When
the optic axis of B is parallel to that of A as shown in fig(1), the intensity of the transmitted
beam from B will be maximum.(However, the intensity will be slightly less than the incident
beam due to natural absorption of light in two crystals). Now rotate crystal B gradually.
When B is rotated, the intensity of the transmitted beam gradually decreases. Finally as
shown in fig(2) when the optic axis of B is perpendicular to that of A, the intensity is
minimum or Zero.
If the rotation of B is continued, the intensity again increases and reaches maximum
when the optic axis of B is again parallel to that of A. if B is further rotate, the intensity of the
transmitted light decreases and falls to zero, when the optic axis of B is perpendicular to that
of A.
Thus during one complete rotation of the crystal B, the intensity of the transmitted
beam reaches twice maximum and twice minimum. This experiment can be repeated by
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keeping B stationary and rotating A. The same results are observed. This above experiment
explains the transverse nature of light waves.

Light waves being transverse, the beam incident on the tourmaline can be imagined to
be consisting of vibrations in a plane perpendicular to the direction of the light in all possible
directions as shown in figure. When this beam falls on the crystal, it absorbs all other
vibrations except the one parallel to the optic axis of the crystal. Those vibrations which are
not parallel to the optic will not be a lowed. Thus the transmitted beam will have only one
vibration in one plane.
Thus the transmitted beam acquires the property of one sidedness and has lost its
symmetry in the direction of light. This transmitted beam is known as plane polarized light
and the phenomenon is known as polarization.

Definition of Polarization:
The phenomenon of light to confine itself to a particular plane is called polarization.
OR
The phenomenon of light acquiring the property of one sidedness in the direction of
light is called polarization of light.
OR
The light waves whose vibrations are restricted to only one direction is said to be
plane polarized and the phenomenon is known as polarization.
OR
It is a phenomenon of light in which the electric vector oscillates parallel to a fixed
line or in which the vibrations are confined to a single plane is called polarization.

Note: Polariser: The crystal that produces the plane polarized light.
Analyser: The crystal that detects polarization is called an Analyser.
In the above experiment;
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The first crystal P which produced polarized light is called polarizer.

The second crystal A which helps to analyse the polarized light is known as Analyser.
The plane containing the optical vibrations is called the plane of vibration.
The plane perpendicular to the plane of vibration is called plane of polarization.
Unpolarized light: Containing vibrations in the plane of the paper and perpendicular to plane
of the paper.
plane polarizes light with vibrations in the plane of the
paper.
plane polarizes light with vibrations perpendicular in the
plane of the paper.

Methods of producing plane polarized light:

Polarized light can be produced by the following methods:
I. By Reflection:

The simplest method to produce plane polarized light is the process of reflection. It is
found that ordinary beam of light on reflection from a transparent medium becomes partially
plane polarized. Brewster discovered that the extent of polarization in the reflected light
depends on angle of incidence. The degree of polarization increases as the angle of incidence
is increased. At a particular angle of incidence, the reflected beam is completely polarized.
This angle of incidence is called polarizing angle or Brewsters angle denoted by i p

Polarizing angle:
It is particular angle of incidents for which the reflected light is completely polarized.
Note: The vibrations are perpendicular to the plane of incidence in the reflected light.

Brewsters law:
The refractive index of the transparent medium is equal to the tangent to the
polarizing angle.
tan i p
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Note:
1)
2)
3)

The polarizing angle depends on colour of light used.

When the medium in which light is incident is not air, relative refractive index of the
second medium with respect to first is to be considered.
It does not hold good for a polished metallic reflector.
At the polarizing angle, Brewster showed that the reflected and refracted rays are
perpendicular to each other.

To show that reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each

other:
Consider the following as shown
Let be the refractive index.
Let i p be the polarizing angle.
Let be the angle between the reflected and refracted
rays.
Therefore angle of reflection also i p . We have to prove
that 900 .
Applying Snells law, 1 2

sin i p

Comparing 1 and 2 tan i p

sin i p

(1)
sin r
From Brewsters law 1 2 tan ip (2)

sin i p
cos i p

sin r
sin i p
sin r

cosip sin r
sin(90o i p ) sinr
90o i p r

ip r 900 (3)

But from fig ip r 180o

90o 180o
90o
Therefore at the polarizing angle, the reflected and refracted light are perpendicular to each
other.
II. By Refraction:

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It consists of adequate number of thin parallel faced glass plates placed one above the
other with air gap between the plates. The pile of glass plates are placed at an angle of 330
with the axis of the tube provided with a window as shown in fig. When unpolarised light is
incident on this set of glass plates, angle of incidence is exactly 570 which is the polarizing
angle for glass. Reflection and refraction occurs at each plate and degree of polarization of
the transmitted light increases. When sufficient number of plates are used, perpendicular
components are totally eliminated. Thus by using a pile of plates, plaine polarized light can
be obtained.
III. By Double Refraction:
It is a better to know the geometry of the Calcite crystal before studying the
phenomenon of double refraction.
Calcite crystal is an uniaxial colourless crystal. It is in its
natural form belongs to
Rhombohedrial class of hexagonal system. It is hydrated
CaCO3 (Calcium carbonate) each of
the six faces of the crystal is a rhombus having both obtuse angle
and acute angles. The acute
angle will be 780 and obtuse will be 1020 .
ABCD and EFGH represent the faces of a calcite crystal.
In this crystal, there will be two corners namely C and G
containing all the 3 angles as obtuse. These two corners of the
crystal are called Blunt corners. The line CG joining the blunt
corners of the crystal is called optic axis of the crystal. Optic axis is not a definite line. Any
other direction parallel to CG also represent optic axis(OA) of the crystal. The plane CBGH
containing the optic axis and perpendicular to the opposite faces ABFG and DHCE is called
principal section or principal plane of crystal.
(NB: If a ray of light passes through OA of crystal, it will not undergo polarization).
If a ray of light is incident on a calcite crystal, there will be two refracted rays
produced
i) Ordinary ray (OR)
ii) Extraordinary ray (ER)
Ordinary Ray: obeys laws of reflection and refraction and
Extraordinary ray: ER not obey.
The vibrations of OR and ER are
always perpendicular to each other.
ER = 1.468

Nicol Prism:

ER = 1.468
ER

A nicol prism is a polarizing

device in which an unpolarised light
beam on entering the prism emerges
as a polarized beam. A nicol prism
was first designed by William Nicol,
is nothing but a calcite, cut in a
definite form.

OR

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A calcite crystal whose length is 3 times its breadth is taken. The end faces of the
crystal is grounded in such a way that angles in the principal section becomes 68o and 112o ,
instead of 78o and 102o . The crystal cut into two equal parts along the diagonal. Cut faces
are well polished to make it optically flat. These two parts are again joined together by a
transparent adhesive called Canada balsam.
When an ordinary unpolarised light ray enters a crystal, it splits up into OR and ER.
The OR is completely eliminated allowing ER emergent. Thus Nicol prism acts as a polarizer
producing polarized light.

Action of the Nicol prism:

Consider an unpolarised light incident on one of the end faces of the Nicol Prism as
shown in figure. When this ray enters the prism it splits up into OR and ER. In OR and ER,
the vibrations are perpendicular to the plane of the paper and parallel to the plane of the
paper.
Now consider the ER reaching the Canada balsam layer, since it is traveling from
rarer to denser medium, it under goes refraction with a slight deviation and emerge at the
other end of the Nicol prism in a direction parallel to the vibrations of the incident ray. The
ER is a plane polarized in a plane perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
Now consider the OR reaching the Canada balsam layer, since it is traveling from
denser to rarer medium, it is designed in such a way that OR makes an angle greater than
critical angle at Canada balsam layer. Hence, it undergoes Total internal reflection (TIR).
Thus, Nicol prism produces plane polarized light by eliminating the other component namely
OR by TIR.
IV. By Selective Absorption:
Herepath 1852, developed a crystal of Iodosulphate of quinine which exhibits double
refraction. In addition to this, Crystal also exhibits property of selective
absorption.(Dichroism).
Dichroism: certain double refracting crystals have the
property of absorbing the OR and ER unequally.
This property is called Dichroism .
OR
The crystals which have the property of selectively
absorbing one of the two refracted rays produced in
them are called dichroic crystals and property is called
Dichroism.

Polaroids: Polaroids are large sized manufactured polarizing films capable producing plane
polarized light of large cross section.
OR
A Polaroid is a sheet of doubly refracting dichroic material employed to produce plane
polarized light. There are two types of polaroids.

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1) H-Polaroid

Axes
Crossed

2) K-Polaroid

View (dark)

Axes
Parallel

View
(bright)

It is prepared by taking a sheet of H Polaroids are heated with polyvinyl alcohol and
strained with dehydrating agent like HCL, they iodine. The material behaves like become
permanently double refracting dichroic crystal. It is called H Polaroid.
Each Polaroid has characteristic palne called transmission plane. Vibrations parallel to
this will be only allowed.
V. By Scattering of light:
Scattering is a process in which light is absorbed by a material in one direction and
reemitting it in another direction.
When a beam of white light is passed through a medium consisting of small particles
of size of the wavelength of light, then light is observed in the direction at right angles to the
incident beam. This phenomenon is called scattering and scattered light is plane polarized.

After being scattered from a scatterer at O, the light scattered along Y-axis has only
one vibrations which are perpendicular to Y-axis but parallel to X-axis. Similarly light
scattered along X-axis are perpendicular to X-axis but parallel to Y-axis. Thus scattered light
along X-axis and Y-axis is plane polarized.
OPTICAL ACTIVITY:
It has been observed that when a plane polarized light is passed through certain crystals like
quartz or sugar solutions, the plane of vibration (plane of polarization) undergoes a rotation
about the direction of propagation of light.
Definition:
The property of a substance of rotating the plane of polarization of the polarized light
passed through it, is called optical activity(optical rotation or rotatory polarization).
OR
The property of rotating the plane of vibration of a polarized light by certain substances is
called optical activity, substances are called optically active substances.
Eg: Tartaric acid, Turpentine, sugar solution, camphor dissolved in alcohol, Quartz, Calcite,
Cinnabar crystals etc.
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1)

Dextro-rotatory(or Right handed):

These substances rotate the plane of polarization of the light towards the right. That is
, in clockwise direction on looking towards the source.
2)

Laevo-rotatory(or left handed):

These substances rotate the plane of polarization of the light towards the left. That is,
in anticlockwise direction on looking towards the source.
The property of optical rotation is measured in terms of specific rotation (rotatory
power).

Specific rotation:
Biot, on the basis of his experimental studies of the optical activity of various
substances and solutions, found that angle of rotation depends on the following factors,
Angle of rotation() of the plane polarization depends on
1.
length of the solution( l )
2.
concentration of the solution( c )
3.
temperature of the solution( t)
4.
wavelength of light used
Hence, for a given solution, at a given temperature and colour of light,
l
c
On combining,
lc
= S l c where S is called Specific rotation of the solution, a constant.
Or

Quartz crystal - Rotation

S
of plane of vibration
lc

Definition of specific rotation:

We have, S

lc

If l = 1m, c 1kg / m S =
3

i.e specific rotation is numerically equal to the angle of rotation produced by optically active
substance of unit length and unit concentration.
For a Solid or Crystal: S

lc

If l = 1m S =
Specific rotation is numerically equal to the angle of rotation produced by an
optically active crystal of thickness 1mm.

SI unit of S = rad/m/kgm3 or rad / m / unit concentration

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