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x 3 b

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x3 b
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x = t , 3a

(1) ,

(1)

.
b
b

t3 + pt + q = 0

b .

(2)

c b ,a p; q

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t = u + v

. (2)

(u + v )3 + p(u + v ) + q = 0
(3)

u3 + v3 + (3uv + p)(u + v) + q = 0
. (2) t = u + v , u; v

(3)
f
.

u; v b

: . ,

uv = , 3p 3uv + p = 0

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: (4) (3)

8> 3 3
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>: u3 v3 = , p3

v3

u3

(5)

27

p3 = 0
z2 + qz , 27

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z=
(2) ,

v3 u3

,q 

q2 + 274 q3
2

t = u + v , v3 u3 z

v
v
q
q
u
u
u
4
3
2
3 ,q +
3 ,q ,
q + 27 p u
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t
t
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+
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, 3 f

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:
b

(1501-1576) Girolamo Cardano 1


(1499-1557) Niccol
o Tartaglia
.

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ax2 + bx + c = 0 , b
p
,b b2 ,4ac , 
. x =
2

. , ,

(1

f (7) 3
(2)

t = f

: ,

t3 + pt + q = (t , )(t2 + At + B)
.

t2 + At + B = 0

. (7)
:

t3 , 3t + 2 = 0

b ,
:

(t , 1)2 (t + 2)

t3 , 3t + 2

q = 2 p = ,3 , .1; 1; ,2

t = 3 ,1 + 3 ,1 = ,2
.

p
,1


b (2
:
b .

t3 , 6t + 4 = 0

(t , 2)

\"
(8)

t = 2
:

t3 , 6t + 4 = (t , 2)(t2 + 2t , 2)
3

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: (8)
b

t=2 ;

t=

s
3

t2 + 2t , 2 = 0

p
,1  3
: (7)

s
p
p
,4 + ,16 + 3 ,4 , ,16
2

4 ,1 ,16

t = 3 ,2 + 2 ,1 + 3 ,2 , 2 ,1

(9)

p
,1

p
,1

.
b

(1 +

,1)3

=
=

(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3

1 + 3 ,1 , 3 , ,1

p
,2 + 2 ,1
p
p
(1 , ,1)3 = ,2 , ,1

: (9) ,

t = 1 + ,1 + 1 , ,1 = 2
,

p
,1

! ,

"

p
,1

,
.

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p
,1

"

p
,1

4
b

, .
b

3 f 3

. ,

.2

xy b

z0 = (x0; y0) z = (x; y) b


\

"

(x; 0) b

(x + x0 ; 0) , , (x0 ; 0) (x; 0)
.

(xx0 ; 0)

z0 = (x0; y0) z = (x; y) (1-2)

z + z0 = (x + x0; y + y0)
Caspar Wessel2
Jean Robert Argand3
Carl Friedrich Gauss4

: 3 5

Ebbinghaus, H. D., et al Numbers, Springer 1991.

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z + z0 z0 ,z ,0 = (0; 0)

.(1 ) b

z + z0

z0
z
x
O

(1-1-2)

z + z0 = z0 + z () (1-1-2)

z + (z0 + z00) = (z + z0) + z00 (2-1-2)

( )

0 = (0; 0) (3-1-2)

z+0= 0+z = z

z ,z = (x; y) (4-1-2)

,z = (,x; ,y)
: ( )

z + (,z) = (,z) + z = 0
,
b
. ,

z0 = (x0; y0) z = (x; y) (1-2)

. f

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,
b
b
,

(xx0 ; yy 0) z  z 0

. b

, , ,

(1; 0)  (0; 1) = (0; 0)

(x; 0)  (x0 ; 0)

zz0

. b

(xx0 ; 0)

z  z0 ,z0 = (x0; y0) z = (x; y)

z0 z b b

0 rr0 b z  z 0 , r0 r b z 0 z b

zz 0

z0
rr0

r0

 + 0 z
r
0

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y
z
r

x

z 6= 0 .zz0 = 0 f r0 r , z0 z

z 0 x b  .z0 6= 0

0 rr0 b zz 0
.

z0 0

 + 0 x b
(1-2-2)

z  z0 = z0  z () (1-1-2-2)

z  (z0  z00) = (z  z0)  z00 (2-1-2-2)

( )

(1; 0)

b (3-1-2-2)

z  (1; 0) = (1; 0)  z = z

z0 ( ) z 6= 0 (4-1-2-2)
z  z0 = z0  z = (1; 0)

r = 1 (1; 0) ,(3-1-2-2)

f
.

r ,0 z ,z 6= 0 ,

(,) b

=0

r,1 z0 ,

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(3 )

z
r

1
1

,

r
z ,1

z b (( ) 2 ) z = (x; y) b (r; )

,
(

 ,b ,r b

z ) jzj r

. ,

 (2)


b .
,

x < 0 ,(x; 0) arg(z) =  ;y > 0 ,(0; y) arg(z) = 2 f


.

arg(z) 
.

arg(z) ,0

y < 0 (0; y) arg(z) = 32

, . (1-2-2) (1-1-2)
:

z; z0 ; z00 (3-2)

z  (z0 + z00) = (z  z00) + (z  z00)


(z + z 0 )  z 00 = (z  z 00 ) + (z  z 00)
. ,

(x; 0)

(x; y )

(4-2)

. , ,

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x0 x ,z0 = (x0; 0) z = (x; 0)

arg(z  z0) = 0 ,arg(z) = arg(z0) =  arg(z) = arg(z0) = 0

jzjjz0j = ,xx0

x0 x .(x; 0)  (x0; 0) = (xx0; 0) ,xx0 = jzz0j ,xx0 > 0

0 b arg =  xx0 xx0 < 0 ,arg (zz 0) = 


(x; 0)  (x0; 0) = (xx0 ; 0) f ,

(,1)

. 1 b , b

(0; ,1)

(,1; 0)

(0; 1) b f ,arg (,1; 0) = 

(0; 1)  (0; 1) = (,1; 0)


(0; ,1)  (0; ,1) = (,1; 0)
(,1; 0) ) (,1) i (0; ,1) = ,i

. (

i 1

(1; 0)

,
b (

n
: 1

(1; 0); (cos

i (0; 1) b

) 1

n b n 1

n b

2 ; sin 2 ); (cos 4 ; sin 4 ); : : :; (cos (n , 1)2 ; sin (n , 1)2 )

. 1 () 4 1 () 4

10

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2
3

1 0)

( ;

: 1

(1; 0)

1 3
2
2
(, ;
) = (cos
;
sin
2 2
3
3)
p
1
3 ) = (cos 4 ; sin 4 )
(, ; ,
2 2
3
3

11

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(2)
(x; y ) b b
(x; y )

r , (x; y ) b (r; ) b

0 x 

. b

x = r cos 

y = r sin 

(1)

r  0 (r; )

z 0 = (x0; y 0) (r0; 0 )

z = (x; y )

z  z0

= (rr0 cos( + 0 ); rr0 sin( + 0 ))


= (rr0 cos  cos 0 , rr0 sin  sin 0 ; rr0 sin  cos 0 + rr0 cos  sin 0 )
= (xx0 , yy 0; xy 0 + x0y )

(x; y )  (x0; y 0) = (xx0 , yy 0 ; xy 0 + x0y )

(2)


. ,(2) .

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: ,z 00 = (x00; y 00)

z  (z 0 + z 00 )

= (x; y )  (x0 + x00; y 0 + y 00)


= (x(x0 + x00) , y (y 0 + y 00); x(y 0 + y 00) + (x0 + x00 )y )

(2)

= ((xx0 , yy 0 ) + (xx00 , yy 00); (xy 0 + x0 y ) + (xy 00 + x00y ))


= (xx0 , yy 0; xy 0 + x0 y ) + (xx00 , yy 00 ; xy 00 + x00 y )

zz 0 + zz 00

C b ,R , b
: , (x; 0)

x , x

(x; y ) = (x; 0) + (0; y )


= (x; 0) + (0; 1)(y; 0)
=
(x; y )

((2) )

x + iy

x + iy , \ "

x + iy , ,

,1) i  i

f . (
(2)

: f

(x + iy )  (x0 + iy 0) = (x + iy )  x0 + (x + iy )  (iy 0)
=

xx0 + iyx0 + xiy 0 + (iy )(iy 0)

xx0 + i(yx0 + xy 0) + (i  i)(yy 0)

= (xx0 , yy 0 ) + i(xy 0 + x0 y )

z = x + iy

,iy ,y .

r ) 0 z = x + iy
.

y z

jzj z

jzj = x2 + y2
2

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(3)

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jz + z0j  jzj + jz0j

z 0 z

( )

(4)

jz  z0j = jzjjz0j

(5)

(4) (5)
.( ) (3)
.
,x b ,z =

x + iy

z x , iy

z + z0 = z + z0

(6)

z  z0 = z  z0

(7)

z  z = jz j2
.

(8)

arg (z ) , b

z = jz j(cos(arg (z )) + i sin(arg (z ))
: .

z = cos  + i sin 
3

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(9)

jzj = 1 z

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cis()

(cos  + i sin )n = cos(n) + i sin(n)

(10)

. 1 e (10)
, , ,n b (10) ,
. b 1 z 0 ,z .
: ,n =

,1

(cos  + i sin ),1 = cos(,) + i sin(,)


: ,

zn

, :n ,z ,n

(cos  + i sin ),n = (cos(n) + i sin(n)),1 = cos((,n)) + i sin((,n))


.

:1
f .

cos 3 .
:

n = 3

. sin  cos  sin 3

cos 3 + i sin 3 = (cos  + i sin )3


= cos3  + 3i cos2  sin  , 3 cos  sin2  , i sin3 
= (cos3  , 3 cos  sin2 ) + i(3 cos2  sin  , sin3 )

de Moivre1
4

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8
>< cos 3 = cos3  , 3 cos  sin2 
>: sin 3 = 3 cos2  sin  , sin3 

n b :2
. n b

n 1 n b

(9) .

6= 0
.

arg (z )

z = jz j(cos  + i sin )
: ,

jwj(cos + i sin ) w .wn = z , z n b w


jwjn(cos n + i sin ) = jzj(cos  + i sin )

jwj ,jzj = jwjn jwjn jzj

jzj n n jzj n jzj


8< cos n = cos 


: sin n = sin 
n =  + 2k
=


n

* : k

+ k 2n
:

qn

jzj(cos( n + k 2n ) + i sin( n + k 2n ))

z n

* : k

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n k

+ k 2n

2 , k n

jzj n b n ,


n

8< pn jzj(cos(  + k 2 ) + i sin(  + k 2 ))


n
n
n
n
: k = 0; 1; : : :; n , 1

(11)

t ,t3 + pt + q = 0 b

u; v 3uv + p = 0 b t = u + v
: ,z 2 +

z=

p
qz , 27

= 0 b

,q  q2 + 274 p3

(12)

q p q p

b
(12) .
.
) b (12)
, (u; v )
,3uv + p =

0 b

9 = 3  3 ,(

. b

, (u1 ; v1 ) .

u1

v
q
u
u
4 p3
3
,
q
+
q 2 + 27
t
=

.u1 v1 =

v1

v
q
u
u
4 p3
3
,
q
,
q 2 + 27
t
=

uv = , 3p

, 3p b p3
6

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(11) b

u = !1 u1

uv = , 3p

v = !2 u2

!2 !1

: .!1 !2 =

1
! = cis( 23 ) = , 12 + i

3
2

! 2 = cis( 43 ) = , 12 , i

3
2

: !1 !2 =

(!1 = !2 = 1)

(!1 =

!; !2 = ! 2 )

(!1 = ! 2 ; !2 = ! )

(!u1 ; ! 2 u2 ) , (u1 ; v1 )
,(! 2 u1 ; !u2 )

t = u 1 + v1
t = !u1 + ! 2 u2
t = ! 2 u1 + !u2
. t3 +

pt + q = 0 b

: 3

u; v q = 2 ,p = ,3
z=

. t3

, 3t + 2 = 0 b

,2  4 , 4 = ,1
2

,1) b u; v

. (

1
3
cos = + i
3 2
2


.1

: (11) (

cos  = ,1

5
cos
3

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1
3
= ,i
2
2

,1)

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u1 = v1 =

,1 f , , 3p = 1
: b

,1 , 1 = ,2 ;

,! , !2 = 21 + 21 = 1 ; ,!2 , ! = 12 + 21 = 1

u; v q = 4 ,p = ,6 t3 , 6t + 4 = 0 b
z=

.2

,4  16 , 32 = ,2  2i
2

: .
:

2cis  = 1 + i
4

2cis(  + 2 )
4 3

2cis(  + 4 )
4 3

5
2cis 12

5 + 2 )
2cis( 12
3

,2 + 2i

,2 , 2i

5 + 4 ) = p2cis(,  ) = 1 , i
2cis( 12
3
4

(1 + i)+(1 , i) = 2 ,(1 + i)(1 , i) = 2 = , 3p


: b

(1 + i) + (1 , i) = 2

p
p
, i 23 )(1 , i) = ,1 , 3
p
p
p
! 2 (1 + i) + ! (1 , i) = (, 21 , i 23 )(1 + i) + (, 12 + i 23 )(1 , i) = ,1 + 3

! (1 + i) + ! 2 (1 , i) = (, 21 + i

3
1
2 )(1 + i) + (, 2

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.
. C f R2 b .
b . \" \" ,\"

B ,

, .

f : C ,! C

T (z ) = z + B

B2 B1

B b

(1)

z+B
z

B
w+B

w
:

B2 B1

z ,! z + B1 ,! (z1 + B1 ) + B2 = z + (B1 + B2 )
1

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. 1+

B2

. ,0 , b

z0 z b 0 , b

z 0 b z b b

, . z0 0

, . ( )

: , b

R : C ,! C

R(z) = cis( )  z
z

0 b

(2)

0 z0 (,z0 ) b

cis( ) ) 0 b ,

,(

. 0 b , 0 b
:

z ,! z , z0 ,! cis( )  (z , z0 ) ,! cis( )  (z , z0 ) + z0
z

: 0

z ,! cis( )  (z , z0 ) + z0 = cis( )  z + (1 , cis( ))  z0


, (1

(3)

(4)

, cis( ))  z0

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0 (1-5)
.

0 , 6= 2k , b f

. 0

6 1 , 6= 2k . cis( )  z + B

0 cos( ) =

cis( )  z + B = cis( )  z + (1 , cis( ))  z0 , 1,cisB ( )

(4)

. 0

z k z0
z

. 0

z k ,z0 z0 z z0
z

z0

z z

. ,

k  0 = 0 z0 z0

b ,

k ) kz b z

. ,0 ,

H : C ,! C ,k 0 .(z \"

: ,

H (z) = kz
z

(5)

, 0 , 0

H , , 0 z0 b , (,z0 )

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: 0 b

z ,! z , z0 ,! k(z , z0 ) ,! k(z , z0 ) + z0
:

(6)

k z0

z ,! k(z , z0 ) + z0 = kz + (1 , k)z0

(7)

(1

, k)z0

0 (2-5)
.

k 6= 1

kz + B z b .B

(7)

kz + B = kz + (1 , k)z0 z0 1,Bk ,k 6= 1
z

, , . 0

z , , , (7) (4) ,(1)


, .

f : C ,! C

:C

,! C

f (z) = Az + B
b b

A = 0

(8)

A; B

k = 0 B , B
A 6= 0

: ,

A = jAjcis( )
:

,!

cis( )  z

,!

jAjcis( )  z
,! jAjcis( )  z + B
4

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(9)

(10)

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. ,0 ,0 ,
. ,
(10)
:

z ,! z + B A = 1

A 6= 1

b 0 b . 0
(1

z ,! Az + B

, A)z0 = B f , Az0 + B = z0

B ,
. 0 = 1,
A

: . 0

A 6= 1

z ,! Az + B ,

Az + B = A(z , 1 ,B A ) + B + 1AB
, A = A(z , z0 ) + z0

A = jAjcis( )
z

. 0

jAj

B
. 0 = 1,
A

cis(arg(A)) z ,! Az + B ,jAj = 1 A 6= 1

B
. 0 = 1,
A

A z ,! Az + B ,A  0 A 6= 1

b T2 : C ,! C z1 T1 : C ,! C

T  T1

? 2

T z

. 2 ( ) =

T2  T1 (z)

.1

. 2

cis( )  z + B2 T1 (z) = cis( )  z + B1

T2 (cis( )  z + B1 ) + B2

cis( )  cis( )  z + cis( )  B1 + B2

cis( + )  z + (cis( )  B1 + B2 )

cos( + ) = 1 , + = 2k . cis( )  B1 + B2


5

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6= 2k

, +

cis( )  B1 + B2
z

cis( )B +B

. 0 = 1,cis( 1+ )2

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0

v QO

a(q)

wtv Q@

Q=O

=tt \N x- rO=at Qo}O |iQ]

R=

y ; a(q ) = da
dq (q ):(q ; q )
0

\N xrO=at

S = (  a(q ) ; da
dq (q ):q ) T

"

B '

Ovm|t `]k
%

q=

CUy

0 QO =Q '

da (q
dq

s=

wLt \N u}=

'  k Q

) ?}

=@

P CU=Q

R= =Q o

da (q ):q
y ; a(q ) + da
(
q
)
:q
=
dq
dq
0

CUy

u

Okt u}=Q@=v@ xm OwW|t pY=L

Q=

q=q

Q =@

uO=O Q= k

y = a(q ) ; da
dq (q ):q +
= a(q ) + da
dq (q ):q
0

q=q

da (q
dq

):q

=@ CU=Q \N u}= l =QDW=

O |t xH}Dv

% yO

( )=
4

xU}=kt

QO

xm

y = dC
dq (q )
0

w O

"O @ x W

10

E-Mail: info@irmec.ir

=aO= xm Qw]v=ty

q=@ x
- @DQt |=y?} QkD w Qwr}D |=xrtH OvJ

f |] ? Qk O = Q PBkDW w xv a x]k f ` = Q x s}v |


=
Ok x A(x) = f (a) + f (a):(x ; a) Ok = ` = `
C l x
|a = a
A(x) Ov x f (x) w | a x |D C x]k
f ` = Ok Q Q x = a x
x C u
| = a l R = x Q |r
` = x |] ?} Q |m R u
Q} | xr =
xmr A(a) = f (a) =yv x |va C f ` = Q
=t l x
` = Ok `
|] ? Qk
=y@ Qk x =@ l x VN u
=
O
A (a) = f (a) O Q Q x = a R} f A jDW
? Qk O QDk} p =k
C ` = xv
a x]k w ` = l QDk} Ov R w x
x]k
v QO
-

u Q=

D ' W @

U=

)
m

'O W

}= R=

W v

'

=@Da=

vO

R=

}O v | y

=Q=

t QO

D u W

kO

w VRQ= R=

?} QkD

VwQ

U=

Y=

@ D

}= QO t h y

"

U=

kw w

|= @

@ D

@ D

@ D

HQO

Q |rm Qw]x@

v p L

O =

" W @ 

=ya@=D

u}=

TB

R=

CU=

"

O w |t

QO

" v W

|rm Qw]x@

xO U u

R=

l}ORv x-OW

x@U=Lt xm CU= |a@=D

}O v

@ D Q=

t |QwO }

} - HQO R=

@= @

}=

|=R= @

"O

k=w QO

QO

@ D

@ D

} R=

Y i

kO x

}= i Q ] @

w |t QDQ=wWO ,=H} QOD `@=wD u}= x@U=Lt

"O W

CU=

O = |rY= `@=D x@
- U=Lt

@ D Q=

' v @= @

" W @

U=

D D

|=

k=w QO '

|= @

o=

v u QO

@ D - t=O R=

l} xmv}=

U=

@ T

"

v QO

Q=

t QwO

D v

t O N - t=O R=

@ '

m '

R= |

|Qw 

Q} R \}=QW 'OW=@

()
()

QDxO=U O}=@ ?} QkD ORt=v x@


- U=Lt
xO=O

`@=Dx@ ,=ak=w O}=@ ?} QkD ORt=v

= x wtv |]N ?} QkD

RQ @ - v

wULt `@=wD u} QDxO=U CU= CU=Q \N l} =yv

()

' 1

OQ t QO

wtv xm |]N

Q=O

w Q

Q=OQ N @

=ya@=D 'C@=F

OvDUy uwo =vwo C=HQO R= |=y}=xrtH OvJ s}vm|t KQ]t ?} QkD u=wvax@ xm |}=ya@=D VN@

"

O w |t ?wULt xO=U C@Uvx@ `@=wD Ov}|t CUOx@ |k}kL O=Oa= ?Q w `tH R= xm R}v =y}=xrtHOvJ

" v W

xHQO

=y}=xrtH OvJ

Q}e

"x

w OvtOwU

=@
QO

Q `k=w

|= @

QO

Qty =]N u}tND

VwQ

=iDU=

wvax@ l} xHQO

=y}=xrtH OvJ 'OvDUy C@=F `@=wD 'QiY


w

OQ t QO

=]N xm s}vm pY=L Q]=N u=v}t]= s}v=wD@ O}=@ '?} QkD

VwQ

l}

w@k

?} QkD

VwQ

l} O}=@ Qw_vt u}= x@

Q x
=Q= =]N jr]t QOk

"O m

u=

xrtHOvJ x- HQO xJ Qy

|=

Q |@=} RQ= O}=@ xvwoJ =Q `@=D x@ ?} QkD uOw@ l}ORv '(2)

R= xO

=Q x=

xrtH OvJ x@
- U=Lt 'OW=@ QDmJwm

#O m

?} QkD u}=

QO

|=

|t Q=m x@ |]N ?} QkD

w ' vwQ

uO @

p@=k OL

CU= QDxO=U

"

Q |}q=@

|= @

Q l}

u= m

CU= Q_v

"

u

ltm x@

Q =

Q}oQ=mx@

OQ t O @ Q m QO |

wD@ xm OW=@ CUO

u=

QO

|= @ p

www.irmec.ir

M:(x ; a)2 =]
u Q =v
C x a u}

Rw

=HD 12

x@
- U=Lt =@

}= @

Ovm|tv

R=

"

U=

CU}v =} CUy |rw@k p@=k OL

"

R}v =]N u}tND

l}

VwQ

O = Q}PBOkDWt Q=@ wO

N ' W @

QO

@ xR
- @ QO

|r=tDL=

`@=D

Q s}y=wN xQa xUrH u}=

'O m

f h Qa

f h Qa
f (a) x

CU=

xv

x]kv

D - t=O QO |=

= |vwQO x]k
v l}
-

D xR
- @

Q |}q=@

Q l}

|= @

u= m

=]N QFm =OL xm OQm x_Lqt

Ovm|t x
=Q= umtt

jDWt

swO

Qo = xm s}O}O |]N ?} QkD

@ D

w |t

"

jDWt Qo = w OW=@

f `=

aQ

xm

QO

Q |rm

| D

=]N QFm =OL

u= D

=yWwQ

Q |v=Qm xm

|= @

OQ t

M =Hv x
1 M (x ; a)2
2
}= QO

Q ?}DQD u}tyx@

|= @ '

OQw

s}y=wN x=Qty x@

s Q |t R=@ `@=D l} swO jDWt h} QaD x@

o=

" }O o

=ov 'OW=@ xOW h} QaD

= l} QU=QU

p L R @ xR
- @

QO

a x]k f Q jDW w w |
O = xD
w a w = = l =k xt
f (x) Q w]v}t s} | V =t f 2 (a)
f 3 (a) = f (a) x
w
w
x C =
Q]
a x]k f Q PBkDW w |
Q Q
f ` = n jDW Q |r w x s} = | a x]k f w jDW s} | V =t
Q | Q w a x]k
f n Q PBkDW w | O = O h Qa a w = = l
a x]k f (n + ) (x@ Q ) jDW s} | V =t f n 1 (a) x
w
w
x
jDW
xv
=k xt
f Q s} = |
k f : S ;! R ` = s} = |
x@ Q Q
jDW
w xv
T x wtH Q = a x]k l f Q O = k x@ Q
s} = | T x wtH
= a x]k
f O =
=}

00

' W @

W=O O Hw

( )

s=

t |=Q=O

D t

UQ @ OQ t

v QO

y R=

xm 'CN=U KQ]t
} \

( )

- D t

t v

t v

t v

-a

o= Q

-a

} R QO

t QO

t w

t u= D

yO

O Q}o@ Q_v

% }

p L R @ xR @

@ =Q u O Hw CQ Y QO

@ D

} QO

o=

"

" W @ s=

v QO Q}PBkDWt Q=@ C}=yv}@ =Q

t w

( )

| }

=Q

00

s U

( + )

t O Hw u= D

yO

v QO

t ' W @ x W

t Q}PBkDWt Q=@

"

v QO

|= @

t =Q

t u= D

yO

o=

t |=Q=O O N - t=O R=

"

v QO

N U K

| }

t w

v - y QO

"

m '

m Q ] @

v QO =Q

t=O \

o= '

=Q

00

v - y QO

@ =Q u O Hw CQ Y QO

@ D s=

OQ=O Q= k

R=

p L R @ xR
- @

000

U= U QO

@ =Q u O Hw CQ Y QO

xrtH OvJ `@=D l}

QO |=

t v

- D t

' W @

"p=Ft

p(x) = c0 + c1x + . . . + cnxn


Q}PBkDWt

xQ

O}vm xHwD

xw

Q R}v

y |= @

qax@

p jDW (Q u} =
t '

} B

|m} x- HQO R=) CU=

CU= Q}PBkDWt Q=@ C}=yv}@

"

p k (x) =

"

( )

RQ

s} Q=O

U= U QO

k>n

xrtH OvJ l} R}v

|=

px

s}v}@|t

Q}okDWt

|= @ '|

E-Mail: info@irmec.ir

p jDW

xm =Hv R=

Q}okDWt x- t=O= =@ w CU=

QO

xHQO p}rkD ?@Ux@ xm

www.irmec.ir

sin = ; sin sin = cos s

u}=Q@=v@

00

'

w |t Qy=_ ,=OOHt

'O W

h} QaD xv
- t=O

QO

O Q}o@ Q_v

} Q=O

wv}U `@=D

" }

Q}okDWt Q=@ Q=yJ

R}v Qo}O |D=FrFt `@=D Q=yJ

R=

sin : R ;! R ` =

QO =Q

TB w O=O xt=O= xQ=wty

|y@=Wt C}aw

"OQ=O

"2 p=Ft

@ D

=Q |

Q}okDWt u=wD|t

sin 4 = sin

wv}Um `@=D

( )

"

O Q PBkDWt Q=@ C}=yv}@ OwN

" v }

s}vm|t h} QaD Q} R

w x

CQ Y @ =Q

8
>
< xn x 
f (x) = > n
: ;x x <

CU=

'

"3 p=Ft

@ D

f (x) = jxj s n = Q C O
C@F K}L
O l n =Hv
s Q} | Q_
n > = CU} Q PBkDW x =
| C Q PBkDW x 6=
xrt Ov l x
;xn = xn Ok =t f ` = a w = = l a 6=
s
n > Q k > n Q f k (a) = C Q PBkDW = C =yv}
8
>
< nxn 1 x >
f (x) = >
: ;nxn 1 x <

x]k
v Qy
Qo =

f : R ;! R ` =

QO

" }

xm

|=

} Q=O '

v QO =Q

1 |= @

1 p L

"

m OQ=O =Q

} Q=O

1 |= @

"

U= x W xO=O

Q=

t u

"

Y O a

0 QO

@ D '

|= @

rw

U=

}= QO

p L R @ xR
- @

0 w '

U=

} QO '

t Q @

x

x@

xO

=iDU= h} QaD

R=

a=

0 QO

f ( + h) ; f ( ) = hn ; = hn 1
h
h
w|
( ) w Q f ( ) = T C Qi = =@ O n > x x w =
s Q C = k < n Q x O}v
Q QkD x |r w x
s}ta x 
8
>
< n(n ; ) . . . (n ; (k ; ))xn k x 
k
f (x) = >
: ;n(n ; ) . . . (n ; (k ; ))xn k x <
0

=}

s}vm|t

u= D

t =Q

% }=xO m

p t i w

@ F

|= @

B '

Y q @ CQ

m Z i =

( )

U=

U= @

=Q

Q} R QUm

L '

m Q ] @

"O=O

- D t

f k ( + h) ; f k ( ) = n(n ; ) . . . (n ; (k ; ))hn
h
( )

( )

E-Mail: info@irmec.ir

H D

a (k + ) x@ Q
QO

s}yO|t p}mWD

jDWt

k 1

; ;

Q =ov

|= @ x

www.irmec.ir

k =n;

=}

k+ =n

'

Q |rw CU= QiY u=vJty q=@

|= @

h) ; f
h
f n ( ) u Q =v h <
f

xmv}= xYqN

(n ; ) \k

Q @

( )

"OQ= v O Hw

i 0 QO

n;1) (

n;1) (0)

}= @

|rw CU= Q}PBkDWt Q=@

k+ <nx

'

xm

OQ=O

0 |

u}= x@ |oDU@

=vFDU= x@

O = |t QiY

" W @

k
x]k
v l}
-

a x]k
-

v QO

CU=

'

I s}v
k IQ Q
w kx

= l}

xR @

Q}PBkDWt Q=@
xm

m Z i

OQ=O O Hw

"

U= U QO

s}vm |iQat

Q}PBkDWt Q=@

p(x)

- HQO R=

=kv xt
- y

`@=D l}

kx

- HQO

f `=

QO

@ D

(120)

?} QkD xm s}=xO=t uwvm =

D w

yO

= |vwQO

'xR @

t u

=Wv 'CU=

p(a) = f (a) p (a) = f (a) . . .  p k (a) = f k (a)


0

( )

xm

=ykDWt =@ Q}PBkDWt

@ D

(k ; ) |a = f : I ;! R
Ov (l =yv ) l s} |

xrtH

|=

C q

x
- HQO Qwr}D |=xrtH OvJ
=Q

|v=tR =D

= n!

=}

=@a OL

s} Q=O

h>
C =yv} x =

@ '

CQ

()

( )

a x]k k x@ Q = Q =vD =kDW f ` = = k x@ Q =


=kDW
xrt Ov u |va
p(x) = c0 + c1x + . . . + ck xk pm x p(x) Q_ w k x
xrt Ov
O
j =]
s}v ? Q Q
w x p(x) s} w |
O=
w x x = (x ; a) + a uD w = C
-

v QO

- D t

D u

t C

t w

@ D

D t

} R CQ Y @ =Q

v= D

- D t

D u C

v OQ t

t w |=

- HQO |=

t 'u v UQ u= D @ w

}=

" vQ=O

W v

"

p(x) = a0 + a1(x ; a) + . . . + ak (x ; a)k


Ov}|t

QO

Q} R

w x

E-Mail: info@irmec.ir

U=

()
2

k x@ Q = p(x)

CQ Y @ s=

- D t D

=kDWt

www.irmec.ir

8
>
p (x) = a1 + a2(x ; a) + . . . + kak (x ; a)k 1
>
>
>
...
>
>
>
< i
p (x) = i!ai + . . . + k(k ; ) . . . (k ; (i ; )ak (x ; a)k
>
>
...
>
>
>
>
>
: p k (x) = k!ak
0

()
3

( )

( )

% } Q=O

()
1

=@

\ W

( ) ( ) xU =k
3

t QO

u}=Q@=v@

a0 = f (a) a1 = f (a) a2 = ! f (a) . . .  ak = k! f k (a)


1

00

( )

% } Q=O w

OvwW|t u}aD OQix@ QYLvt Qw]x@

()

\ W R=

()
2

xrtH OvJ ?}=Q TB

|=

p(x) = f (a) + f (!a) (x ; a) + . . . + fk! (x ; a)k :


k

( )

()
4

f = k x@ Q =
=kDW
w
= a
f k
a x]k f |] ? Qk k =
w ? w k x@ Q = a x]k
p
Ov = l R s =}U a x]k |m

=kDWt

?} QkD

pY=L

OW Oy=

- D t

x]kv QO
-

"

H t '

- D t D '

W @

}O v

% } Q=O

y Q

OW=@

xm CU=

t w O N

kx

HQO |=

xHQO Qwr}D |=xrtH OvJ lv}= =Q

`@=D

v QO

D u C

D '

a x]k
-

v QO

v QO

Q xm O}vm xHwD

1 |= @

}O v QO

@ D

wr}D

- HQO Q

|=

;!

kx

J y

|r}N `@=Dx@ O}=@

"

"

t

xrtH OvJ

- HQO

?} QkD u}=Q@=v@

'

x ;! a |D

x]kv QO
-

y= N

U=

- D t

`@=D

u}= xDmv

} R QO

p(x) Q

o=

u

xHQO
-

w |t

"O W

xm |}=vat x@ xm

x}k

(220)

'

k=

Q xm O}vm xHwD

1 |= @

w |t lJwm QDa} QU

Ovm p}t QiYx@

=D

()

kw O W

"

v QO

CU= |]N ?} QkD =} T=tt \N h} QaD u=ty u}=

kx

t v

t | @= @

f (x) ; p(x) =
lim
x a (x ; a)k
QDoQR@

v @= @

f `= k x

xrtH OvJ u}=

|=

p(x) O Q Q a x]k k x@ Q
Ov = | a
f k

f =kDW Q Q x C
p(x) f (x) O O w Q

=kDWt =@

xrtH OvJ xv=o}

(x ; a)k O

W @

f (x);p(x) C@Uv xm OW=@ l}ORv


(x;a)k

E-Mail: info@irmec.ir

www.irmec.ir

k=

'

Q O

C@=F

wr}D

|=

xm Qw]v=ty

(k ; ) x@ Q
xrt Ov q (x)

x W

1 |= @ ' W xQ W=

=D smL O}vm

- D t

Z i

OW=@ Q}PBkDWt Q=@

s}vm|t C@=F

"

QkDU= =@

|wQ <=

w |t pY=L
1

'

g(x) ; q(x) =
lim
x a (x ; a)k 1
;

;!

% m OQ=O O Hw

>

g |a = Q
O = a x]k

| }

xm swyit u}O@ 'CU=

@ D

o=

v QO u

W @

u=yQ@

Q PBkDWt h} QaD

v QO

s} Q=O

(220)

=tt \N =}

"O W

(k ; ) a x]k

smL

=Q

(k ; ) x
1

HQO

e>

O = O

0 ' W @ x W xO=O

jx ; aj <  =) jg(x) ; q(x)j < e:jx ; ajk

=Q

0 x o y '

Qo}O u=}@ x@

()

'(x) = f (x) ; p(x) s} V =t '(x) x ( ) QU w Q


k
'(x) = f (x) ; f (a) + f (!a) (a)(x ; a) + . . . + f k(!a) (x ; a)k] ( )
s
C Q PBkDW R} ' O Q PBkDW p(x) xrt Ov
f w
k
' (x) = f (x) ; f (a) + . . . + (fk ;(a)!) (x ; a)k 1]
()
q x
w | Q PBkDW = (k ; ) a x]k
f C Q PBkDW = k a x]k f w
QkD
Q j@ T C a
f ` = (k ; ) x wr} xrt Ov x Q p
=@
( ) j@ x
w > e>
Q
k
< jx;aj <  =) j' (x)j = jf (x);f (a)+. . .+ (fk ;(a)!) (x;a)k 1]j < ejx;ajk
s
' Q PBkDW ` = Q u}o =} Ok x}
j@ Qo Q
s} Q=O

'

'

yO

@ =Q

m CQ Y

o=

% } Q=O w

U=

' v }

|=

J w

u J

( )

xw

'<=

a @

"O W

U= Z i

t Q @

B '

U=

QO

'

v QO

@ D

'

U=

- HQO Q

% 6

t Q @

D |=

'

v QO

Ww m

m OQ=O O Hw

0 '

u J

N=O CQ

0 |= @

( )

% } Q=O

@ D |= @

t Q=

t -

}O h ] R=

'(x) ; '(a) = ' (c):(x ; a)


0

'(a) = ( ) j@

'

< jx ; aj <  =) j'(x)j < ejc ; ajk 1 jx ; aj


;

E-Mail: info@irmec.ir

0 ' 7

|rw

www.irmec.ir

xH}Dv

2
=

" UQ

| y

|t

f `=

|= @

s}U} wv|t

|= @

j'(x)j
Q lJwm x=wNrOx@ jx;ajk

"

Q |@} QkD

a=

w |t

w O m

kx

wvax@

@ D |= @

"

x a u} c

CU=

'

u J w

< jx ; aj <  =) j'(x)j < ejx ; ajk

=@ x@ smL

C F=

jc ; aj < jx ; aj

QO w

u=

wr}D

u= D

xrtH OvJ

HQO Q

|=

s}vm|t xHwD p=Ft OvJ x@ EL@ x- t=O=


|Uwv}Um

0 QO =Q

R=

kx

|Uwv}U `@=wD

jx ; aj uD Q

i o

uO @ p

p@k

- HQO Q

wkat

lJwm =@ u}=Q@=v@
x}
k

2"20 -

Ovm|t x}HwD

"

wr}D

=Q

=y}=xrtH OvJ

al

1 p=Ft

% } Q=O T

wv}U

sin( ) =  sin ( ) = cos( ) =  sin ( ) = sin ( ) = ; cos( ) = ;


; sin( ) =
0

00

000

O w |t Q=QmD

' v W

=ykDWt TB u}= R=

1 w 0 '1 '0 |

O =

% } Q=O ' W @

a=

0 QO

Q@=Q@

wv}U

CUOx@

xrtH OvJ
x

6 - HQO w 5

a=

0 QO

'

p(x) = x
xHQO Qwr}D

OvDQ=@a

R=

GwR

O i

wv}U

xrtH OvJ

|=

Q} R Qwr}D |=xrtH OvJ

|=

w |t Twv}U u=ty Twv}U sQ=yJ jDWt uwJ w


k
j
Twv}U
x- HQO Qwr}D |=xrtH OvJ
j Qo = u}=Q@=v@
j =0
'O W

8
>
<
aj = >
:
xHQO Qwr}D

}O v

ax

j
j

xHQO

xHQO Qwr}D

w 1

p(x) = x ; 31 x3 Q Q

w '

@= @ T

wv}Um |=Q@ ?}DQD u}tyx@

O w |t

" v W

xrtH OvJ ,qFt

|=

wv}U

xHQO

w 3

x ; 13 x3 + 51 x5
!

Ov}|t

%
1

xHQO Qwr}D

|=

xrtHOvJ

3 w 2

xHQO Qwr}D

|=

xrtH OvJ

5 w 4

xHQO Qwr}D

|=

xrtH OvJ

; 21 x2
; 21 x2 + 41 x4
!
!

"x

E-Mail: info@irmec.ir

Q}e

www.irmec.ir

xrtH OvJ u}=

|=

"

O}U} wv@

f (x) = x 1 s
f j (x) = (; )j j !x

TB

'

( )

'

a=

(k + ) x

k xmv

x@ xDU@ q=@

}=

1 QO

@ q @ |=

|=

a=;

= x Qo =

Q= k

wr}D

xrtH OvJ xm |r=L

hrDNt

W @

'

(j )

wr}D

|=

( )
!

J w '

w |t

QO O W

s}vm xO=iDU=

"

xrtH OvJ ?}=Q uDi=}

xO=O

Qm PD O}=@ xDmv u}= =Hv}=

Q |@ 1x 'Ovm p}t

u= m

x@

@ D

x |D

x@

=}

wr}D

VwQ

xm O}vm xHwD

x@ OW=@

=Ft u}=

QO

u}=Q@=v@

GwR

xrtH OvJ

=} OQi

3 p=Ft

xO=O

`@=D |Dkw

x = (x ; a) + a s}

yO

O w |t Qy=_ hrDNt

x ; a)

%p

qtH

w |t

"O W

|=

" v W

Q}okDWt =@ w s}OQm ?DQt (

=yv=wDx@ =Q

qFt |rw

w]v}ty

Q}okDWt R= CU}v sRq OW=@ |=xrtH OvJ l} xOW


xO=O |

QO

kw ,

kw Q

f (x) = ; x + x4 ` =

x |D

1
2 =yv u}ov=}t xm Ovm|t p}t

U=

C HQO R=

|=

s}Di=} QO |r=wDt

xrtH OvJ |m}ORv xm OwW

OvJ 's}vm ?DQt xHQO ?}DQD x@ xO=O \U@ xOW


Q

00

xrtH OvJ |rw Ovm|t p}t 12 x@ x1 'Ovm p}t

1 QO =Q

| H @

w '

|=

(C

O}U} wv@

" $

"

HQO Q

j pm x
(
x
;
)
j 0 j!
f (x) = x 3 f (x) = ;x 2
f 1 = (; )j T
xrt Ov
j

w Oy=wN

kx

`@=D

"2 p=Ft

; (x ; ) + (x ; )2  . . . + (; )k (x ; )k

|r=wL x1 x@ q=@

l}ORv

a=

wr}D |=xrtH OvJ


k
X (j)(1)

HQO Q

"O @

j 1 xm s}v}@|t |}=QkDU= Qw]x@

w |t

|= @

; ;

"O W

a=

@ D

=ykDWt x@U=Lt

} Q=O

CU= Q@Dat

f (x) = x1 ` = k x

1 QO =Q

wr}D =y}=xrtH

C HQO Q

=yv=wD ?ULQ@ =Q Qwr}D |=xrtH OvJ xm Ow@ u}=

CU=

"

f (j) (a)
j!

=ty

(x ; a)j xrt

?} Q xm

f (x) = ; ((x + ) ; ) + ((x + ) ; )4


1

f (x) = ; (x + ) + (x + )2 ; (x + )3 + (x + )4
3

()

; (x + ) ?} Q x Ov =@ a = ; ` =
x
wr} =y xrt Ov
Q =v
=y xrt Ov
; (x + ) + (x + )3 ; (x + )3 ; (x + ) + (x + )2

'3

}=

"3

D D @ R=

DQ

1 QO

O w |t `@=D OwN Q@=Q@ ,=k}kO xm OvDUy

" v W

()
9

@ D 3 w 2 '1

=@ CU=Q

CQ a

HQO Q

w '3

E-Mail: info@irmec.ir

=ty '`@=D

h ] u

D |

}=

= x@

|q @

J |= @ @

xHQO Qwr}D

www.irmec.ir

s Q pta |]N ?} QkD

' }O m

"

Qo =

"

X N

Cr=L

CU= |]N ?} QkD C}a

a2I

xm Qw]v=ty

QO

% } Q=O

I xQ
QO

'

f ` = O}v
f `= k x
QO

a x]k

v QO

@ D

Q Q

@ D

|= @ |Q

wDUO O}=@

x}k

(320)

wr}D

- HQO Q

( + )

|= @ x Nq @

m Z i

f (x) ; p(x) = (k + )! f k 1 :(x ; a)k


1

=iDU=

s}vm x
=Q= =]N u}tND

= QU=QU

Q O =

R= xO

"

R @ xR
- @

y |= @ ' W @

?} QkD

- HQO

s}taD Q} R x}

k
-

k+ ) I

CU= Q}PBkDWt Q=@ (

kx

'

p(x)

xrtH OvJ

|=

( )

+1

10

"

=@a

O |t CUOx@ |]N ?} QkD

h ] CQ

" }

=]N u}tND ,=k}kO

Ovt=v|t Qwr}D

"

s}vm|t u=}@

x}
k

=Q pQ
) -

R=

Q} R s}taD CUNv

'

k=

x]kv

@ |=

}= QO

|y=o

Cr=L Ovv=t ,=k}kO

=Q

( )C
10

=@

w |t Q=Po =w xOvv=wN x@

OvW=@

w '

I x]k

v wO

a<b

O = Q}PBkDWt Q=@

' W @

(k + ) I
1

'

f `=

xQ
- @ QO

O}vm

@ D

U=Q

320 C F=

%O W

xDW=O

xm

x xm O}vm xHwD

c =Hv

1 |=R= @

| U Sv=Qo q xOv=t}k=@

k=

CU=

"

x a u}

CU=

u C

=@F= xm

Z i

420

s}W=@

f (a) = f (a) = . . . = f k (a) = f (h) =


( )

2 f k 1 (c) =
"

Q_v

QO

(k + ) x
1

HQO |=

( + )

a<c<b
pt k = C =

xm

xrtH OvJ l} 's}OQm

'

'OQ=O O Hw

r L QO

x]kv

|=

xm Qw]v=ty

CQ

wYv}=

QO

p L

s Q}o|t

" }

Q(x) = c0 + c1(x ; a) + . . . + ck (x ; a)k + ck 1 (x ; a)k


+

+1

Q f xU =k Q(b) = f (b) Q k (a) = f k (a) . . .  Q (a) = f (a) Q(a) = (a) x


ck 1 = fb b a p b ck = k1 f k (a) . . . c1 = f (a) c0 = f (a) x O | xH}D Q}okDW
q =
=} R
w | xH}D ( ) sm f (x) ; Q(x) ` = w
( ) uD Q = x = =
w | P
Ov w x C k = C =
=@ x =W

=@
"

"

( ); ( )
k +1 w '
; )

, t m C

%O W

( )

( )

10

( )

'

'

L '

"O W

'

@ D OQ t QO

t Q= o =w x

v= N @ w

U=

E-Mail: info@irmec.ir

yO

420

'

v |

i o Q m @

r L QO C

F=

@ p L

www.irmec.ir

s}vm

'

=iDU=

xO

sin x x ; 31 x3 ? Qk (
}

D R=

1
x 10
xD@r=)

sin 101

u }O=Q @

a=

CU=

QO

sin ` =

0 QO

@ D 4

xHQO ?} QkD sy

xHQO ?} QkD sy

w 3

xm =Q} R Ot Oy=wN CUOx@ |QDk}kO u}tND s}vm|t

% } Q=O

( ) j@
10

w |t xOv=UQ

Q =

"O W

=D ?} QkD

=Ft

|= @ 2 p

QO x t

]  101 

xR @ QO

10

xm CU=

= =

w C}tm

' 10

10

wv}Um Q@=Q@

2
10

wr}D

xO

=iDU=

xrtH OvJ

|=

R=

s}y=wN|t O}vm

+ . . . + (; )k

O}vR@ u}tND

( ) j@
10

SQ

=]N

TB 's} Q}o|t

O =t}k=@

] ' v= o q x
- v

Q@=Q@ CU=

=
=

( +1)!

( +1)!

QNt

QO

=Q

x@

=Q

R=

TB skQ

"5 p=Ft

Z i

1
1=01

Qo =

"

s}vm

xO

=iDU=

2k

10

?} QkD u}=

Q s}y=wN |UQQ@ j} Q]

VwQ R=

O=O Q= k R=

4
10

Q OvwQ

uO m

j@=]D |ak=w Q=Okt =@ Q=Wa=

"

% } Q=O

wv}U sHvB jDWt

6 xmv}= x@ xHwD =@ 's}vm

HQO Q

U=Q h ]

( )C

J m

CQ Y

xrtHOvJ u}= Qo =

1 2

10

kx

CUOx@

|=

10

"OQ=O

?} QkD =Q

( )

= !:

< 21

=Wa= \U@ ' 51! 10;5

|Q

O}vm xHwD

x ; a = 101 l

1 R=

=]N

Q |}q=@ |v=Qm

|= @

x ; 31 x3 x

4 - HQO

4 p=Ft

= ! f 5 (c):( )5

=]N
TB 'CU= QDmJwm

wx

| Dq @ u= D @

wULt

Q Qo =

|= @

CUOx@ =]N

" } Qw

"

?} QkD

"O m

=]N

s}vR|t ?} QkD

"

=F u}=

wO R= =Q p t

1 k 1
f k 1 (c):( 100
)
(k + )!(; )k 1 c 1 : 10 1
( + )

xm

=]N

=Q

|}q=@

'

<

k +2

Q Ci=}

u= m

|= @

2k;2

10

)2k +2

10

E-Mail: info@irmec.ir

"

CU=

1 01 w 1

u}@

cx

www.irmec.ir

xm O}vm xHwD

Q x@U=Lt j}kO Qw]x@ CU= |UOvy

Q l} xm

"O m

1 01

w |t (=]N") xOv=t}k=@

%O W

X
1

j =k+1

(; )j (
1

100

1
100

j =0

(; )j
Q

100

u}=

k 1

= (; )k 1 ( )
;
= (; )k 1 100
101

k 1

R= x t

100

; ;

CUOx@ |}q=@

; ;

) k

+ (

=]N

w |t

u= D

=Ft u}= QO

X N p

D | U

100

=Q

CU= Sv=Qo q x-Ov=t}k=@

= (; )k 1 (
1

"

j=k=

OvDUy

| U

qtH xOW x
=Q= ?} QkD u}=Q@=v@

(; )j (

j =0

100

1
1
1+ 100

j j=

QDk}kO |tm xm =]N

u= m R=

; ;

(10) 2k 2

1=01

=}

|v=QL@ \=kv |UQQ@ QO OQ@ Q=m (520)


QiY=v |v=QL@ x]k
v QO `@=D swO jDWt xm O=O|t xH}Dv |Dkw |v=QL@ \=kv |UQQ@
QO

xm |Dq=L |Q=}U@ xm s}yO|t s}taD |Qw] =Q

|vwtR

wyW

|O

=v@t |i==

\ W

swO

jDWt uwtR

|mOv= =@ CUNv

Q}o|t Q@

"O

|= @ swO

jDWt uwtR

=iDU= =@ =Hv}=

220 R= xO

w |t QiY R}v

QO O W

O =

QO

swO

" W @

jDWt

u

(k + ) I = f : I ;! R ` = O}v Q s}v | x Q s} w x x
f k (a) 6= OvDU Qi xt (k ; ) x@ Q = I = a | x]k f =kDW C
f a
f ` = k x wr} xrt Ov wYv
O = | f (a) + k (x ; a)k pm x a x]k
s
( ) j@ s} | V =t  x f k a O

Q}PBkDWt Q=@
QO

( )

" W @

'

0 w

xR
- @ QO

@ D

(k ) ( )

W @

m Z i

- D t

% } Q=O

xR
- @ R=

v QO

"

10

=Q= O m

vwQO -

v QO

@ D

- HQO Q

D |=

yO

f (x) = f (a) + (x ; a)k + f(k + ()!c) (x ; a)k


k

( +1)

y= N

=Q=

m =Q

t '

U=

J CQ

@ =Q

(k ) ( )

}=

O a

+1

f k 1 (x) Q ) C M | Q
a x]k |m R jf k 1 (c)j O}v Q
C l w jx ; aj
Q x a l R x Q =k
Q
wYv
(C w w | Q
O = (x ; a)k jr] O QDm w
x_ q p = w x jr] O
(x ; a)k 1 s
O = f (a) + (x ; a)k x =W x = a |m R
f wt |@ Qk pm s =_D

u}vJ 'OW=@ xDUw}B


=_Dv=

"

u}=Q@=v@
pmW

QO

U=

" W @

" W @

( + )

J m

o=

u |= @

U=

v= m |=Q=O

t Q k R=

}O v

J m |=

}O

t |= @ CQ

@ k Q ] @

}O v QO

( + )

}O v QO

}= QO

"

m Z i

U= O H t

t Q k QO

Q=O

11

E-Mail: info@irmec.ir

} Q=O Q

v= m

} Q=O

v=

www.irmec.ir

<

'

=}

>

xm u}= x@ xDU@ 'umtt Cr=L Q=yJ

a x]k

st}Um =t

O i

k <
'

v QO

`@=D'OW=@

O i

()

a x]k

O =

|t Ctqa

" yO

xH}Dv

'

kw

20 R= ,

xm O}vm xHwD

GwR

"

t s=

m = }R

k <
'

t O Hw

xmv}= x@ xDU@

GwR

GwR

k >
'

(h )
r=

|awt swt|v}t =}

OQ=O

|awt swt|v}t xv

|i==

wtv C}aw

V}=tv OQi =}

QO

" }=xO=O

Q=O

( )

k |D  > =  <
Q}}e x = a
(x ; a)k x Q
=t}kDU (k + ) jDW w
Q

v ' W @ O i

o=

f (a) + (x ; a)k

( )

xv

kQ

k >

GwR

QO =Q

CU= |awt st}Um =t

w |t

\ W uw @ u= D

=Q

?r]t u}= `k=w

QO

CiQo

s=k

(k  ) C

'

k x@ Q = jDW
f k (a) 6=

U= s=

- D t

( )

t |=Q=O O N

0 w

h} QaD xv
- t=O

OvDUy QiY xty

R=

jDWt uwtR (620)

a|

x]kv

vwQO -

(k ; ) x@ Q
1

f (a) = . . . = f k 1 (a) =  f k (a) 6=


(

- D t D

( )

QO

f `=

@ D

a x]k
-

O}vm

Z i

=kDWt

v QO u C

wYv}=

%CQ

f k (a) >
( )

a x]k

f k (a) <
kQ ( )

QO

xmv}=x@ xDU@ CU= |awt st}Um =t =} swt|v}t l} -x]kv OW=@ GwR Qo = (hr=)

"

|awt swt|v}t xv

"

CU= |awt st}Um =t xv

12

E-Mail: info@irmec.ir

O =

v ' W @ O i

( )

o=

=}

www.irmec.ir

f (a) + f

j@]

"

(k ) ( )

k!

(x ; a)k CU a x]k
y

f `= k x

v QO

@ D

- HQO OQ

f
(x) ; f (a) ; f k a (x ; a)k
lim
=
x a
(x ; a)k

wr}D

xrtH OvJ

"u=yQ@

|=

%210

(k )

( )
!

;!

"

TB

f (x) ; f (a) ; f k (a) =


lim
x a
(x ; a)k
k!
1

( )

;!

a l R | = O x x Q u Q =v C C = O C |iv = C@F k1 f k (a) xrt


f (x) ; f (a) T (x ; a)k > O = k Q O = f k (a) C qat O = f xx af a
f (x) > f (a) s f k (a) > Q xH}D
( a l R x Q ) C f k (a) C qat
l a f (x) < f (a) x w | xH}D f k (a) < Q
C |a w w |v} x]k l a
T O | C q Q}}e x = a
(x ; a)k O = Q k Q C |a w st}U = x]k
f k (a) C q Ov =t f xx af a C q x O C q Q}}e x = a O = R} f (x) ; f (a)
O w |t a f (x) > f (a) Qo
Q
f (x) < f (a) a Q l u Q =v O =t | =
2 O = |a w w |v} = st}U =
'

}O v

i m xR= v= @

|= @

}= @

B '

( )

B ' yO

( )

v= D

m O W

U=

@ F |O a w

o=

v QO

'

yO

|= @

U=

"

h ]

" W @

h} QaD

f (x) = x6 cos x ; x5 sin x

w x xm

CQ Y @

f `=

t -

} QO

m t -

}= @

 t s t

x=

@ D |= @

( ); ( )
( ; )k

} @

( )

} @

 t

QO

'

U=

U=

( )

 t s t

}O h ] QO w '

o=

( )

o= w '

' W @ O i

}O v

QO

U=

" W @

"

( )

v '

( ); ( )
( ; )k

o=

"

0 ' W @ GwR

} Q=O '

" v

k @

m t

x]kv C}aw

"6 p=Ft

0 -

O}vm |UQQ@ CU= xOW

"

cos x = R}

CU=

v w '

w 0

u}@

sin x = x ; x3 + x5 cos c1 s}U w |


C x u}
x]k c2 x j ; x2 + x4 cos c2

x]kv 1 xm

|=

% } Q=O

"

U=

@ |=

} v

m '

f (x) = x6( ; x2 + x4 cos c2) ; x5(x ; x3 + x5 sin c1)


= (; 13 )x8 + x10( 41 cos c2 ; 51 sin c1)
1

?r=e
w

(; 31 )x8 xrt
-

lJwm

H '

OvDUy QiY xty


"OQ=O

x=

jxj

|= @ w

CU}v QDW}@ 41!

x@ Q =D

0 QO 7 - D t

+ 51

jr]t QOk

R=

=kDWt xm s}v}@|t

|awt st}Um =t l} QiY x]k


v
-

QO

q @ |w

QO

=UD

RDv=QB pN=O
R=

`k=w

QO

CQ

=@a

CU=

"

f u Q =v f 8 ( ) = (; 13 )( !) <
}= @

13

E-Mail: info@irmec.ir

"

( )

www.irmec.ir

f (x) = (x2 ; x)100 ` = | QL =k


T f (x) =
(x2 ; x)99 ( x ; ) s
f (x) = x100(x ; )100 C w w | `

O}vm |UQQ@

"

x=  

CUOx@

x= 

0 2

"

C@Ft

=kv Q}=U

CU= QiY

QO w

QO w

`k=w st}Um =t x]k


v
-

|rw

"

B '

w x

`@=D

CQ Y @ =Q

x=

=kv u}=

QO

x=

= R TB

=_Lqt

x]kv

0 -

QO

W v u= D

QiY O}=@

w |t

=Q

} Q=O

|t CUOx@

Ov}|t

k=w QO

"

Q |awt swt|v}t

|= @

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