Section 2.

Angular momentum
Important example of the use of operators in
quantum mechanics
Leads to analysis of spin
Lays the foundation for solutions of the
Schrodinger equation in 3D

2.1 Definitions, operators and commutators

In classical mechanics, the angular momentum
of a particle at position r and with momentum
p is:

L = r p
In quantum mechanics we replace r and p with
the corresponding operators (see section 1.2),
so the angular momentum operator becomes:

L = r p
Cartesian components are:

L x = y p z z p y
L y = z p x x p z
L z = x p y y p x

What is the commutator of L x and L y ?

Lx , L y = L x L y L y L x

z zp
z ) ( zp
z ) ( yp
z zp
y ) ( zp
x xp
x xp
y )
= ( yp

The only non-commuting operators here are z

and p z , so

Lx , L y = yp
x ( p z z zp
y ( zp
z ) + xp
z p z z )

y yp
x ) ( zp
z p z z )
= ( xp
y y p x ) = iL z
= i ( xp
We find

Lx , L y = iLz

L y , L z = iL x

Lz , Lx = iL y

We can also define the square magnitude of the

total angular momentum as

L2 = L2x + L2y + L2z

What are the commutators of L2 with L x , L y
and L ?
z

L2 , L z = L2x , L z + L2y , L z + L2z , Lz

We find that the first two commutators on the

rhs cancel, and the last commutator is zero, so

L2 , L x = L2 , L y = L2 , L z = 0

The separate components of angular

momentum are not compatible and can not be
measured simultaneously
Each component is compatible with the total
angular momentum
We can therefore look for solutions which are
common eigenfunctions of L2 and L z

To help in the analysis, we define two more

operators

L+ = Lx + iL y
L = L x iL y
Properties of L+ and L

L+ L = Lx + iL y

)( L iL )
x

= L2x + L2y iL x L y + iL y L x
= L2 L2z i Lx , L y
= L2 L2z + L z
Similarly

L L+ = L2 L2z L z
So

L+ , L = 2Lz

 Lz , L+ = L z , L x + i Lz , L y

= i L iL

So

Lz , L+ = L+

Similarly

Lz , L = L

2.2 Eigenvalues of L2 and L z

Because L2 and L z commute, they must have a
common set of eigenfunctions. We can write

L2 n = n n

and

Lz n = n n

The eigenvalues n and n can be determined

just using operator expressions, together with
the condition

n n2

The algebra.

L z n = n n
L+ Lz n = n L+ n
Lz , L+ = L+

so L+ L z = L z L+ L+

Lz L+ n

) = (

L
)
n
+
n

Similarly, we can show

L z L n

) = (

L
)
n
n

L+ n is an eigenfunction of L z with
eigenvalue n +
L n is an eigenfunction of L z with
eigenvalue n

More algebra.

L2 n = n n
2

L+ L n = n L+ n

L L2 n = n L n
L2 commutes with L x and L y , so it must
commute with L and L
+

(
L ( L

L2 L+ n
2

) = ( L
) = ( L
n

)
)

L+ n and L n are eigenfunctions of L2 with

eigenvalue n

For each eigenvalue of L2 there are a set of

eigenfunctions with different L z eigenvalues.
The L+ and L operators raise or lower the
eigenfunctions within this set.

L+ and L are called ladder operators or

creation and annihilation operators
We now use the condition n . This
implies there is a maximum and minimum
value of . Call these max and min , with
corresponding eigenfunctions max and min
2
n

Yet more algebra.

L+ max = 0 so L L+ max = 0
From above

L L+ = L2 L2z L z
so

L2 L2z Lz max = 0

ie
2

( max max ) max = 0

= max ( max + )

In a similar way, starting from L min = 0 we

find

= min ( min )

It follows that

min = max
Neighbouring values of on the L z ladder
differ by , so

max min = n (n integer)

max = min

n
=
2

Finally, we have
Eigenvalues of L2 are = ( + 1) 2 , with an
integer or half integer
For each value of , eigenvalues of L z can be
written as = m , where m varies in integer
steps between and +

For orbital angular momentum (ie what weve

been talking about so far) only integer values of
matter.
However, for more general angular momentum,
the half integer solutions are also relevant.

2.3 Eigenfunctions of L2 and L z

These cannot be obtained just from operator
algebra we have to solve the equations. It is
most convenient to use spherical polar
coordinates.
Start from

L = r p = i r
In spherical polars

1
1
= e r + e
+ e
r
r
r sin
So

L = i e
e

sin

Unit vector in z direction is

e z = e r cos e sin
and

Lz = e z . L Lz = i

For L2 we find
2

1

1
2
2

L =
sin
+ 2
2

sin
sin

We want to solve

L2 Ym ( , ) = ( + 1) 2 Ym ( , )
L z Ym ( , ) = m Ym ( , )
Ym ( , ) are the common eigenfunctions of L2
and L z with eigenvalues ( + 1) 2 and m
respectively
The solutions Ym ( , ) are called spherical
harmonics. Derivations of them can be found in
textbooks and in other units.

The lowest few spherical harmonics are

1
Y00 =
4
3
Y10 =
cos
4
3
Y11 =
sin exp(i )
8
5
2
Y20 =
3cos
1)
(
16
15
Y21 =
cos sin exp(i )
8
Y2 2

15
=
sin 2 exp(2i )
32

2.4 Spin angular momentum

The Stern-Gerlach experiment allows us to
measure the z component of angular
momentum.
Orbital angular momentum is insufficient to
explain results for atoms
We therefore postulate that quantum particles
have an intrinsic angular momentum, or spin
We postulate spin operators Sx , S y , Sz with the
same commutation properties as L , L , L , ie
x

Sx , S y = i Sz

S y , S z = i S x

Sz , Sx = i S y

We can also define

S 2 = Sx2 + S y2 + Sz2
All of the previous analysis follows through,
and we can conclude that:
Eigenvalues of S 2 are s ( s + 1) 2 , with s an
integer or half integer
Eigenvalues of Sz are ms , where ms varies in
integer steps between s and s
For spin, the half integer solutions matter.
Atoms with no orbital angular momentum and
a single unpaired electron split into two beams
in a Stern-Gerlach experiment.

1
Electrons are spin-half particles, ie s =
2

2.5 Pauli spin matrices

What are the eigenfunctions of S 2 and Sz for a
spin-half particle?
These cannot be functions of the particles
position, and so we need a representation that
doesnt depend on spatial coordinates
In section 1.11 we discussed the matrix
representation of quantum mechanics. This
turns out to be a natural representation for spin
angular momentum

The Pauli spin matrices are defined as

0 1
x =

1
0

0 i
y =

0
i

1 0
z =

The spin components are

Sx = x
2

Sy = y
2

Sz = z
2

These obey all the commutation relations, eg

2
0 1 0 i 0 i 0 1

Sx , S y =

4 1 0 i 0 i 0 1 0

2 i 0 i 0
=

i
0
i
4

1 0

= i
=
i

S
z
2 0 1

It is simple to calculate the eigenvalues and

eigenfunctions (ie eigenvectors) of Sx , S y , Sz :
Component

Eigenvalue

Eigenvector

Sx

+
2

1
2

Sx

S y

+
2

S y

Sz

+
2

1
0

Sz

0
1

1
2

1
1

1
2

1
2

1
1

1
i

1
i

What about S 2 ? We find

1 0
2
2
2

Sx = S y = Sz =
4 0 1
2

so

3 2 1 0
2

S =
4 0 1
As expected, S 2 commutes with Sx , S y , Sz
All of the above eigenvectors are also
3 2
2

eigenvectors of S with eigenvalue , as

4
1
expected for s =
2