Chapter 1: Mercury

Mercury is a metallic element that is a free-flowing liquid at

room temperature. It occurs naturally in nature with three
oxidation states, Hg(0) (Hg0, elemental mercury), Hg(I) (Hg+,
mercurous mercury) and Hg(II) (Hg2+, mercuric mercury). Only two
forms of mercury, Hg(0) and Hg(II), contributed to the global
needs, since the Hg(I) is unstable in the Hg-Hg bonding. The
Hg(0)has three forms which are liquid (Hg0 (l)), gas (Hg0 (g))
and dissolved component in water (Hg0 (aq)) at surrounding
temperature. When release in soil, it can be form into
methylmercury. The most common oxidation state of mercury in
terrestrial and aquatic environment is Hg(II), of which
methylmercury (composed of ionic Hg(II), [Hg+2] and a single
methylgroup [CH3] to form CH3Hg+) is a subset. Methylmercury
involves both a methylation and demethylation. There are many
factors that affect the availability of inorganic mercury for
methylmercury which include concentrations of sulfate/sulfide,
dissolved and particulate organic matter, and total mercury. The
sources of mercury are both natural and anthropogenic. Naturally,
it can be found in volcanic emissions, evasion from the
subsurface crust via geothermal activity, and volatilization of
mercury from soil. Its anthropogenic sources are combustion, by
manufacturing it, through mining and refining it and some
miscellaneous sources from the people whose work are in mercuryrelated area. Since mercury is toxic to human health, it is best
if we can detect it if we are exposed to it.
Chapter 2: Asbestos
The production of asbestos has been developed through different
conditions including bulk materials, surface dusts, water, and
airborne particles. These processes are built in a wellunderstood physical properties of asbestos, such as refractive
indices or electron diffraction properties. The methods are well

accepted particularly the surface dusts, although there

controversies in the implementation of it. The problem is the
differentiation of the asbestos and non-asbestos form of the same
minerals which led to inaccurate analyses of some cases. Since
there are some countries that ban the operation of asbestos,
standardized procedure are needed for determining low levels of
asbestos in raw materials and also in soil and sediment. These
procedures are required to be sure that these materials not
contaminated with asbestos fibers during importation or use of a
material in a product.
Chapter 3: Sewage
Sewage is made up of distinct chemical and biological components.
The nature of the environment such as sedimentation regime, redox
potential, natural insolation, etc., is integrated in the origin
of known sources in the environment for sewage. Any plans of
action on the reservoir and the likely materials that will be
present are needed to be balanced by understanding it. There are
regions where the nature of the environment directs an increase
of change in the growth of biological components so care should
be done in these regions. Chemical components may result to harsh
redox which can change the distinct mark of the customary sewage
disposals. Sometimes, using combined chemical and/or biological
investigation, some cases can benefit in the heterogeneous nature
of the sewage. The cost analysis of the sewage may vary to the
substance being analysed. Biological method and chemical analyses
can provide answers to analytes that are examined.
Chapter 4: Lead
Lead, symbol Pb (Latin plumbum, a lead weight), is a dense,
bluish-gray metallic element that was one of the first known
metals. The atomic number of lead is 82; the element is in group
14 (or IVa) of the periodic table. It is composed of four
naturally occurring stable isotopes which are

Pb (1.0%),

204

Pb

206

(25%),

Pb (23%) and

207

Pb, and

207

Pb (53%). Three of these isotopes (206Pb,

208

Pb) are products of the radioactive decay of either

208

uranium or thorium. Lead is widely distributed all over the world

in the form of its sulfide, the ore galena. There are different
types of lead ore deposits. These are Hydrothermal deposits,
which leached by hot highly saline aqueous fluids in the
subsurface of the Earths crust; Sedimentary Exhalative (SEDEX)
deposits, which consists of layers of lead-zinc-iron sulfides;
Volcanic massive sulphides (VMS), the most abundant base metal
deposits on Earth; and Skarn and chimney-manto deposits, which is
related to vein deposits and appear to form where the country
rock is carbonate rather than clastic sediment. There are two
types of metallic lead production, primary, which originates
directly from ore concentrate and secondary, which refers to
recycled or recovered lead. Lead is used in enormous quantities
in storage batteries and in sheathing electric cables. Large
quantities are used in industry for lining pipes, tanks, and Xray apparatus. Among numerous alloys containing a high percentage
of lead are solder, type metal, and various bearing metals. A
considerable amount of lead is consumed in the form of its
compounds, particularly in paints and pigments.
Lead taken internally in any of its forms is highly toxic; the
effects are usually felt after it has accumulated in the body
over a period of time. Present-day treatment of lead poisoning
includes the administration of calcium disodium
ethylenediaminetetraacidic acid, or EDTA, a chelating agent; lead
is removed from the body by displacing the calcium in EDTA and
forming a stable complex that is excreted in the urine.
Chapter 5: Chromium
Chromium, symbol Cr, is a gray metallic element that can take on
a high polish.it is naturally found in two mineral: chromite
(FeCr2O4) and crocoite known as lead chromate or red metal

(PbCrO4). Commercially, it is first used as paint pigment and

eventually started to be used as mordants, colorants and other
uses. Bartlett and Kimble (1976b) state, Cr(VI)will remain
mobile only if its concentration exceeds both the adsorbing and
the reducing capacities of the soil. As stated by Morrison and
Murphy (2006), Bartlett (1991) states, the marvel of the
chromium cycle in soil is that oxidation and reduction can take
place at the same time. There are numerous analytical techniques
to be able to know if the environment has chromium in it. The
water, soil, sediments and sludge samples are tested to determine
the presence of chromium in the environment. The two types of
chromium in the environment are the natural chromium and
anthropogenic chromium. The natural chromium is usually found in
the rocks, animals, plants and volcanic dust and gases while the
anthropogenic chromium is found chromium-related laboratories.
Chapter 6: Methane
Morrison and Murphy (2006) stated that the discovery of nearsurface occurrences of CH4 in soil gas can generate alarm as well
as financial and legal consequences for responsible parties,
property owners, developers, and other parties. Determining the
origin and source of near-surface CH4 is very important to the
determination of environmental liability and to the selection of
appropriate mitigation measures. Near-surface occurrences of CH4
can have a variety of natural and anthropogenic sources. In many
instances, certain sources of CH4 can be ruled out by molecular
compositional and/or isotopic analysis of a few samples. However,
to confidently identify the source, or sources, of CH4 it is
generally necessary to integrate site-specific geological, land
use, and forensic geochemical data on a number of samples.
Spatial trends in geochemical data (vertically and laterally) are
especially important. As demonstrated by the case studies

presented, CH4 associated with spilled petroleum is derived from

the petroleum in some cases, but not in others.
Chapter 7: Radioactive Compounds
Differentiating anthropogenic activities from natural processes
is the job of the nuclear forensic analyst. It can rearrange both
natural and anthropogenic radionuclides
Chapter 8: Pesticides
A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used for
preventing, controlling, or lessening the damage caused by a
pest. A pesticide may be chemical substance, biological agent
(such as a virus or bacteria, antimicrobial, disinfectant or
device used against any pest. Pests include insects, plat
pathogen, weeds, molluscs, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes
(roundworm), and microbes, which compete with humans for food,
destroy property, spread or are vector for diseases or cause
nuisance.
Although there are benefits to use of pesticides, there are also
drawbacks, such as potential toxicity to humans and other
animals. Pesticides are hazardous to some wildlife in the sea
because it gets to evaporate and goes into the clouds. Then it
rains, surface run-off into the sea and poison them
Chapter 9: Perchlorate
Chapter 10: Polychlorinated Biphenyls
Chapter 11: Microbial Forensics
Chapter 12: Chlorinated Solvents
Chapter 13: Arsenic
Chapter 14: Dioxins and Furans
Chapter 15: Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHS)
Chapter 16: Crude Oil And Refined Product Fingerprinting:
Principles
Chapter 17: Crude Oil And Refined Product Fingerprinting:
Applications

Chapter 18: Automotive Gasoline