COMPUTER AIDED PROCESS

PLANNING/ (APS/CIM-1123)
M.TECH/COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING/I I SEM
SAMARAT ASHOK TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, VIDISHA (M.P)
Session 2014-15

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION
Once the design of a component is over, the planning phase of manufacturing commences. The
first task in planning is the design of the processes. Process planning is a vital link between
design and manufacturing functions. This is an important task as the cost of the part depends on
the process. Manufacturing planning, process planning, material processing, process engineering
and machine routing are a few titles given to the topic referred to here as process planning.
In general, process planning is a production organization activity that transforms a product
design into a set of instruction (sequence, machine tool setup etc.) to manufacture machined part
economically and competitively. The information provided in design includes dimensional
specification (geometric shape and its feature) and technical specification (tolerance, surface
finish etc.) Now-a-days, process planning is applied to many manufacturing industries like metal
cutting, sheet metal forming, composite and ceramic fabrication and other manufacturing
processes.

Fig. 1.1: Process Planning

The Place of Process Planning in the Manufacturing Cycle: Process planning is an

important link in the manufacturing cycle. It defines in detail the process that transforms raw
material in to the desired product. More precisely process planning can be defined by a sequence
of steps as illustrated in fig. 1.3. They comprise mainly;
An interpretation of the specifications contained in the definition drawing of a part, including
mainly dimensions and tolerances, geometric tolerances, surface roughness, material type,
blank size, number of parts in a batch etc.
A selection of process and tools which are candidates for processing a part and its features by
respecting the constraints imposed in the definition drawing.
A determination of production tolerances and setting dimensions which ensure execution of
the design tolerances, while choosing production dimensions for reasons of commodity and
capability of manufacturing machinery.
A selection of starting surfaces and datum surfaces to ensure precise execution of processing
operations simultaneously with a selection of holding fixtures and checking of stability of a
part by appropriate clamping.
A sequencing of operations as a function of priorities imposed by accuracy and technological
constraints.

A grouping of elementary operations on the same machine so that the operation time will be
reduced, while respecting accuracy requirements.

Fig. 1.2: Functionality of the global structure of an industrial enterprise

A selection of machines to execute the technological operations, taking into account the
number of work pieces to be produced.
A selection of inspection methods and inspection instruments to guarantee final conformity
of component with functional requirements.
A determination of processing conditions for every elementary operation which enables the
computation of working times and costs in order to carry out an economic evaluation.

Editing of process sheets to be assembled in a comprehensive process planning file which is

transferred to the manufacturing department for execution.

Fig. 1.3: Various steps involved in developing a process plan

PROCESS PLAN
Part No. S0125-F
Part Name: Housing
Original: S.D. Smart Date: 1/1/89
Checked: C.S. Good Date: 2/1/89
Workstation

ACE Inc.
Material:

steel 4340Si

Changes:
Approved: T.C. Chang
Setup

Date:
Date: 2/14/89

No.

Operation
Description

Tool

10

Mill bot t om surface1

MILL01

see at t ach#1
for illust rat ion

Face mill
3 set up
6 t eet h/4" dia 5 machining

20

Mill t op surface

MILL01

see at t ach#1

Face mill
2 set up
6 t eet h/4" dia 6 machining

30

Drill 4 holes

DRL02

set on surface1

t wist drill
1/2" dia
2" long

Fig. 1.4: Sample of a detailed process plan

Time
(Min)

2 set up
3 machining

Process Planning and Production Planning: Process planning is concerned with the
engineering and technological issues of how to make the product and its parts. What types of
equipment and tooling are required to fabricate the parts and assemble the product? Production
planning is concerned with the logistics issues of making the product. After process planning has
determined the technical details, production planning is concerned with ordering the materials
and obtaining the resources required to make the product in sufficient quantities to satisfy
demand for it.
Concurrent Engineering: Concurrent engineering refers to an approach used in product
development in which the functions of design engineering, manufacturing engineering, and other
functions are integrated to reduce the elapsed time required to bring a new product to market.
Also called simultaneous engineering.
In the traditional approach to launching a new product, the two functions of design engineering
and manufacturing engineering tend to be separated and sequential as illustrated in Figure 1.5(a).
There is little opportunity for manufacturing engineers to offer advice on how the design might
be altered to make it more manufacturable. It is as if a wall exists between design and
manufacturing.

Fig. 1.5 Comparison of: (a) traditional product development cycle and (b) product development
using concurrent engineering

By contrast, in a company that practices concurrent engineering, the manufacturing engineering

department becomes involved in the product development cycle early on, providing advice on
how the product and its components can be designed to facilitate manufacture and assembly. It
also proceeds with the early stages of manufacturing planning for the product. This concurrent
engineering approach is pictured in Figure 1.5(b). In addition to manufacturing engineering,
other functions are also involved in the product development cycle, such as quality engineering,
the manufacturing departments, field service, vendors supplying critical components, and in
some cases the customers who will use the product. All of these functions can make
contributions during product development to improve not only the new product's function and
performance, but also its produceability inspectability, testability, serviceability, and
maintainability.
Concurrent engineering include several elements;
Design for Manufacturing and Assembly
Design for Quality
Design for Cost
Design for Life cycle

Approaches to Process Planning: There are basically two approaches to process planning
which are as follows;
Manual Process Planning.
Computer-aided Process Planning (CAPP).
Manual Process Planning: The steps mentioned for process planning as earlier are essentially
same for manual process planning. Following difficulties are associated with manual process
planning;
1. It is time consuming and over a period of time, plan developed are not consistent.
2. Feasibility of process planning is dependent on many upstream factors (design and
availability of machine tools). Downstream manufacturing activities such as scheduling and
machine tool allocation are also influenced by such process plan.
Therefore, in order to generate a proper process plan, the process planner must have sufficient
knowledge and experience. Hence, it is very difficult to develop the skill of the successful
process planner and also a time consuming issue.
Computer-aided Process Planning: CAPP has recently emerged as the most critical link to
integrated CAD/CAM system into inter-organizational flow. CAPP is the application of
computer to assist the human process planer in the process planning function. In its lowest form
it will reduce the time and effort required to prepare process plans and provide more consistent
process plan. In its most advanced state, it will provide the automated interface between CAD
and CAM and in the process achieve the complete integration with in CAD/CAM.
The uses of computers in process plan have following advantages over manual experience-based
process planning;
It can systematically produce accurate and consistent process plans.
It leads to the reduction of cost and lead times of process plan.
Skill requirement of process planer are reduced to develop feasible process plan.
Interfacing of software for cost, manufacturing lead time estimation, and work standards can
easily be done.
Leads to the increased productivity of process planar.
Now-a-days, rapid progress is being made in the automation of actual production process and
also the product design element. However, the interface between design and production presents
the greatest difficulty in accomplishing integration. CAPP has the potential to achieve this
integration. In general, a complete CAPP system has following steps;

Design input
Material selection
Process selection
Process sequencing
Machine and tool selection
Intermediate surface determination
Fixture selection
Machining parameter selection
Cost/time estimation
Plan preparation
M/C tape image generation
Intelligence of
the system

Human
Expert
? technology

geometric
reasoning

Data
base

manual
planning
1960

GT
variant
system

1970

elementary
machine
learning

expert
system

1980

1990

2000

Fig. 1.6: The Development of CAPP

Synergy results in when CAM is integrated CAD to form CAD/CAM systems

than a stand-alone CAD or CAM systems. In such a system CAPP becomes a
direct connection between design and Manufacturing
Fig. 1.7: CAPP as an integrator between CAD and CAM

Fig. 1.8: CAPP Model

Fig. 1.9: Framework for Computer-aided process planning

Fig. 1.10: Flow diagram of the Computer-aided process planning system

Group Technology: The term Group Technology was first used by Professor Mitrafanov of
Leningrad University in the early 1950s, but the genesis of group technology can be traced back
to the work carried out in the USSR and Germany, to extend formal standardization. With the
publication of first work by Professor Mitrafanov in 1952, the fundamentals of group technology
emerged with the development from the single family machine approach to multiple families on
multi-product lines and moreover, the introduction of group methods into the forming sectors of
manufacture.
Group Technology (GT) is a manufacturing philosophy which can be used to group parts based
on similarities in design or manufacturing process so as to reduce the overall manufacturing cost.
Group Technology is most appropriate under the following conditions;
The plant currently uses traditional batch production and a process type layout.
The parts can be grouped into part families.
In order to utilize the group technology, the most common methods adopted are the following;
1. Visual Inspection
2. Parts Classification and Coding
3. Production flow analysis

Fig. 1.11: Process layout: The need for GT layout (Turn Turning, Mill Milling, Drill
Drilling, Grnd Grinding, Asby Assembly, Man Manual operations; arrows indicate work
flow through plant; dashed lines indicate separation of machines into departments)
Benefits of Group Technology: When group technology is applied, a manufacturing company
will typically realize the following benefits;

Fig. 1.12: Group technology layout (arrows indicate work flow in machine cells)

1. Product Engineering
Reduce part proliferation
Help design standardization
Provide manufacturing feedback
2. Manufacturing Engineering
Process selection
Tool selection
Machine purchases
Materials handling
3. Production Engineering
Reduce lead time
Reduce delays
Reduce set up time
Improve product quality
4. Production Planning and Control
Group scheduling
Stock accountability
Reduce expediting
Improved product design
Reduced materials handling
Better employee satisfaction
Limitations of Group Technology: The various limitations in implementing GT are as follows;
1. The cost of implementation is generally high.
2. May not be suitable for a factory with a very large variety of products
3. The entire production of the company cannot be put under GT and GT will have to coexist
with the conventional layouts
4. There are too many GT codes in use and there is no one GT code that suits all applications

UNIT 2: PART DESIGN REPRESENTATION

Features of a Drafting Package: Typical features that one expects in a drafting package are
listed below;
1. Drawing utilities: This includes selection of units, screen limits, scale, snap, grid, layers etc.
2. Entity drawing: Several standard entities like line, circle, arc, polyline, polygon, ellipse etc.
are available to create the model required.
3. Edit commands: A number of commands are available to modify or copy or replicate the
entities or groups of entities in a model.
4. Standard parts: Facilities are available to create symbols, shapes, and other standard parts.
Frequently used parts can be stored as blocks which can be inserted into a drawing as and
when required.
5. Display: The model can be enlarged, reduced in size, or moved across the screen, using
display commands.
6. Cross hatching: Sectional plans can be indicated through cross hatching.
7. Dimensioning: Parts can be dimensioned using a number of standard dimensioning systems.
8. Plotting: Facilities to get hard copies of drawings using a pen or electrostatic plotter and
printer will be available.
9. Configuration: A software has to be configured to a given hardware environment.
10. Customization: Drafting productivity can be enhanced through customizing software
package.
11. Drawing interchange: It may be necessary to import or export drawing files created in one
software package to another. Facilities should be available to carry out this task. This is
usually carried out by a post processor to convert the model into a neutral file like STEP and
pre-processor to read the STEP file and convert the data into the model.
Entities: A drawing is created using a number of entities. A large number of options are
provided to draw the entities depending upon the requirements. The common entities used for
drafting are listed below;
Point
Arc
Line
Trace
Circle
Polyline (2D & 3D)
Polygon
Doughnut
Ellipse
Solid
Some drafting packages use constraint based construction method. Fixing constraints allows
interactive creations of variants

Edit Commands: It is necessary to make alterations to the entities of a drawing. EDIT

commands are used for this purpose. A list of EDIT commands and their functions are given
below in Table 2.1;
Command Name

Function

Erase

Erase a single entity or a group of entities.

Oops

To retrieve objects erased inadvertently.

Move

Move objects to a new location.

Array

Make multiple copies of an object in rectangular or circular pattern.

Change

Change properties like color, layer, thickness, line type, length or location
of entities.

Brake

Break an existing entity into pieces.

Mirror

Create mirror images of existing objects.

Explode

Explode a block or polyline into its component parts.

Rotate

Rotate an existing object through a specified angle.

Chamfer

Chamfer corners of objects.

Fillet

Provide radius of objects.

Stretch

Modify a part or drawing by stretching the objects connected to it.

Offset

Draw parallels to lines or existing curves.

Undo

Undo a specified number of commands.

Trim

Trim portion of entities.

Extend

Extend an entity to another entity.

Copy

Make single or multiple copies of an existing object.

Scale

Enlarge or shrink an object.

Table 2.1: Edit Commands

Dimensioning: Dimensioning and adding annotations are very important in any drawing.

Fig. 2.1: Drawing a Gear

Generally linear dimensioning involves the drawing of two extension lines, (a dimension line
with arrow heads) separated from the object. Additionally tolerance values may also have to be
shown in some cases.

Fig. 2.2: Drawing a Shaft

The dimensioning features also include angular, radial, diametrical, aligned and leader options.
The associative dimensioning feature available in some software enables automatic change in the
dimensioning when the entities are edited. Many CAD software permit generation of dimension
styles compatible to ISO, ANSI, DIN and other standards. Dimensioning feature can be
customized by assigning appropriate values for various dimension variables.

3-D Drawings:
Extrusion (Linear Sweep): Simple 3-D objects can be created by extruding 2-D images in the
third dimension. The extrusion thickness can be specified by an appropriate command. The
objects extruded will have uniform thickness in the Z direction.

Fig. 2.3: Extrusion Example 1

Revolution: Wire frame images can be created by revolving an entity about an axis. In Fig. 2.5 a
set of entities are revolved about an axis through 270 to create a wire frame object. Rotation
through 360 will produce complete objects.
Using User Co-Ordinate Systems (UCS): CAD packages have a facility to define several user
co-ordinate systems. Plane figures can be drawn in these user co-ordinate systems to create a 3-D
wire frame model.

Fig. 2.4: Extrusion Example 2

A plane figure drawn in a User Co-ordinate System can be assigned a thickness to create a 3-D
wire frame model. Complex 3-D models can be created using a combination of several user coordinate systems and thicknesses.

Fig. 2.5: Revolution

Fig. 2.6: User Co-ordinate System

Customization: Drafting packages provide extensive customizable features. Many packages

are provided with LISP based or C based programming environment. These can be used to
develop utilities which can be put in menus and these will behave like any other command in the
software. Apart from developing these programmes customization involves many other tasks
which are listed below;
i. Design of special menus - screen, pull down, icon, button etc.
ii. Creating modifying line types.
iii. Creating hatch patterns.
iv. Creating symbols and fonts.
v. Customizing help files.
vi. Interface with text editors, database management programs, spread sheets, and
communication programmes.
vii. Use of command aliases for frequently used commands.

Surfaces: Aesthetic curves are the building blocks for pleasing surfaces which are the key to
create good products. The curves that define a surface are called boundary curves. While creating
surfaces, surface singularities must be avoided. There can be different surface types;
1. Rectangular: This type of surface is characterized by four boundary curves. (Fig. 2.7)

Fig. 2.7: Rectangular Surface

Fig. 2.8: Triangular Surface

Fig. 2.9: N-sided Surface

Fig. 2.10: Sweep Surface
2. Triangular: A surface defined by three boundary curves (Fig. 2.8)
3. N-Sided: The surface defined by an arbitrary number of curves (Fig. 2.9)
4. Sweep: A surface defined by moving a set of profile curves smoothly along one or two guide
curves (Fig. 2.10)
5. Radius Fillet: A blend surface between two sets of surfaces (Fig. 2.11)
6. Blend: This is a special form of sweep. The guide curves are two curves on surface. The
blend allows user to blend the surfaces together or make a variable fillet from their defined
curves. This type of fillet (Fig. 2.12) needs a curve on each surface for construction.
7. Offset: An offset surface is created by offsetting a surface at a distance from an existing
surface. (Fig. 2.13)

Fig. 2.11: Fillet Surface

Fig. 2.12: Blend Surface

Fig. 2.13: Offset Surface

Configuring The Drafting Software: A drafting package is a general purpose software which
has to be run on several types of hardware environment. The task of modifying a package to
make it suitable to work in a particular hardware environment is called configuring. The
configuring is to be carried out for;
1. Displaying the drawings on a particular type of monitor.
2. Interfacing a particular digitizer or mouse.
3. Interfacing a particular type of printer and/or a plotter.
This is carried out using device driver files provided by the software monitor.

Tolerance: The permissible variation of a size is called tolerance. It is the difference between
the maximum and minimum permissible limits of the given size. If the variation is provided on
one side of the basic size, it is termed as unilateral tolerance. Similarly, if the variation is
provided on both sides of the basic size, it is known as bilateral tolerance.

Conventional Tolerancing: Conventional tolerances allow the designer to specify the

desirable surface condition and size of a part feature with in an upper and a lower limit. The
advantages of this tolerancing method are that it is simple to use and part conformance can be
easily verified using direct measurement tools such as a caliper and a surface indicator.
Fundamental Tolerances: Tolerance is denoted by two symbols, a letter symbol and a number
symbol, called the grade. Fig. 2.14 shows the graphical illustration of tolerance sizes or
fundamental deviations for letter symbols and Fig. 2.15 lists the fundamental tolerances of
various grades. It may be seen from Fig. 2.14 that the letter symbols range from A to ZC for
holes and from a to zc for shafts. The letters I, L, O, Q, W and i, l, o, q, w have not been used. It
is also evident that these letter symbols represent the degree of closeness of the tolerance zone
(positive or negative) to the basic size.
Similarly, it can be seen from Fig. 2.15 that the basic sizes from l mm to 500 mm have been subdivided into 13 steps or ranges. For each nominal step, there are 18 grades of tolerances,
designated as IT 01, IT 0 to IT 1 to IT 16, known as Fundamental tolerances.
The fundamental tolerance is a function of the nominal size and its unit is given by the empirical
relation, standard tolerance unit, i =

Where i is in microns and D is the geometrical mean of the limiting values of the basic steps
mentioned above, in millimeters. This relation is valid for grades 5 to 16 and nominal sizes from

3 to 500 mm. For grades below 5 and for sizes above 500 mm, there are other empirical relations
for which it is advised to refer IS: 19191963. Table 2.2 gives the relation between different
grades of tolerances and standard tolerance unit i.

Fig. 2.14: Graphical illustration of tolerance zones

Fig. 2.15: Fundamental tolerances of grades 01, 0 and 1 to 16 (values of tolerances in microns) (1
micron = 0.001 mm)
Grade

IT 5

IT 6

IT 7

IT 8

IT 9

IT 10

IT 11

IT 12

IT 13

IT 14

IT 15

IT 16

Tolerance
Values

7i

10i

16i

25i

40i

64i

100i

160i

250i

400i

640i

1000i

Table 2.2: Relative magnitude of IT tolerances for grades 5 to 16 in terms of tolerance unit i for
sizes up to 500 mm

Geometric Tolerancing: Tolerances of size are not always sufficient to provide the required
control of form. For example, in Fig. 2.16 (a) the shaft has the same diameter measurement in all
possible positions but is not circular; in Fig. 2.16 (b), the component has the same thickness
throughout but is not flat and in Fig. 2.16 (c), the component is circular in all cross-sections but
is not straight. The form of these components can be controlled by means of geometrical
tolerances.

Fig. 2.16: Errors of form

Geometrical tolerance is defined as the maximum permissible overall variation of form or

position of a feature. Geometrical tolerances are used;
To specify the required accuracy in controlling the form of a feature,
To ensure correct functional positioning of the feature,
To ensure the interchangeability of components, and
To facilitate the assembly of mating components.
Form Variation: It is a variation of the actual condition of a form feature (surface, line) from
geometrically ideal form.
Position Variation: It is a variation of the actual position of the form feature from the
geometrically ideal position, with reference to another form (datum) feature.
Tolerance Zone: It is an imaginary area or volume within which the controlled feature of the
manufactured component must be completely contained.
Indicating Geometrical Tolerances on the Drawing: To eliminate the need for descriptive
notes, geometrical tolerances are indicated on drawings by symbols, tolerances and datums, all
contained in compartments of a rectangular frame, as shown in Fig. 2.17.

Fig. 2.17
To identify a datum for reference purposes, a capital letter is enclosed in a frame, connected to
the datum triangle (Fig. 2.17).
The datum feature is the feature to which tolerance of orientation, position and run-out are
related. Further, the form of a datum feature should be sufficiently accurate for its purpose and it
may therefore be necessary in some cases to specify tolerances of form from the datum features.
Fig. 2.18 gives symbols, which represent the types of characteristics to be controlled by the
tolerance.
Standards Followed in Industry: Comparison of systems of indication of tolerances of form and
of position as per IS: 3000 (part-1)-1976 and as prevalent in industry are shown in fig. 2.19.

Fig. 2.18: Symbols representing the characteristics to be toleranced

Fig. 2.19: Systems of indication of tolerances of form and of position

CAD/CAM Hardware: The computing system in operation can be compared to a human

being in terms of its operating characteristics. The basic configuration of a typical computing
system is as shown below in fig. 2.20;
The heart of any computing system is the central processing unit (CPU). It is in the CPU that all
the necessary functions of a computer are carried out. The main functions performed in the CPU
are arithmetic and logic operations. The CPU communicates with the external world through
input/output devices.
Another important unit of a computer system is the memory unit. These are the areas where the
necessary data or program is stored. The type of memory and its amount determines the
capabilities of a computing system.
The present day computers work on the principle called stored programme concept. It means that
the sequence of operations is to be carried out by the CPU is stored in the memory of the
computer. The CPU therefore reads an instruction and executes it and continues doing so until it
reaches the end of the program.

Fig. 2.20: Organization of a typical computing system

Input Devices: These are the devices through which the user/operator communicates with the
computer for feeding it with the necessary information, both graphical and alphanumerical as
required. The various devices used are:
Keyboard
Joystick
Mouse
Digitizer
Light Pen
Tablet
Display Devices: The most of the design work and simulation of manufacturing can be
graphically displayed by means of some display devices. The display media that are used are:
Cathode ray tube (CRT) display
Plasma panel display
Liquid crystal display
Of these three methods, it is the CRT displays that are the most advanced and extensive in use, in
spite of their bulkier size.
CRT Display: In a CRT display, the heated cathode emits electrons, which are formed into a
stream, accelerated and focused onto a point on the display screen. The display screen contains a
phosphor-coated surface which gets illuminated when the speeding electrons hit the surface,
displaying the point. The electron beam is controlled by means of deflection plates for accessing
any point on the surface of the screen. Changing the beam current changes the intensity of the
spot created on the screen.
There are basically two types of image drawing techniques that are used in graphic displays.
They are:
Stroke-writing
Raster scan

In a stroke writing display, the electron gun directly draws the vectors on the screen to generate
the image, whereas in the raster scan, the whole display surface is divided in to a matrix of small
dots called pixels and the electron beam scans the whole surface area line by line, as in that of a
home television.

Fig. 2.21: Cathode ray tube principle

S.No.

Parameter

Image generation Stroke writing

Raster scan

Resolution

4096 4096

2048 2048

Picture quality

Excellent

Good

Contrast

High

Selective erase

Yes

Yes

Interactive

Yes

Yes

Color capability

Yes

Yes

Refresh memory

Medium

High

Animation

Yes

Yes

10

Stroke writing

Raster scan

Price
High
Low
Table 2.3: Comparison of graphic terminals
Plasma Panel Display: Though the CRT display is highly refined, it is sometimes not suitable
particularly for portable applications because of the depth that is necessary for the cathode ray
tube. In such situations, the plasma panel has been found to be useful though in a limited sense.
Plasma uses a neon gas in a glass envelope with electrodes fore and aft to display the image.
Though they are small and flat, they consume a large amount of power and also the resolution is
not very good.
Liquid Crystal Display: Liquid crystals exist in a state between the liquid and solid. The
molecules of liquid crystal are all aligned in the same direction, as in a solid, but are free to move
around slightly in relation to one another, as in a liquid. Liquid crystal is actually closer to a
liquid state than a solid state, which is one reason why it is rather sensitive to temperature. The
array of liquid crystals becomes opaque when the electric field is applied, for displaying the
image.
Hard Copy Devices: Once the output is finalized on the display device, it can be transformed
into hard copy using;
1. Graphical printers

i. Impact Dot Matrix Printer

ii. Thermal Transfer
iii. Ink Jet Printer
iv. Laser Printer
v. Colour Copiers
2. Plotters
i. Pen Plotters
ii. Electrostatic Plotters
3. Photographic devices
Storage Devices: Permanent storage of programs and of data generated during various sessions
of CAD/CAM requires a large amount of storage space. This is normally denoted as auxiliary
storage and the various devices used are:
1. Floppy disks
4. Magnetic tape cartridges
2. Winchester disks
5. Compact disc ROMs
3. Magnetic tapes
6. DVD

Topology: Topological data analysis concerns the evaluation of loops, edge curve construction,
inner bounds, outer bounds, vertices and so on.

Transformations of Geometry (2D): In handling of geometrical information, many a times it

becomes necessary to transform the geometry. The transformations actually convert the
geometry from one coordinate system to other.
The main types of transformations are as follows;
Translation
Scaling
Reflection or Mirror
Rotation
1. Translation: This moves a geometric entity in space in such a way that the new entity is
parallel at all points to the old entity. Let us consider a point on the object, represented by P
which is translated along X and Y axis by dX and dY to a new position P*. The new coordinates
after transformation are given by following equations;
P* = [x*, y*]
x* = x + dX
y* = y + dY
Thus,
[P*] = [ ] = [

2. Scaling: Scaling is the transformation applied to change the scale of an entity. To achieve
scaling, the original coordinates would be multiplied uniformly by the scaling factor.
P* = [x*, y*] = [Sx x, Sy y]
The above equation can also be represented in a matrix form as follows;
[P*] = [

][ ]

[P*] = [Ts] [P]

Where,
[Ts] = [

Since the scaling factors can be individually applied, there is a possibility to have differential
scaling when Sx = Sy.
In case of zoom facility in graphic systems, uniform scaling is applied. Zooming is only a display
attribute and is applied only to the display and not to the actual geometric database.
3. Reflection or Mirror: It is a transformation, which allows a copy of the object to be displayed
while the object is reflected about a line or plane.
Transformation required in this case is that the axis coordinates will get negative depending upon
the reflection required. For example from fig. 2.25;
P* = [X*, Y*] = [X, -Y]
This can be written in a matrix form as;
[P*] = [

][ ]

[P ] = [Tm] [P]

Fig. 2.22: Translation of the point

Fig. 2.23 Scaling of a plane figure

Where,
[Tm] = [

Thus the general transformation matrix will be;

[Tm] = [

Fig. 2.24: Possible reflection transformations

Fig. 2.25: Example of reflection transformation
4. Rotation: In this transformation the final position and orientation of a geometric entity is
decided by the angle of rotation () and the base point about which the rotation is to be done.

Fig. 2.26: Rotation transformation

Let a point P located in XY plane, being rotated in the counter clockwise direction to the new
position, P* by an angle . The new position P* is given by;
P* = [x*, y*]
From fig. 2.26 the original position is specified by,
x = r cos
y = r sin
*
The new position P is specified by;
x* = r cos( + )
= r cos cos r sin sin = x cos y sin
y* = r sin( + )
= r sin cos + r cos sin = x sin + y cos
This can be written in a matrix form as;
[P*] = [ ]

][ ]

[P*] = [TR] [P]

Where,
[TR] = [

Transformations of Geometry (3D): The three dimensional representation of a two

dimensional plane is called homogeneous coordinates and the transformation using the
homogeneous co-ordinates is called homogeneous transformation.
Translation:
[ ]

][ ]

[ ]

][ ]

Scaling:

Reflection:
[ ]

][ ]

Rotation about Z-axis (XY Plane):

[ ]

][ ]

][ ]

][ ]

Rotation about X-axis (YZ Plane):

[ ]
Rotation about Y-axis (ZX Plane):
[ ]

Perspective Transformation: When human eyes see near things they look bigger as compare to
those who are far away. This is called perspective in a general way. Whereas transformation is
the transfer of an object etc. from one state to another.
Thus, the perspective transformation deals with the conversion of 3d world into 2d image. The
same principle on which human vision works and the same principle on which the camera works.
To understand the phenomenon, that those objects which are near to you look bigger, while
those who are far away, look smaller even though they look bigger when you reach them, first
we start the concept of frame of reference.
Frame of reference: Frame of reference is basically a set of values in relation to which we
measure something.

Fig. 2.27
In order to analyze a 3d world/image/scene, following 5 different frames of references are
required;
Object
Image
World
Pixel
Camera

1. Object Coordinate Frame: Object coordinate frame is used for modeling objects. For
example , checking if a particular object is in a proper place with respect to the other object.
It is a 3d coordinate system.
2. World Coordinate Frame: World coordinate frame is used for correlating objects in a 3
dimensional world. It is a 3d coordinate system.
3. Camera Coordinate Frame: Camera coordinate frame is used to relate objects with respect
of the camera. It is a 3d coordinate system.
4. Image Coordinate Frame: It is not a 3d coordinate system , rather it is a 2d system. It is
used to describe how 3d points are mapped in a 2d image plane.
5. Pixel Coordinate Frame: It is also a 2d coordinate system. Each pixel has a value of pixel
coordinates.
Transformation between These 5 Frames:

Fig. 2.28
That is how a 3d scene is transformed into 2d, with image of pixels. Now we will explain this
concept mathematically (Fig. 2.29).
Where;
Y = 3d object
y = 2d Image
f = focal length of the camera
Z = distance between image and the camera
Now there are two different angles formed in this transform which are represented by Q. The
first angle is;

Where minus denotes that image is inverted. The second angle that is formed is;

Fig. 2.29
Comparing above two equations we get;

From the above equation, we can see that when the rays of light reflect back after striking from
the object, passed from the camera, an invert image is formed.
Data Structure: The database of the graphical representation of the model is present in the
computer system in a form convenient for use. The major functions of a database are to
manipulate the data on screen, such as zooming and panning; to interact with the user, essentially
for the purpose of editing functions like trimming, filleting, stretching, etc.; to evaluate the
properties like areas, volumes, inertias, etc.; and to provide additional information like
manufacturing specifications.
The complexity of the database depends to a very great extent, on the type of modeling and
information-retrieving capabilities built into it.
Typical data that would normally be contained in a geometric model file is;
1. Organizational data
Company
Identification number
2. Technological Data
Drawing number
Geometry
Design origin and status of changes
Dimensions
Current status
Tolerances
Designer name
Surface finishes
Date of storage
Material specifications or reference
Scale
Manufacturing procedures
Type of Projections
Inspection procedures
One may have to fetch the data a number of times from the same database, so it becomes
necessary to devise a database structure, which is simple and also easy to amend. The data
structure that is envisaged will have to fulfill a number of functions to be most effective for the
given application. In the case of geometric modeling, the database structure should provide some
of the following functionalities;
Allow for greater interaction of the user with the modeling system. This should allow the
user to add, delete and modify the data in form of geometric entities as required during the
process of modeling and other associated functions.
Support a large variety of types of data to be represented in the database as explained earlier.
The types of data may be in the form of real and integer values, geometric information,

textual information such as manufacturing notes or finishes, CNC tool paths, finite element
meshes, etc.
The data structure should be able to allow for associating the data with the modeling process
such that the design intent can be effectively captured by the data and can be utilized later for
any of the modifications as required during the lifecycle of the product.
The data should allow for storing information in the most compact form possible such that
less data storage and transmission speeds would be required for working in group
environments. For example, multiple instances of geometry may only be stored once and
then simply the instant information be used for manipulating that to generate the models or
drawing as required.
Data should maintain complete associativity with all the downstream and upstream
applications such that modification done at any stage should be able to percolate through all
the databases as required.
Data Structure Organization: A database can be defined as a collection of data which is shared
throughout a given process for multiple applications. In our particular case, the given process is
the modeling and associated functions such as analysis, manufacturing, planning, etc. The
terminologies associated with the databases are as;
1. Data Record: It consists of a series of facts or statements that may have been collected,
stored, processed and/or manipulated together to represent the information about a particular
item.
2. Data File: A file is a collection of data items put together. For example, all the necessary
information required to completely draw a part in two dimensions can be organized into a file
such as a drawing file. The information present in a data file normally has some structured
relationship to decode it properly. On the other hand, flat files are data files that contain
records with no structured relationships. Additional knowledge is required to interpret these
files such as the file-format properties.
3. Data Field: A field is a single unit of data stored as part of a database record. Each record is
made up of one or more fields that correspond to the columns in a database table.
4. Data Model: Data model is concerned with what the data in the database is represented. The
data model is used by the database designers as the basis for their designing work. It
generally uses three types of relationships: one-to-many, many-to-many, and one-to-one.

Fig. 2.30: A hierarchical representation of data for a product model

Data Models: The more common data models used in the database management systems are;
The hierarchical model
The network model
The relational model

Fig. 2.31: A network representation of data for a product model

Fig. 2.32: A relational representation of data for a product model

To get an idea of how the data for a component may be stored, refer to fig. 2.33 showing a job
modeled. The solid is first broken into edges, which are further broken into surfaces and the
vertices for completely defining the object.
A boundary is formed by faces. A face is formed by a combination of edges. Edges may be
considered as curves such as lines and arcs. Edges, in turn, are formed by a combination of
vertices, with each vertex being indicated by means of its Cartesian coordinates X, Y and Z.

Thus a typical database structure of a product may consist of a number of component parts as
shown in fig. 2.34.

Fig. 2.33: Data structure for geometric models Fig. 2.34: Complete data structure for geometric
models of products

Geometric Modeling for Process Planning: Existing CAD systems commonly represent
geometric models in terms of elementary geometric entities such as lines, arcs, surfaces, cubes
and cylinders. While generating process plan it is necessary to convert the CAD data into design
oriented geometric entities, into manufacturing related features such as plane cylinders, taper
cylinders, holes, slots, pockets. This process is tedious and time taking. Ideal CAD/CAM
integration requires machining processes and sequence of operations should be generated
automatically. Automatic process plan module convert the design data from the modeling
module into manufacturing information using the knowledge based database. The entire flow of
process in terms of algorithms is explained in Fig. 2.35.

Fig. 2.35: Flow chart for process plan

The CAPP system developed is composed of different activities;

1. Machining features generated in the design stage are recognized and stored under the Visual
Basic control of CATIA. Software Active X interface.
2. The feature list recognized and stored is utilized to develop the process plan by linking with
main source file. Based on the part body recognized from the feature list, respective
knowledge base is used for the respective features such as plane cylinder, through hole and
blind hole.
3. Determination of the machining operations for the identified features and considers the
constraints associated with the dimensions.
4. Determination of the machining sequence for fixturing the part according to its number of set
ups.
5. Determination of the cutting tools considering the machine-tool, dimensions and tool
geometry.
6. Determination of the cutting conditions considering the tool parameters, machining features
material, machine capacity.
7. Then the process planning will be generated like as in table 2.4.
Operation

Machine

Tool

Z-start

Depth

Speed (m/min)

Integrated
rough/finish
milling

VMC 400 M

Ball-nose

0% to 2% L

2% length in total length

of cylindrical prismatic
part [L]

38.48

Center drill
through hole

VMC 400 M

Drill two
flute

0 to L

Equal to height length of

cylindrical prismatic part

18.03

Blind hole

VMC 400 M

Drill one/two
flute

0 to 1

Equal to the height of

blind hole feature

18.33

Table 2.4: Process planning

GT Coding: Coding is the process of providing a symbol to the component. These symbols
should have meanings that reflect the attributes of the part, thereby facilitating further analysis.
In order to arrive at the coding scheme for the parts, it is necessary first to complete the study of
all the features present in the total part spectrum.
There are a large number of coding systems that were developed and in use. All these systems
can be broadly classified into three groups;
Hierarchical or monocode
Attribute or polycode
Hybrid or mixed
Hierarchical or Monocode: The monocode comes closest to matching a decision tree. In this
type of code, the meaning of each character is dependent on the meaning of the previous
character, i.e., each subsequent character amplifies the information of the previous character. The
structure of such a code is shown in fig. 2.36. The monocode can be used to rapidly subdivide a
population into small groups with relative ease. However, the meaning of any particular digit in
the code is difficult to determine.

Fig. 2.36: Sample monocode

This type of code is particularly preferred in design departments for part retrieval because this
type of system is very effective for capturing shape, material and size information. However, in
manufacturing departments, the information needs are based on processing requirements. For
this purpose a hierarchical structure is much useful.
Attribute or Polycode: The polycode is not structured like logic trees. The meaning of each
character in an attribute code is independent of all other digits. Each digit is used to completely
classify some features of the item. An example of the attribute code is given in table 2.5. As can
be seen, each digit of a polycode has a significance of its own and can be used to extract a
definition of the item from the database independent of any other digit.
Digit

Feature

Possible Values
1

External shape

Shape 1

Shape 2

Shape 3

Shape 4

Number of holes

1-3

4-6

>6

Type of hole

Axial

Cross

Axial/cross

Other

Gear teeth

Internal spur

External spur

Helical

Worm

Splines

Table 2.5: A sample polycode

In poly code, the features are usually listed and queried in order from the most important to the
least important without any logic as can be seen from table 2.5. Since there is no logical
transition between digits, to describe every conceivable item in the population in detail becomes
very difficult. To cover all aspects of the population, polycodes can become quite long and the
coding can be very tedious. Retrieval of information becomes easy. For example, to retrieve all
spur gears, identify all parts with a 2 in the position 5 of the associated code. As a result, the
attribute code system is popular with manufacturing organizations since it makes it easy to
identify parts that have similar features that require similar processing.
Hybrid or Mixed Code: Both the above codes cannot fully serve the functions of a
manufacturing organization. To take advantage of both the coding systems, most codes that are
used in industry are neither monocode nor polycode, but are a hybrid of the two. Initially, one or
two digits form the monocode part to divide the population into small groups, which is followed
by a polycode series of attributes that have significance to the group in the branch. A hybrid code
is relatively more compact than a pure attribute code while retaining the ability to easily identify
parts with specific characteristics.
Some general classification and coding systems developed by various countries is listed in table
2.6.
Coding System
Developing Country Number of Digits
VUOSO

Czechoslovakia

VUSTE

Czechoslovakia

Brisch

UK

4-6

KCI

Japan

Part Analog

USA

4-6

IAMA

Yugoslavia

Opitz

West Germany

PGM

Sweden

10

CODE

USA

Pittler

West Germany

Gildemeister

West Germany

10

Toyoda

Japan

10

MICLASS

The Netherlands

12

TEKLA

Norway

12

NIITMASH

Russia

15

ZAFO

West Germany

21+

VPTI

Russia

Variable

KK3

Japan

20

DCLASS

USA

Table 2.6: Some general classification and coding systems developed (Gallagher and Knight,
1986)

Opitz Coding System: The most common and widely used coding system is that developed by
Professor H Opitz of Aachen Technical University, Germany. It is a 9-digit code with the first 5
forming the primary code while the last four, the secondary code. The concept is shown in fig.
2.37.

Fig. 2.37: Opitz coding system

The first five digits are used as given in fig. 2.38 (a, b).
The classification proceeds further with the different first digit values of 3 to 9. As can be seen
each digit has a meaning which needs to be ascertained from the coding system.

Fig. 2.38 (a): Opitz coding system

Fig. 2.38(b): Opitz coding system

MICLASS Coding System: The MICLASS (Metal Institute Classification) was developed by
the organization for Applied Scientific Research in the Netherlands (TNO) in the 1960s and
1970s to develop a system for both design and manufacturing needs for OIR (Organization for
Industrial Research). The various functions MICLASS was developed for are;
Standardise engineering drawings
Retrieve drawings based on classification
Standardise process routing
Automate process planning

 Select parts to be processed on a group of machine tools

MICLASS is an expandable hybrid code system of up to 30 digits, while the first 12 digits have
been standardized. These digits relate to shape, form, dimensions, tolerances and materials as
shown below;
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Basic Form
Primary Dimensions
Tolerances
Material
The system can be enlarged to thirty digits to cover any classification attribute desired by the
user. The following is an example of such an extension.
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
General
Supplementary design
Secondary
Lot Size
manufacturing
and manufacturing
Dimension
operations
information
Computer software is provided by OIR for deriving the part code, after the user goes through a
series of questions and answers them interactively. The built-in logic is in the form of decision
trees.

UNIT 3: PROCESS ENGINEERING AND PROCESS PLANNING

CAPP: Implementation Techniques: Logical decision is a traditional implementation
technique used in computer aided process planning. The simplest approach is to code the process
capability in a computer program. A tree-structured classification can be used in the system and
each process can be coded as a branch of a decision tree.
The objective of decision logic in a CAPP system is to match the process capabilities with design
specifications in an optimal way. Generally, the most common decision logic can be classified as
one of the three methods: decision tables, decision trees and AI.
Decision Tables: A decision table is partitioned into conditions and actions and is represented in
a tabular form. A decision table is a program structuring tool, which provides readable
documentation as an automatic by-product. Also, a decision table can be used with a
preprocessor to eliminate some program coding, and to provide automatic checks for
completeness, contradiction and redundancy.
Decision Trees: A decision tree is a graph with a single root and branches emanating from the
root. Decision trees are easier to customize, update, maintain, visualize and develop. Decision
trees can be represented as computer codes or data. The tree as a computer code is converted to a
flow chart. The starting node is the root, and every branch represents a decision statement, which
is either false or true.
Decision trees can be more easily updated and maintained compared to decision tables. The
flexibility in expanding and contracting the tree if necessary is another advantage compared to
decision tables. Fig. 3.1 illustrates the decision table and tree.

Fig. 3.1: Decision table and trees as used in CAPP

Expert System Techniques (AI): The solution to the process planning task depends mainly on
the empirical knowledge relevant to the organization based upon the existing facilities. The
popularity of expert systems in CAPP is due to this qualitative, subjective, imprecise and
company specific nature of the process planning knowledge. The expert systems are designed to
cope with such knowledge characteristics. They are also much easier to modify and customize
than the fixed logic conventional systems, because the knowledge in expert systems is explicitly
represented and segregated from the planning mechanism.
In general, problems in a production system formalism can be represented by the following: 1. an
initial state, 2. a goal state, 3. a set of operators, and 4. a control structure. One of the frequently
used methods to solve problems in AI is the theorem proving technique. Using this technique,
we can proceed from the initial state to the goal state. proving that the goal state can be reached

from the initial state will involve the application of the operators, thereby providing a solution to
the problem.

Fig. 3.2: Framework of a decision table

The process planning problem falls in to this category. In the part manufacturing problem, the
initial state is the raw material or workpiece from which the part is to be produced and the goal
state is the finished part. The set of operators comprise the available machine tools, cutters etc.
Processing of the part involves proceeding from the raw material to the finished part. Application
of the operators moves the problem from one state to another. The various stages represent the
workpiece in work in progress condition.
Sinitial S1 S2 ... Sfinal
These stages are non-reversible as the material once removed cannot be added back. However, in
process planning, as the actual material removal has not been done, the stages can be reversible,
leading to the development of alternative process plans. This strategy is being made use of in the
development of expert CAPP systems.

Process Planning: The flow chart for process planning is as follows;

Fig. 3.3: The flow chart for process planning

Approaches to Computer-Aided Process Planning: In recent days, several computer-aided

process planning systems are available for use for a variety of manufacturing operation. These
systems can broadly be clarified into two categories;
1. Variant CAPP
2. Generative CAPP
Variant Computer-Aided Process Planning: Variant process planning approach is sometimes
referred as a data retrieval method. In this approach, process plan for a new part is generated by
recalling, identifying and retrieving an existing plan for a similar part and making necessary
modifications for new part. As name suggests a set of standard plans is established and
maintained for each part family in a preparatory stage. Such parts are called master part. The
similarity in design attributes and manufacturing methods are exploited for the purpose of
formation of part families. Using coding and classification schemes of group technology (GT), a
number of methods such as coefficient based algorithm and mathematical programming models
have been developed for part family formation and plan retrieval.
The general steps for data retrieval modification are as follows;
1. Establishing the Coding Scheme: A variant system usually begins with building a
classification and coding scheme. Because, classification and coding provide a relatively
easy way to identify similarity among existing and new parts. Today, several classification
and coding systems are commercially available. In some extreme cases, a new coding
scheme may be developed. If variant CAPP is preferred than it is useful for a company to
look into several commercially available coding and classification systems (e.g. DCLASS,
JD-CAPP etc.). Now, it is compared with companies before developing their own coding and
classification system. Because using an existing system can save tremendous development
time and manpower.

Fig. 3.4: Architecture of a CAPP system

2. Form the Part Families by Grouping Parts: The whole idea of GT lies into group numerous
parts into a manageable number of part families. One of the key issues in forming part
families is that all parts in the same family should have common and easily identifiable

machined features. As a standard process plan are attached with each part family, thereby
reducing the total number of standard process plans.
3. Develop Standard Process Plans: After formation of part families, standard process plan is
developed for each part families based on common part features. The standard plan should be
as simple as possible but detailed enough to distinguish it from other.
4. Retrieve and Modify the Standard Plans for New Parts: Step1 to step 3 are often referred
as preparatory work. Each time when a new part enters the systems, it is designed and coded
based on its feature, using the coding and classification scheme, and then assigned to a part
family. The part should be similar to its fellow parts in the same family. Also, familys
standard plan should represent the basic set of processes that the part has to go through. In
order to generate detailed process routes and operation sheets to this part, the standard plan is
retrieved from the data.
Due to use and advancement of computers, the information management capability of variant
process planning is much superior. Otherwise it is quite similar to manual process planning.

Fig. 3.5: Variant approach to CAPP

Advantages of Variant CAPP: Following advantages are associated with variant process
planning approach:
Processing and evaluation of complicated activities and managerial issues are done in an
efficient manner. Hence lead to the reduction of time and labour requirement.
Structuring manufacturing knowledge of the process plans to companys needs through
standardized procedures.

Fig. 3.6: Essential elements of a variant/retrieval type CAPP system

 Reduced development and hardware cost and shorter development time. This is an essential
issue for small and medium scale companies, where product variety is not so high and
process planner are interested in establishing their own process planning research activities.

Fig. 3.7: Framework of Variant process planning activity

Fig. 3.8: General procedure for using one of the Variant CAPP systems
Disadvantages of Variant Process Planning Approach: Following disadvantages are associated
with variant process planning approach
It is difficult to maintain consistency during editing.
Proper accommodation of various combinations of attributes such as material, geometry,
size, precision, quality, alternate processing sequence and machine loading among many
other factors are difficult.

 The quality of the final process plan largely depends on the knowledge and experience of
process planner. The dependency on process planner is one of the major shortcomings of
variant process planning.
Some of the most widely used process planning method developed by various company are
mentioned as follows;
Mc Donnell-Douglas automation company under the direction and sponsorship of Computer
Aided Manufacturing International (CAM-I) developed a system where CAPP can be used to
generate process plan for rotational, prismatic and sheet metal part.
Organization for Industrial Research (OIR) and General Electric Company have developed
and another process plan named as MIPLAN. It accommodates both rotational and prismatic
part, and is based on MICLASS coding.
Generative Computer-Aided Process Planning: In generative process planning, process plans
are generated by means of decision logic, formulas, technology algorithms, and geometry based
data to perform uniquely processing decisions. Generative process plan may be defined as a
system that synthesizes process information in order to create a process plan for a new
component automatically.
Generative process plan mainly consists of two major components;
Geometry based coding scheme.
Proportional knowledge in the form of decision logic and data.

Fig. 3.9: Generative approach to CAPP

Geometry-based Coding Scheme: All the geometric features for all process such as related
surfaces, feature dimension, locations, on the features are defined by geometry based coding
scheme. The level of detail is much greater in generative system than a variant system.
For example, various details such as rough and finished state of the part are provided to
transform into desired state.
Proportional Knowledge in the Form of Decision Logic and Data: Process knowledge in the
form of decision logic and data are used for matching of part geometry requirement with the
manufacturing capabilities. All the methods mentioned above are performed automatically.
Operation instruction sets are automatically generated to help the operators to run the machines
in case of manual operation. NC codes are automatically generated, when numerically controlled
machines are used.
Manufacturing knowledge plays a vital role in process planning. The process of acquisition and
documentation of manufacturing knowledge is a recurring dynamic phenomenon. In addition,
there are various sources of manufacturing knowledge such experience of manufacturing
personnel, handbooks, supplier of machine tools, tools, jigs and fixtures materials, inspection
equipment and customers etc. Hence, in order to understand manufacturing information, ensuring

its clarity and providing a framework for future modification, it is not only necessary but also
inevitable to develop a good knowledge structure from wide spectrum of knowledge. Flowchart,
decision trees, decision tables, algorithms, concepts of unit machined surfaces, pattern
recognition techniques, and artificial intelligent based tools are used to serve the purpose.

CAPP
System

Fig. 3.10: Essential elements of a generative type CAPP system

Process
Characteristics
Programming
Part
Planning
and commercial Languages
Developers
Shapes
Approaches Situation
Used

CMPP

Rotational

Generative

GENPLAN

All

Variant and
Generative

GT-CAPP

All

Generative

KAPPS

MIPLAN
RTCAPP

Rotational
and
Prismatic
Rotational
and
Prismatic
Prismatic

Generative

Variant
Generative

Uses English like

language(COPPL)
Interfaced with
CAD\CAM
Part family code
used
Part family
numbers used
Expert system
based on
MICLASS
Generic shell
Knowledge based
interfaced with
CAD
Expert system
based on
DCLASS
Expert system
based on
DCLASS

FORTRAN 77

UTRC (USA)
LockheedGeorgia(USA)
Rockwell Inc. (USA)

LISP

Kobe Univ. (JAPAN)

OIR and GE
Co.(USA)
USC (USA)

TURBOCAPP

Rotational

Generative

PROLOG

Penn. State University

(USA)

XPLAN

All

Generative

FORTRAN 77

Tech. Univ. of DK
(Denmark)

XPLAN-R

Rotational

Generative

FORTRAN 77

Tech. Univ. of DK
(Denmark)

XPLANE

Rotational

Generative

Knowledge based

FORTRAN

XPS-1

All

Variant and
Generative

COPPL used

FORTRAN

Twente Univ. Tech.

(Netherland)
UTRC and CAM-I
(USA)

Table 3.1: Some of the Variant and Generative CAPP Systems: Source: Alting and Jhang (1989)

Advantages of Generative Process Plan: Generative process plans have a number of

advantages. Among the major ones are the following;
1. They rely less on group technology code numbers since the process, usually uses decision
tree to categorize parts into families.
2. Maintenance and updating of stored process plans are largely unnecessary. Since, any plan
may be quickly regenerated by processing through the tree. Indeed, many argue that with
generable systems, process plans should not be stored since if the process is changed, and
out-of-dated process plan might find its way back into the system.
3. The process logic rules however must be maintained up to dated and ready for use. This
provides the process planner with an assurance that the processes generated will reflect stateof-the-art technology.
Description of various generative and variant and generative CAPP systems is mentioned Table
3.1.

Forward and Backward Process Planning: In generative process planning, when process
plans are generated, the system must define an initial state in order to reach the final state (goal).
The path taken represents the sequence of processes. For example, the initial state is the raw
material and the final state is the component design. Then a planner works in modifying the raw
workpiece until it takes on the final design qualities. This is called forward planning.
Backward planning uses a reverse procedure. Assuming that we have a finished component, the
goal is to go back to the un-machined workpiece. Each machining process is considered a filling
process. Forward and backward planning may seem similar. However they influence the
programming of the system significantly. Planning each process can be characterized by a
precondition of the surface to be machined and a post condition of the machining (the end
result). For forward planning, we must know the successor surface before we select a process,
because the post condition of the first process becomes the precondition for second process.
Backward planning eliminates this problem since it begins with the final surfaces from and
processes are selected to satisfy the initial requirements. In forward planning, the steps to obtain
the final surface with the desirable attributes must be carefully planned to guarantee the result.
On the other hand, backward planning starts with the final requirements and searches for the
initial condition.

Input Format: The input format of a process planning system affects the ease with which a
system can be used, and the capability of the system. The transitional form from the original
design (either engineering drawing or CAD model) to a specific input format may be tedious and
difficult to automate. However, such input can provide more complete information about a
component, and more planning functions can be accomplished using the input. Many different
input formats have been used in process planning systems. Some of the few input formats used
are;
Code: Some generative systems such as APPAS use GT codes as input. Codes used are in
generative system are more detailed.
Description Language: Specially designed part description languages can provide detailed
information for process planning system. For example AUTAP system uses a language similar to
a solid modeling language. A component is described by the union of some primitives and
modifiers. Material, processes, machine selection, and time estimates can be selected by the
system using the input model. Another system CIMS/ PRO uses an input language called
CIMS/DEC. CAPP system uses its own special language.

CAPP Based On CAD Models: Using a CAD model as input to a process planning system
can eliminate the human effort of translating a design into code and other descriptive form. A
CAD model contains all the details about a design. However, an algorithm is necessary to

identify a general machined surface in a CAD model. Additional code is needed to convert the
machined surface shape from raw material shape. CAD/CAM system uses a CAD model as its
input. Several other systems such as GENPLAN, AUTOPLAN, etc., also use a CAD database
interactively for tool and fixture selection.

CAPP Based On Decision Logic: The decision logic determines how a process or processes
are selected. The major function of the decision logic is to match the process capabilities with the
design specification. The different techniques in decision logic are;
Decision trees
Decision tables
These two techniques are methods of describing or specifying the various actions associated with
the combination of input conditions.

CAPP Based On Artificial Intelligence (AI): AI can be defined as the ability of a device to
perform functions that are normally associated with the human intelligence. These functions
include reasoning, planning, and problem solving. Applications for AI have been in natural
language processing, intelligent data base retrieval, expert consulting systems, theorem proving,
robotics, scheduling, and perception problems. Process planning applications have been
considered as part of an expert consulting system.
There are two types of knowledge involved in process planning systems: Component knowledge,
and process knowledge. The component knowledge defines the current state of the problem to be
solved (declarative knowledge). On the other hand, the knowledge of processes defines how the
component can be changed by processes (procedural knowledge). There are several methods to
represent declarative knowledge;

Fig. 3.11: Block diagram of expert CAPP system

First order predicate calculus
Frames and semantic networks
Procedural knowledge can be represented by IF (condition), THEN (action) statements which are
similar to decision trees or decision tables. In AI such rules can be called production rules. Even
after the descriptive and procedural knowledge have been represented, conclusions cannot be
deduced, because we do not have mechanism to apply the appropriate rules to the problem.
Control knowledge is similar to human knowledge in reasoning, which deduces certain facts
from the knowledge base concerning problem. This can be a difficult task to program on a
computer.

Computer Aided Process Planning has been an active area of research work in AI for many
years. Feature recognition, feature process correlation, process sequencing, blank selections,
cutting parameter selection, tool selection etc. are the segments of CAPP where AI can
contribute to improve the quality of process plans.

Process Capability: The process capability depends on the following factors;

Shape that a process can generate.

Size limitation (boundaries of the tooling, machine tooling, and fixtures).
Tolerances (both dimensional and geometric).
Surface finish attainable.
Cutting force.
Power consumption.
The shape element implies the basic geometry predicable by a process. However, this is difficult
task to achieve using a computer that is reasoning the shape capabilities in its natural form
(geometry and topology). A feasible alternative is to represent shape by a code. For internal
machining process, the size capability is constrained by the available tool size. In external
machining, size is constrained by the available machine table size. The other capabilities and
limitations can be expressed mathematically. These expressions are straight forward to
programme on a computer if the exact equations and constraints can be quantified.
One way to represent process capabilities is to use process boundaries. A process boundary is
interpreted as the limiting size, tolerance and surface finish for a process. This can be obtained
by careful control of the cutting conditions and process parameters (feed, speed, depth of cut).
Machining force and power are not limiting values in process selection, but becomes an
important consideration in selecting process parameters. A typical process boundary table is
shown in Fig. 3.12.

Fig. 3.12: Process boundary table

Process Parameters for Machining: Surface finish, force and power constraints are directly
affected by the process parameters-feed, speed and depth of cut. Therefore, process selection
becomes an iterative procedure: first a process is selected and then the machining parameters are
adjusted to accommodate the system constraints.
Selection of the machining parameters also affects the time and cost required to produce
components.
Several machinability systems are currently marketed that recommend sets of parameters that
either optimize machining cost, time or production rate, or simply retrieve data table or
calculated values.
One extensively used data system is CUT DATA from Machinability Data Systems of USA.
Recently computerized machinability systems have been introduced which facilitate quick
selection of optimum process parameters.
Cost and Time Models: Machining optimization models can be classified as single pass and
multi pass models. In a single pass model, we assume that only one pass is needed to produce the
required geometry. In this case, depth of cut is fixed. In multi pass model, this assumption is
relaxed and depth of cut also becomes a control variable.

UNIT 4: COMPUTER AIDED PROCESS PLANNING SYSTEMS

Implementation Considerations: Process planning function is manufacturing system
dependent. A single process planning system cannot satisfy all of the different manufacturing
systems needs. Same process planning system can be used for two different manufacturing
systems with little modification of process database if these two manufacturing systems are
similar. This is not true when manufacturing systems are significantly different. Several factors
that must be considered when one attempts to implement a process planning system. They are as
follows;
Manufacturing System Components
Production families/batch size
Number of different production families

Manufacturing System Components:

Planning function is affected by capability of manufacturing system available.

Manufacturing system with precision machining centers can produce products on a single
machining center.
In other systems, several machines are required to achieve same precision.
Process knowledge database depends on the manufacturing system.
Variant process planning system contains no process knowledge since process plans are
retrieved from a database.
The capability of the manufacturing system was embedded in process plans by the process
planners.
These standard plans must be changed when major factory renovation takes place.
Generative process planning system has its own knowledge database in which the user can
modify to suit the particular system.

Production Families/Batch Size:

Different process plans are used for same product when production volume differs. For
example, to turn a thread on single screw, lathe can be used, but to turn a thread in 10000
screws, a threading die is required.
In variant process planning system, changing process plans based on production volume is
not feasible so some components may quit when production volume increases.
In generative process planning system, processes, machine and tool selection are based not
only on shape, tolerance and surface finish, but also on production volume.

Number of Different Production Families:

Certain manufacturing systems specialize in making similar components for different
assemblies, which are designated by their features.
Each feature can be machined by one or series of processes. A model is developed for each
family in which the processes corresponding to each feature are stored.
A process plan can be generated by retrieving processes that correspond to the features on a
new component.
For a moderate number of component families and many similar components in each family,
a variant process planning system is the most economic automated planning alternative.
Although along variant preparation stage is still necessary, a variant process planning system
is much easier to develop.

 Variant process planning systems can be used effectively when there are many similar
components, but significant product variation usually generative process planning system as
economic alternative.

Fig. 4.1: Economic regions for different types of process planning

Process Planning Systems: The majority of existing process planning systems is based on
variant process planning approach. Some of them are: CAPP, MIPLAN, MITURN, MIAPP,
UNIVATION, CINTURN, COMCAPPV, etc. However, there are some generative systems, such
as METCAPP, CPPP, AUTAP, and APPAS. Some of the planning systems are discussed in the
following paragraph. These are systems continuously evolving in many cases. The descriptions
are therefore only approximate.
CAM-I CAPP: The CAM-I (Computer Aided Manufacturing-International) system (CAPP) is
perhaps the most widely used of all process planning systems. CAPP is a database management
system written in ANSI standard FORTRAN. It provides a structure for a data base, retrieval
logic, and interactive editing capability. The coding scheme for part classification and the output
format are added by the user.
PI-CAPP, an extension of CAPP, has its own (built-in) coding and classification system. This
eliminates the requirement of a user developed coding scheme. A typical CAPP system is shown
in Fig. 4.2.
MIPLAN and MULTICAPP: Both MIPLAN and MULTICAPP were developed in conjunction
with OIR (Organization for Industrial Research). They are both variant systems that use the
MICLASS coding system for part description. They are data retrieval systems which retrieve
process plans based on part code, part number, family matrix, and code range. By inputting a part
code, parts with a similar code are retrieved. The process plan for each part is then displayed and
edited by the user. A typical MULTICAPP system is shown in Fig. 4.3.
APPAS and CADCAM: APPAS is a generative system for detailed process selection. CADCAM
is an example of APPAS. CADCAM operates using a CAD front end to interface with
APPAS. APPAS describes the detailed technological information of each machined surface by
means of a special code. CADCAM provides an interactive graphics interface to APPAS.
Components can be modeled graphically and edited interactively.

Fig. 4.2: CAPP system

AUTOPLAN and PRO: AUTOPLAN is generative only in the detailing of the part. The
process selection and process sequencing level do not differ significantly from CAPP or
MIPLAN. The four major modules of the system are;
Group technology retrieval-process plan retrieval.
Graphical planning aides- tooling layout, verification and work instruction and preparation.
Generative process planning.
Process optimization.

Fig. 4.3: MULTICAPP system

CPPP: CPPP (computerized production process planning) was designed for planning cylindrical
parts. CPPP is capable of generating a summary of operations and the detailed operation sheets
required for production. The principle behind CPPP is a composite component concept. A
composite component can be thought of as an imaginary component which contains all the
features of components in one part family. CPPP incorporates a special language, COPPL, to
describe the process model. CPPP allows an interactive mode whereby the planner can interact
with the system at several fixed interaction points.
TIPPS: Although the process planning steps have been discussed, an integrated approach to
generative process planning has yet to be presented. TIPPS is acronym for Totally Integrated
Process planning. TIPPS is generative process planning system that has evolved from the
APPAS and CAD/CAM systems. In TIPPS, the logical divisions of process planning are broken
into functional modules. TIPPS has the following features;
It has a modular structure
It can interact with a CAD system
It allows for interactive surface identification
It contains a process/knowledge description language
Fig. 4.4 shows a block diagram representation of TIPPS software.

Fig. 4.4: TIPPS