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WhenaskedwhatIamworkingon,IoftensayIamwritingabookaboutempathy.People
tendtosmileandnod,andthenIadd,Imagainstit.Thisusuallygetsanuncomfortable
laugh.
Thisreactionsurprisedmeatfirst,butIvecometorealizethattakingapositionagainst
empathyislikeannouncingthatyouhatekittensastatementsooutlandishitcanonlybea
joke.AndsoIvelearnedtoclarify,toexplainthatIamnotagainstmorality,compassion,
kindness,love,beingagoodneighbor,doingtherightthing,andmakingtheworldabetter
place.Myclaimisactuallytheopposite:ifyouwanttobegoodanddogood,empathyisa
poorguide.
Thewordempathyisusedinmanyways,buthereIamadoptingitsmostcommon
meaning,whichcorrespondstowhateighteenthcenturyphilosopherssuchasAdamSmith
calledsympathy.Itreferstotheprocessofexperiencingtheworldasothersdo,oratleast
asyouthinktheydo.Toempathizewithsomeoneistoputyourselfinhershoes,tofeelher
pain.Someresearchersalsousethetermtoencompassthemorecoldbloodedprocessof

assessingwhatotherpeoplearethinking,theirmotivations,theirplans,whattheybelieve.
Thisissometimescalledcognitive,asopposedtoemotional,empathy.Iwillfollowthis
conventionhere,butweshouldkeepinmindthatthetwoaredistincttheyemergefrom
differentbrainprocessesyoucanhavealotofoneandalittleoftheotherandthatmostof
thediscussionofthemoralimplicationsofempathyfocusesonitsemotionalside.
Somedegreeofemotionalempathyisbredinthebone.Thesightandsoundofanothers
sufferingisunpleasantforbabiesand,assoonastheyaremobileenough,theytrytohelp,
pattingandsoothingothersindistress.Thisisnotuniquelyhuman:theprimatologistFrans
deWaalnotesthatchimpswilloftenputtheirarmsaroundthevictimofanattackandpat
herorgroomher.
Empathycanoccurautomatically,eveninvoluntarily.Smithdescribeshowpersonsof
delicatefibreswhonoticeabeggarssoresandulcersareapttofeelanitchingoruneasy
sensationinthecorrespondentpartoftheirownbodies.JohnUpdikewrites,My
grandmotherwouldhavechokingfitsatthekitchentable,andmyownthroatwouldfeel
narrowinsympathy.
Andempathycanbeextendedthroughtheimagination.Inaspeechbeforehebecame
president,BarackObamastressedhowimportantitis

toseetheworldthroughtheeyesofthosewhoaredifferentfromusthechildwhoshungry,the
steelworkerwhosbeenlaidoff,thefamilywholosttheentirelifetheybuilttogetherwhenthestormcame
totown....Whenyouthinklikethiswhenyouchoosetobroadenyourambitofconcernand
empathizewiththeplightofothers,whethertheyareclosefriendsordistantstrangersitbecomes
hardernottoact,hardernottohelp.

ObamaisrightaboutthislastpartthereisconsiderablesupportforwhatthepsychologistC.
DanielBatsoncallstheempathyaltruismhypothesis:whenyouempathizewithothers,you
aremorelikelytohelpthem.Ingeneral,empathyservestodissolvetheboundariesbetween
onepersonandanotheritisaforceagainstselfishnessandindifference.
Itiseasytosee,then,howempathycanbeamoralgood,andithasmanychampions.Obama
talksfrequentlyaboutempathywitnesshisrecentclaim,afterhisfirstmeetingwithPope
Francis,thatitsthelackofempathythatmakesitveryeasyforustoplungeintowars.Its
thelackofempathythatallowsustoignorethehomelessonthestreets.InTheEmpathetic

Civilization(2009)JeremyRifkinarguesthattheonlywayourspecieswillsurvivewar,
environmentaldegradation,andeconomiccollapseisthroughtheenhancementofglobal
empathy.ThispastJune,BillandMelindaGatesconcludedtheirStanfordcommencement
addressbyaskingstudentstonurtureandexpandtheirempatheticpowers,essentialfora
betterworld.

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Mostpeopleseethebenefitsofempathyasakintotheevilsofracism:tooobvioustorequire
justification.Ithinkthisisamistake.Ihavearguedelsewherethatcertainfeaturesof
empathymakeitapoorguidetosocialpolicy.Empathyisbiasedwearemorepronetofeel
empathyforattractivepeopleandforthosewholooklikeusorshareourethnicornational
background.Andempathyisnarrowitconnectsustoparticularindividuals,realor
imagined,butisinsensitivetonumericaldifferencesandstatisticaldata.AsMotherTeresa
putit,IfIlookatthemassIwillneveract.IfIlookattheone,Iwill.Laboratorystudies
findthatwereallydocaremoreabouttheonethanaboutthemass,solongaswehave
personalinformationabouttheone.
Inlightofthesefeatures,ourpublicdecisionswillbefairerandmoremoralonceweput
empathyaside.Ourpoliciesareimprovedwhenweappreciatethatahundreddeathsare
worsethanone,evenifweknowthenameoftheone,andwhenweacknowledgethatthelife
ofsomeoneinafarawaycountryisworthasmuchasthelifeaneighbor,evenifouremotions
pullusinadifferentdirection.Withoutempathy,wearebetterabletograsptheimportance
ofvaccinatingchildrenandrespondingtoclimatechange.Theseactsimposecostsonreal
peopleinthehereandnowforthesakeofabstractfuturebenefits,sotacklingthemmay
requireoverridingempatheticresponsesthatfavorthecomfortandwellbeingofindividuals
today.Wecanrethinkhumanitarianaidandthecriminaljusticesystem,choosingtodrawon
areasoned,evencounterempathetic,analysisofmoralobligationandlikelyconsequences.
Butevenifyouacceptthisargument,thereisalotmoretolifethanpublicpolicy.Consider
oureverydayinteractionswithourparentsandchildren,withourpartnersandfriends.
Consideralsocertainspecialrelationships,suchasthatbetweendoctorandpatientor
therapistandclient.Empathymightnotscaleuptothepolicylevel,butitseemsan
unalloyedgoodwhenitcomestotheseintimaterelationshipsthemorethebetter.

Iusedtobelievethis,butIamnolongersure.

OneofempathysmostthoughtfuldefendersisthepsychologistSimonBaronCohen.Inhis
2011bookTheScienceofEvil,hedrawsuponpsychologyandneurosciencetoarguethatthe
notionofevilshouldbereplacedwithempathyerosionandthatahighdegreeofempathy
iswhatmakesforgoodpeopleandgoodsocieties.
Individualsdifferintheirdispositiontofeelempathy,andBaronCohenpositsanempathy
curvethatrunsfromLevel0,wherethereisnoempathyatall,toLevel6,whereoneis
continuallyfocusedonotherpeoplesfeelings....inaconstantstateofhyperarousal,such
thatotherpeopleareneverofftheirradar.HesketchesonesuchLevel6individual:

Hannahisapsychotherapistwhohasanaturalgiftfortuningintohowothersarefeeling.Assoonasyou
walkintoherlivingroom,sheisalreadyreadingyourface,yourgait,yourposture.Thefirstthingshe
asksyouisHowareyou?butthisisnoperfunctoryplatitude.Herintonationevenbeforeyouhave
takenoffyourcoatsuggestsaninvitationtoconfide,todisclose,toshare.Evenifyoujustanswerwitha
shortphrase,yourtoneofvoicerevealstoheryourinneremotionalstate,andshequicklyfollowsupyour
answerwithYousoundabitsad.Whatshappenedtoupsetyou?
Beforeyouknowit,youareopeninguptothiswonderfullistener,whointerjectsonlytooffersoundsof
comfortandconcern,tomirrorhowyoufeel,occasionallyofferingsoothingwordstoboostyouandmake
youfeelvalued.Hannahisnotdoingthisbecauseitisherjobtodoso.Sheislikethiswithherclients,her
friends,andevenpeopleshehasonlyjustmet.Hannahsfriendsfeelcaredforbyher,andher
friendshipsarebuiltaroundsharingconfidencesandofferingmutualsupport.Shehasanunstoppable
drivetoempathize.

ItiseasytoseewhatBaronCohenfindssoimpressivehere.Hannahsoundslikeagood
therapist,anditseemsasifshewouldalsobeagoodmothertoyoungchildren.
Butconsiderwhatitmustbeliketobeher.Hannahsconcernforotherpeopledoesntderive
fromparticularappreciationorrespectforthemherconcernisindiscriminateandapplies
tostrangersaswellasfriends.Shealsodoesnotendorseaguidingprinciplebasedon
compassionandkindness.Rather,Hannahiscompelledbyhyperarousalherdriveis
unstoppable.Herexperienceistheoppositeofselfishnessbutjustasextreme.Aselfish
personmightgothroughlifeindifferenttothepleasureandpainofothersninetyninefor

himandoneforeveryoneelsewhileinHannahscase,thefeelingsofothersarealwaysin
herheadninetynineforeveryoneelseandoneforher.
ItisnoaccidentthatBaronCohenchoseawomanashisexample.Inaseriesofempirical
andtheoreticalarticles,psychologistsVickiHelgesonandHeidiFritzhaveexploredwhy
womenaretwiceaslikelyasmentoexperiencedepression.Theirresultssuggestthatthis
divergenceisexplainedinpartbyasexdifferenceinthepropensityforunmitigated
communion,definedasanexcessiveconcernwithothersandplacingothersneedsbefore
onesown.HelgesonandFritzdevelopedasimplenineitemquestionnaire,whichasks
respondentstoindicatewhethertheyagreewithstatementssuchas,Formetobehappy,I
needotherstobehappy,Icantsaynowhensomeoneasksmeforhelp,andIoftenworry
aboutothersproblems.WomentypicallyscorehigherthanmenonthisscaleHannah
would,Ibet,scorehighindeed.
Stronginclinationtowardempathycomeswithcosts.Individualsscoringhighinunmitigated
communionreportasymmetricalrelationships,wheretheysupportothersbutdontget
supportthemselves.Theyalsoaremorepronetosufferdepressionandanxiety.Working
fromadifferentliteratureonpathologicalaltruism,BarbaraOakleynotesinColdBlooded
Kindness(2011),Itssurprisinghowmanydiseasesandsyndromescommonlyseenin
womenseemtoberelatedtowomensgenerallystrongerempathyforandfocusonothers.

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Theproblemsthatariseherehavetodowithemotionalempathyfeelinganotherspain.
Thisleadstowhatpsychologistscallempatheticdistress.Wecancontrastthiswithnon
empatheticcompassionamoredistancedloveandkindnessandconcernforothers.Such
compassionisapsychologicalplus.Puttingasidetheobviouspointthatsomedegreeof
caringforothersismorallyright,kindnessandaltruismareassociatedwithallsortsof
positivephysicalandpsychologicaloutcomes,includingaboostinbothshorttermmood
andlongtermhappiness.Ifyouwanttogethappy,helpingothersisanexcellentwaytodo
so.
Itisworthexpandingonthedifferencebetweenempathyandcompassion,becausesomeof
empathysbiggestfansareconfusedonthispointandthinkthattheonlyforcethatcan
motivatekindnessisempatheticarousal.Butthisismistaken.Imaginethatthechildofa

closefriendhasdrowned.Ahighlyempatheticresponsewouldbetofeelwhatyourfriend
feels,toexperience,asmuchasyoucan,theterriblesorrowandpain.Incontrast,
compassioninvolvesconcernandloveforyourfriend,andthedesireandmotivationtohelp,
butitneednotinvolvemirroringyourfriendsanguish.
Orconsiderlongdistancecharity.Itisconceivable,Isuppose,thatsomeonewhohearsabout
theplightofstarvingchildrenmightactuallygothroughtheempatheticexerciseof
imaginingwhatitisliketostarvetodeath.Butthisempatheticdistresssurelyisntnecessary
forcharitablegiving.Acompassionatepersonmightvalueotherslivesintheabstract,and,
recognizingthemiserycausedbystarvation,bemotivatedtoactaccordingly.
Summingup,compassionatehelpingisgoodforyouandforothers.Butempatheticdistress
isdestructiveoftheindividualinthelongrun.
Itmightalsobeoflittlehelptootherpeoplebecauseexperiencingotherspainisexhausting
andleadstoburnout.ThisissueisexploredintheBuddhistliteratureonmorality.Consider
thelifeofabodhisattva,anenlightenedpersonwhovowsnottopassintoNirvana,choosing
insteadtostayinthenormalcycleoflifeanddeathtohelpthemasses.Howisabodhisattva
tolive?InConsequencesofCompassion(2009)CharlesGoodmannotesthedistinctionin
Buddhiststextsbetweensentimentalcompassion,whichcorrespondstoempathy,and
greatcompassion,whichinvolvesloveforotherswithoutempatheticattachmentor
distress.Sentimentalcompassionistobeavoided,asitexhauststhebodhisattva.Goodman
defendsgreatcompassion,whichismoredistancedandreservedandcanbesustained
indefinitely.
ThisdistinctionhassomesupportinthecollaborativeworkofTaniaSinger,apsychologist
andneuroscientist,andMatthieuRicard,aBuddhistmonk,meditationexpert,andformer
scientist.InaseriesofstudiesusingfMRIbrainscanning,Ricardwasaskedtoengagein
varioustypesofcompassionmeditationdirectedtowardpeoplewhoaresuffering.Tothe
surpriseoftheinvestigators,thesemeditativestatesdidnotactivatepartsofthebrainthat
arenormallyactivatedbynonmeditatorswhentheythinkaboutotherspain.Ricard
describedhismeditativeexperienceasawarmpositivestateassociatedwithastrong
prosocialmotivation.
Hewasthenaskedtoputhimselfinanempatheticstateandwasscannedwhiledoingso.
Nowtheappropriatecircuitsassociatedwithempatheticdistresswereactivated.The

empathicsharing,Ricardsaid,veryquicklybecameintolerabletomeandIfeltemotionally
exhausted,verysimilartobeingburnedout.
OneseesasimilarcontrastinongoingexperimentsledbySingerandhercolleaguesinwhich
peopleareeithergivenempathytraining,whichfocusesonthecapacitytoexperiencethe
sufferingofothers,orcompassiontraining,inwhichsubjectsaretrainedtorespondto
sufferingwithfeelingsofwarmthandcare.AccordingtoSingersresults,amongtestsubjects
whounderwentempathytraining,negativeaffectwasincreasedinresponsetobothpeople
indistressandeventopeopleineverydaylifesituations....thesefindingsunderlinethe
beliefthatengaginginempathicresonanceisahighlyaversiveexperienceand,assuch,can
beariskfactorforburnout.Compassiontrainingwhichdoesntinvolveempatheticarousal
totheperceiveddistressofotherswasmoreeffective,leadingtobothincreasedpositive
emotionsandincreasedaltruism.
Thisbringsustothetargetsofempathy.AsIwritethis,anolderrelativeofminewhohas
cancerisgoingbackandforthtohospitalsandrehabilitationcenters.Ivewatchedhim
interactwithdoctorsandlearnedwhathethinksofthem.Hevaluesdoctorswhotakethe
timetolistentohimanddevelopanunderstandingofhissituationhebenefitsfromthissort
ofcognitiveempathy.Butemotionalempathyismorecomplicated.Hegetsthemostfrom
doctorswhodontfeelashedoes,whoarecalmwhenheisanxious,confidentwhenheis
uncertain.Andheparticularlyappreciatescertainvirtuesthathavelittledirectlytodowith
empathy,virtuessuchascompetence,honesty,professionalism,andrespect.
LeslieJamisonmakesasimilarpointinhernewessaycollectionTheEmpathyExams.
Jamisonwasatonetimeamedicalactorshewouldfakesymptomsformedicalstudents,
whowoulddiagnoseheraspartoftheirtraining.Shealsoratedthemontheirskills.The
mostimportantentryonherchecklistwasnumberthirtyone:Voicedempathyformy
situation/problem.Butwhenshediscussesherrealexperienceswithdoctors,her
assessmentofempathyismixed.Shemetwithonedoctorwhowascoldandunsympathetic
toherconcerns,whichcausedherpain.Butsheisgratefultoanotherwhokeptareassuring
distanceandobjectivity:IdidntneedhimtobemymotherevenforadayIonlyneeded
himtoknowwhathewasdoing,shewrites.Hiscalmnessdidntmakemefeelabandoned,
itmademefeelsecure....Ineededtolookathimandseetheoppositeofmyfear,notits
echo.

Orconsiderfriendshipandlove.Hannahssoothingwords,hersoundsofcomfortand
concernandmirroringofothersfeelingsdescribehowacertaintypeoftherapisttreatsa
clientorhowacertaintypeofparenttreatsananxioustoddler.Butthisisnthowfriendship
usuallyworks.Friendshipisrootedinsymmetryandequality,sharedprojects,teasingand
jokesandgossip,allofwhichareabsentfromatherapeuticrelationship.WhileImight
benefitfromafriendstherapyifIwerefeelingdeeplyanxiousordepressed,Idont,onthe
whole,wantmyfriendstotreatmelikeasufferingpatient,softlymurmuringreassurances
whentheydetectthatImoutofsorts.HannahsYousoundabitsad.Whatshappenedto
upsetyou?exemplifieswhatJamisonmeanswhenshesays,Empathyisalwaysperched
precariouslybetweengiftandinvasion.
Puttingasidetheextremes,domoreempatheticpeoplemakebetterfriendsandpartners?To
myknowledge,thishasneverbeenstudied.Certainlywewantourfriendstounderstandus
andtocareaboutus.ItwouldbeunnervingifsomeoneIloveneverflinchedinthefaceofmy
sufferingorlitupatmyjoy.ButthisisnotbecauseIwantthemtomirrormyfeelingsrather,
itisbecauseiftheyloveme,theyshouldworryaboutmymisfortunesandbepleasedwhenI
dowell.Fromapurelyselfishstandpoint,Imightnotwanttheirempatheticresonance,
particularlywhenIamfeelingdown.Iwouldpreferthattheygreetmypanicwithcalmand
mysadnesswithgoodcheer.AsCicerosaidaboutfriendshipbuthecouldjustaswellhave
beentalkingaboutcloserelationshipsingeneralitimproveshappinessandabatesmisery,
bythedoublingofourjoyandthedividingofourgrief.

Whenwethinkaboutindividualsontheotherextreme,whatBaronCohenwoulddescribeas
empathyLevel0,wenaturallythinkaboutpsychopaths,sociopaths,or
antisocial/psychopathicpersonalitytypes(thetermstypicallyareusedsynonymously).
Psychopathsareidentifiedinpoplarcultureastheembodimentofevil.Thetermdescribes
everyonefrompredatoryCEOstocallouspoliticianstocannibalkillerssuchasJeffrey
DahmerandthefictionalHannibalLecter.

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ThereisastandardtestforpsychopathydevelopedbythepsychologistRobertHare.Itis
usedtomakelegaldecisionsaboutcriminaloffenders,includingwhethertheyshouldbe
incarceratedforlife,andusedaswellbyexperimentalpsychologistswhogivethetestto
undergraduatestoexplorehowtheirscoresrelateto,forinstance,attitudestowardsexual
violenceandtheirstyleofmoralreasoning.Ifyoulikethissortofthing,youcantakethetest
online,ratingyourselfontraitssuchasglibness/superficialcharm,lackofremorseor
guilt,andpromiscuoussexual
behavior.
Themostimportantitemformanypeopleiscallous/lackofempathy.Manypopular
treatmentsofpsychopathy,suchasJonRonsons2011bestsellerThePsychopathTest,seea
lackofempathyasthecoredeficitinpsychopathy.Itisherethatcognitiveandemotional
empathycomeapart,becausemanypeoplediagnosedwithpsychopathyareexcellentat
readingothersminds.Thisiswhatenablesthemtobesuchmasterfulmanipulators,con
men,andseducers.Buttheemotionalpartisthoughttobeabsenttheycannotfeelother
peoplespainandthisiswhypsychopathsaresuchterriblepeople.
Thismightbethepopularpicture,butthetruthismorecomplicated.Foronething,as
philosopherJessePrinzpointsout,psychopathssufferfromdullingofjustaboutall
emotionalresponses,notjustempathy.Thisoverallbluntingoffeelingorshallowaffect
isoneofthecriteriaonthechecklist.ItwasobservedbyHarveyCleckleyinTheMaskof
Sanity,his1941bookthatprovidedthefirstclinicaldescriptionofpsychopathy:

Vexation,spite,quickandlabileflashesofquasiaffection,peevishresentment,shallowmoodsofself
pity,puerileattitudesofvanity,andabsurdandshowyposesofindignationareallwithinhisemotional
scaleandarefreelysoundedasthecircumstancesoflifeplayuponhim.Butmature,wholehearted
anger,trueorconsistentindignation,honest,solidgrief,sustainingpride,deepjoy,andgenuinedespair
arereactionsnotlikelytobefoundwithinthisscale.

Itisunclear,then,whetheranempathydeficitisatthecoreofpsychopathy,orwhetheritis
justonefacetofamoregeneralproblem.Onecanexplorethisbylookingathowwellscores
onthecallous/lackofempathyitemandcertainrelateditemsarecorrelatedwithfuturebad
behavior.Inanextensivereviewoftheliterature,psychologistJenniferSkeemandher
colleaguesnotethattheseitemsareweakpredictorsofviolenceandcriminality.Thereason
whythepsychopathtesthasanypredictivepoweratallisthatitassessespastbadbehavior
juveniledelinquency,criminalversatility,parasiticlifestyle,andsoonaswellasfactors

suchaslackofinhibitionandpoorimpulsecontrol.Toputitanotherway,youcanremove
theempathyquestionfromthescale,anditwouldbeaboutasgoodatpickingout
psychopaths.
Whataboutaggressivebehaviormoregenerally?Aremoreaggressivepeopleless
empathetic?EvenI,askeptic,wouldimaginethereissomesubstantiverelationshipbetween
empathyandaggression,sincepresumablysomeonewithagreatdealofempathywouldfind
itunpleasanttocausepaininothers.Butarecentreviewsummarizingdatafromallavailable
studiesoftherelationshipbetweenempathyandaggressionreachesadifferentconclusion.
TheauthorsofThe(non)relationbetweenempathyandaggression:Surprisingresultsfrom
ametaanalysisreportthatonly1percentofthevariationinaggressionisaccountedforby
empathy.Thismeansthatifyouwanttopredicthowaggressiveapersonis,andyouhave
accesstoanenormousamountofinformationaboutthatperson,includingpsychiatric
interviews,penandpapertests,criminalrecords,andbrainscans,thelastthingyouwould
bothertolookatwouldbemeasuresofthepersonsempathy.
Finally,onedecisivetestofthelowempathymakesbadpeopletheorywouldbetostudya
groupofpeoplewholackempathybutalsolacktheothertraitsassociatedwithpsychopathy.
Suchindividualsdoexist.BaronCohennotesthatpeoplewithAspergersyndromeand
autismtypicallyhavelowcognitiveempathytheystruggletounderstandthemindsof
othersandhavelowemotionalempathyaswell.(Aswithpsychopaths,thereissome
controversyaboutwhethertheyareincapableofempathyorchoosenottodeployit.)Despite
theirempathydeficit,suchpeopleshownopropensityforexploitationandviolence.Indeed,
theyoftenhavestrongmoralcodesandaremorelikelytobevictimsofcrueltythan
perpetrators.

AmIsayingthatempathyisirrelevantoracorrosiveinfluenceonhowwetreatthosearound
us?Thiswouldbetoostrongaconclusion.Therearemanystudiesthatlookatindividual
differencesinempathylevelsandcorrelatetheselevelswithrealworldbehavior,suchas
willingnesstohelpsomeoneinneed.Manyofthesestudiesarepoorlydone.Theyoften
measureempathythroughselfreport,soyoudontknowwhetheryouareassessingactual
empathyasopposedtothedegreetowhichpeopleseethemselves,orwanttobeseen,as
empathetic.Furthermore,peoplewhohelpothersmoremayassumethattheyare

empathetic,sincepeopleoftenmakejudgmentsaboutthemselvesbydrawingconclusions
fromtheirownbehavior.
Nonetheless,thereissomeevidencethatbeingmoreempatheticinfluenceshowlikelyoneis
tohelpincertaincircumstances.Therelationshipisoftenweak,andnotallstudiesfindit.
Still,givenlaboratoryfindingsshowingthatinducingempathyincreasesthelikelihoodof
altruisticbehaviors,itwouldbewrongtodismissempathysroleinourmorallives.
Butweknowthatahighlevelofempathydoesnotmakeoneagoodpersonandthatalow
leveldoesnotmakeoneabadperson.Beingagoodpersonlikelyismorerelatedtodistanced
feelingsofcompassionandkindness,alongwithintelligence,selfcontrol,andasenseof
justice.Beingabadpersonhasmoretodowithalackofregardforothersandaninabilityto
controlonesappetites.
Sohowmuchempathydowereallywantinourselves,ourchildren,ourfriends,andour
society?Ifyouwanttoanswerthatquestion,ithelpstothinkaboutaquitedifferent
emotionalresponseanger.
Empathyandangersharealot.Bothemergeinearlychildhoodandexistineveryhuman
culture.Botharepresentinotherprimatessuchaschimpanzees.Botharesocial.Unlike
emotionssuchasfearanddisgust,whichareoftenelicitedbyexperiencesandinanimate
beings,empathyandangeraremainlygearedtowardotherpeople.Andtheyarebothmoral.
Theidentificationthatcomeswithempathycanmotivatekindbehaviortowardothersanger
isoftenaresponsetoperceivedunfairness,cruelty,andotherimmoralacts.
Buddhisttextsareevenmoreskepticalaboutangerthantheyareaboutempathy.Theyseeit
asdestructiveoftheindividualandtheworldatlarge.Thisisavalidconcern.ButifIcould
determinetheemotionallifeofmychild,Iwouldntleaveoutthecapacityforanger.The
emotionalforceofangercanprotectusandthoseweareclosetofromexploitationand
predation.Someonewhocouldnevergetangrywouldbetheperfectvictim.Angercanalso
beaprodtomoralbehaviormoregenerallymanygreatmoralheroesMartinLutherKing,
Jr.,forinstancehavebeenindividualswholetthemselvesgetangryatsituationsthatothers
wereindifferentto.
ButIwouldworryabouttheirrational,arbitrary,andselfdestructiveaspectsofanger,soI
wouldntwishthatmychildpossesstoomuchofit.AndIwouldmakesuretoaddplentyof
intelligence,concernforothers,andselfcontrol.Iwouldwanttoensurethatangeris

modified,shaped,anddirectedbyrationaldeliberation.Itwouldoccasionallyspuraction,
butitwouldbesubservienttothecapacitiesforrationalityandcompassion.Ifwewereall
constitutedinthisway,ifwecouldallputangerinitsplace,ourswouldbeakinderand
betterworld.
Thatishowweshouldthinkaboutempathytoo.

Shouldyoubeconcernedaboutpeoplewholackempathy?

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v B v?
Thenyoullloveournewmembershipprogram!Joinustosupportengageddiscussionon
criticalissues.Youllalsoenjoyexclusivemembershipbenefits.

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