List of contents:

Weathering
Roundness
Sorting
Sediment maturity
Conglomerate
Breccia

WEATHERING
Weathering is a complex interaction of physical, chemical and biological processes that
alters the stone in some general or specific way.
The physical properties of stone differ widely between stone groups and even within
the same stone type. The mineral composition, textural differences, varying degrees of
hardness and pore/capillary structure are the main reasons why neither stone nor all the surface
of the same stone shows signs of alteration the same and evenly.
These minerals can be broken down, dissolved or converted to new minerals by a variety
of processes which are grouped as Mechanical (physical) and Chemical.

Physical Weathering
Physical weathering is caused by the effects of changing temperature on rocks, causing the rock to break
apart. The process is sometimes assisted by water.
There are two main types of physical weathering:
Freeze-thaw occurs when water continually seeps into cracks, freezes and expands, eventually
breaking the rock apart.
Exfoliation occurs when minerals in the rocks are continuously heated and cooled in hot climates.
Where does it occur?
Physical weathering happens especially in places where there is little soil and few plants grow, such as in
mountain regions and hot deserts.
How does it occur?
Either through repeated melting and freezing of water (mountains and tundra) or through expansion and
contraction of the surface layer of rocks that are baked by the sun (hot deserts).

Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering is caused by rain water reacting with the mineral grains in rocks to form new
minerals (clays) and soluble salts. These reactions occur particularly when the water is slightly acidic.
Where does it occur?
These chemical processes need water, and occur more rapidly at higher temperature, so warm, damp
climates are best. Chemical weathering (especially hydrolysis and oxidation) is the first stage in the
production of soils.
How does it occur?
There are different types of chemical weathering, the most important are:
Solution - removal of rock in solution by acidic rainwater. In particular, limestone is weathered by
rainwater containing dissolved CO2, (this process is sometimes called carbonation).
Hydrolysis - the breakdown of rock by acidic water to produce clay and soluble salts.
Oxidation - the breakdown of rock by oxygen and water, often giving iron-rich rocks a rusty-coloured
weathered surface.
For extra information see last three pages.

Roundness
Roundness "The degree of abrasion of a clastic particle as shown by the sharpness of its edges and
corners, expressed by Wadell (1932) as the ratio of the average radius of curvature of the several edges or
corners of the particle to the radius of curvature of the maximum inscribed sphere (or to one-half the
nominal diameter of the particle.)" Bates and Jackson p. 546.
For descriptive purposes we can take the entire spectrum of roundness and break it up in to a small
number of divisions each referred to as a Roundness Class ["An arbitrarily defined range of roundness
values for the classification of sedimentary particles." Bates and Jackson, p. 547]. Below are verbal
descriptions of the usual roundness classes as commonly applied.
Well-rounded: original faces, edges, and corners have been destroyed by abrasion and whose entire
surface consists of broad curves without any flat areas. Roundness value between 0.60 and 1.00. (See
Pettijohn, 1957, p. 59 for further details if you are so inclined)
Rounded: Round or curving in shape; original edges and corners have been smoothed of to rather broad
curves and whose original faces are almost completely removed by abrasion. Some flat areas may remain.
Roundness value between 0.40 and 0.60.
Subrounded: Partially rounded, showing considerable but not complete abrasion, original form still
evident but the edges and corners are rounded to smooth curves. Reduced area of original faces.
Roundness value between 0.25 and 0.40.

Subangular: Somewhat angular, free from sharp edges but not smoothly rounded, showing signs of slight
abrasion but retaining original form. Faces untouched while edges and corners are rounded off to some
extent. Roundness value between 0.15 and 0.25.
Angular: Sharp edges and corners, little or no evidence of abrasion. Roundness value between 0.0 and
0.15.
Very Angular: Powers (1953) used this as a class similar to that of Angular of Pettijohn (1957) and with a
roundness value of 0.10 to 0.17. I would suggest to reserve this term for those few particles whose edges
and corners are so sharp that they could cut you.
Subangual-subrounded: A term sometimes used when one can not decide which to choose as is generally
the case when you are working with granular or smaller sized particles.
Some text and reference books use cartoon illustrations of these various classes (see below) and some
geologists will actually carry a reference card with them with these same illustrations. This, I think, is a
little silly. Similarly it is a bit silly to spend the day measureing circles and what not to get a numerical
value for roundness. It is best to train your eye to recognize the various roundness classes.

sorting
Sorting indicates the distribution of grain size of sediments, either in unconsolidated deposits or in
sedimentary rocks. Poorly sorted indicates that the sediment sizes are mixed (large variance); whereas
well sorted indicates that the sediment sizes are similar (low variance).
The degree of sorting may also indicate the energy and/or duration of deposition. Well sorted rocks are
generally porous, while poorly sorted rocks have low porosity.

Sediment Maturity (an interpretation)

Sediment maturity is a measure of distance/time from the source area to the depositional site. A lot of
factors play in here, especially the climatic condition of weathering and transport and the mineralogical
make up of the source area rock. As a general rule the greater the transport distance and the greater the
length of time in the transport medium the more mature a resultant sediment becomes. Maturity can be
gauged in terms of texture (textural maturity), mineralogy (minerologic maturity), and composition
(compositional maturity). The terminology we use to describe maturity is relatively simple: immature,
submature, mature, and supermature.

Textural maturity is gauged largely in terms of grain size, grain sorting, and grain roundness. At a source
site the weathering process tends to generate a wide range of grain sizes but generally big chunks. And
these tend to have a rough or angular exterior. The maturation process makes big things smaller up to a
point that is. Grains of medium sand size tend to resist further size reduction. The maturation process also
knocks of the ruff edges reducing the grain exterior to a smooth or rounded surface. Therefore:
Immature

Submature

Mature

Supermature

Sorting

Extremely poorly
sorted to very
poorly sorted

poorly sorted to
moderately
sorted

moderately well
sorted to well
sorted

very well sorted

Grains Size

very coarse or
bigger

coarse

medium

Medium

Roundness

Angular

subangular

rounded

well rounded

You must keep in mind source area when you are making these subjective determinations. If the source
area can only provide fine-grained material than a finely grained sediment could be submature.
Mineralogic maturity depends upon the relative deterioration of the various minerals present in the
transport environment. As a general rule those minerals that are further from their pressure and
temperature of formation are first to go; olivine goes quickly relative to quartz. But remember from
Physical Geology that grain surface area also plays into this as well as structural integrity of the crystal
lattice. A stressed lattice will be subjected to faster chemical action than a near perfect lattice of the same
mineral. We can gauge mineralogic maturity by rations of stable to unstable minerals like the ratio of
quartz to feldspar or the ratio of quartz + chert to feldspar + rock fragments. Immature sediments will
have low ratios maybe even approaching 1 or even less than 1 whereas mature sediments will have high
ratios, much greater that 1. This all assumes that the source area is a granite, which most generally are
unless you are on Hawaii. In the case of a Hawaiian type source area this ratio would make little sense.
There you may want to think in terms of a ratio of feldspar to olivine.
Compositional maturity is basically a reflection of mineralogical maturity only expressed in ratios of
oxides not minerals. Think in terms of high SiO2 values relative to most other oxides. The term "high"
here is a relative term, likewise the implied term "low". Think of the SiO 2 to other oxide ratios as found in
granite as being low ratios and therefore indicative of immature sediments whereas sediment with a ration
approaching infinity as being supermature.

Conglomerate
What is Conglomerate?
Conglomerate is a clastic sedimentary rock that contains large (greater than two millimeters in diameter)
rounded clasts. The space between the clasts is generally filled with smaller particles and/or a chemical
cement that binds the rock together.

What is the Composition of Conglomerate?

Conglomerate can have a variety of compositions. As a clastic sedimentary rock it can contain clasts of
any rock material or weathering product that is washed downstream or down current. The rounded clasts
of conglomerate can be mineral particles such as quartz or they can be sedimentary, metamorphic or
igneous rock fragments. The matrix that binds the large clasts together can be a mixture of sand, mud and
chemical cement.
How Does Conglomerate Form?
Conglomerate forms where a sediment of rounded clasts at least two millimeters in diameter accumulates.
It takes a strong water current to transport particles this large. So the environment of deposition might be
along a swiftly flowing stream or a beach with strong waves. There must also be a source of large-size
sediment particles somewhere up current. The rounded shape of the clasts reveal that they were tumbled
by running water or moving waves.
Conglomerates often begin by being deposited as a sediment consisting mainly of small clasts as shown
in the photo below. The finer size sand and clay which fill the spaces between the larger clasts is often
deposited later on top of the large clasts and then sifts down between them to fill the interstitial spaces.

Breccia
What is Breccia?
Breccia is a term most often used for clastic sedimentary rocks that are composed of large angular
fragments (over two millimeters in diameter). The spaces between the large angular fragments can be
filled with a matrix of smaller particles or a mineral cement that binds the rock together.
How Does Breccia Form?
Breccia forms where broken, angular fragments of rock or mineral debris accumulate. One possible
location for breccia formation is at the base of an outcrop where mechanical weathering debris
accumulates. Another would be in stream deposits near the outcrop such as an alluvial fan. Some breccias
form as debris flow deposits. The angular particle shape reveals that they have not been transported very
far (transport wears the sharp points and edges of angular particles into rounded shapes). After deposition
the fragments are bound together by a mineral cement or by a matrix of smaller particles that fills the
spaces between the fragments.
How Does Breccia Differ From Conglomerate?
Breccia and conglomerate are very similar rocks. They are both clastic sedimentary rocks composed of
particles larger than two millimeters in diameter. The difference is in the shape of the large particles. In
breccia the large particles are angular in shape but in conglomerate the particles are rounded. This reveals
a difference in how far the particles were transported. Near the outcrop where the fragments were
produced by mechanical weathering the shape is angular. However, during transport by water away from

the outcrop the sharp points and edges of those angular fragments are rounded. The rounded particles
would form a conglomerate.
What is Breccia's Composition?
Breccia has many compositions. Its composition is mainly determined by the rock and mineral
material that the angular fragments were produced from. The climate of the source area can also
influence composition. Most breccias are a mix of rock fragments and mineral grains. The type of
rock that the fragments were produced from is often used as an adjective when referring to the
rock. Some examples: sandstone breccia, limestone breccia, granite breccia, chert breccia, basalt
breccia and others. Often a breccia will contain many types of angular rock fragments. These are
known as polymict breccias or polymictic breccias.

http://www.stonecaretechniques.com/8_m.htm
www.geology.com
www.geolsoc.org.uk

and some other sites.

Extra part:
MECHANICAL PROCESSES : This includes the processes of...frost action...thermal
expansion...wetting and drying...salt decay.

Frost Action : Frost action or commonly called freeze/thaw cycles occur when water
within the pore structure or cracks freezes to ice. It has been estimated
when water freezes it expands between 8 to 11 percent, with a force of
2,000 pounds per square inch to 150 tons per square foot. This increase
of internal pressure combined with repeated freeze/thaw cycles produces
micro-fissures, cracks, flaking and spalling.

Thermal Expansion : Different minerals expand and contract at different rates, this is
known as the coefficient of heat expansion and contraction.
It is known that the temperature of stone can vary between 30
and 50 percent higher than the average air temperature. Some
of the darker minerals, absorb heat more readily, and also give
it up more quickly than some of the lighter ones. The daily and
seasonal heating and cooling of stone can cause stresses and
micro-fractures in and along mineral grains.Water in the pores
makes thermal stressing more effective. This can eventually
produce surface flaking. Marble is particularly affected by this.

Wetting & Drying : Coefficients of expansion and contraction are also involved in
volume change. Stone expands when it absorbs water and
shrinks as it dries. This expanding and contracting produces
internal stresses at the grain boundaries. When the stone heats
up a "baking effect" occurs, which will eventually lead to
surface flaking. Marble is affected by this "baking effect."

Salt Decay : Salts are some of the most damaging agents to stone. Salt manifest
themselves in a process commonly referred to as Efflorescence. There
are several different types. The most common form of efflorescence is the
appearance of salts at the surface in the form of whitish to gray powdery
fluffy blooms. This occurs when the stone, substrate or other sources of
soluble salts are in contact with moisture and move to the surface by
capillary action. As the moisture moves to the surface these soluble salts
are deposited at the surface to recrystallize into these blooms. This form
is generally harmless. Subflorescence is similar to efflorescence, however
instead of the salts being transported to the surface they crystallize and
buildup within the pore/capillary structure beneath the surface. As the salts
accumulate internal pressures develop generating spalling and flaking and
may eventually lead to deep deterioration of the stone. Numerous varieties
of salts have been identified in the efflorescence process. Some of these
varieties by themselves or when combined with others will form a "hard
and glassy skin" adhering rather strongly to the surface. This type is
Crystalline efflorescence.
These mechanical processes generally lead to a weakening of the stone, increasing its

permeability providing greater penetration of water and increasing the areas for the
chemical weathering processes to take place.

CHEMICAL PROCESSES : Involves complex chemical reactions that alter the internal
structure of minerals by removing and or adding elements
through...dissolution...oxidation...hydration...hydrolysis.

Water, in all of its occurrences (rain, fog, raising ground moisture, ocean, etc.) and its
chemical composition is the most important element in this process. It acts as a solvent
and also as a chemical reactant. Carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen are also important
agents along with climatic conditions.

Dissolution : This is a process whereby some minerals or part of the chemical

composition of a mineral can be dissolved in water. When an acidic
element is added to the water it increases its ability to dissolve minerals
more readily, particularly those containing calcium, magnesium, sodium
and potassium. The atmosphere is a mixture of gases and one of these
natural occurring gases is carbon dioxide, CO2. CO2 is also produced by
the combustion of fuel and released into the atmosphere. When CO2 gas is
dissolved in water it is converted to carbonic acid, and a carbonated
solution is formed. Just a small amount of acid increases the corrosive
effects of water. Limestone and marble are particularly subject to this
process. In exterior installations, they can develop a petted surface and if
they have a polished finish they will lose it. Sandstone that contains
calcite is also affected. The calcite can be leached from the stone and may
result in a flaking or spalling of the surface and in some incidences may
cause the stone to crumble.
Rain is naturally acidic. This is the primary reason why polished marble
and limestone in a exterior installation will not hold a polished finish.

Oxidation : Oxidation, also referred to as "rusting" occurs when oxygen assisted by

moisture combines with iron-bearing minerals. Oxidation is accelerated by
moisture and high temperatures. It is an important process in the alteration
of iron and magnesium rich minerals. Mineralogically iron occurs in three
states...metallic...ferrous (Iron II)...ferric (Iron III). During the oxidation
process Iron II is converted to Iron III resulting in color changes and a
weakening of the mineral structure. Ferrousmagnesian silicate minerals that
undergo oxidation are responsible for the appearance of rust spots on some
granite-type stones. When marble or limestone contains sulfide minerals
such as pyrite, and it undergoes oxidation, the Iron II in this composition will
produce rust spots and the sulfur is converted to sulfuric acid which can
dissolve the calcium producing pitting. Iron oxide minerals are common in
sandstone and over time may develop rust spots.During the oxidation
process an increase in volume of the mineral structure can occur, usually
making it softer and weaker and rendering it more vulnerable to other
elements of the chemical weathering processes.

Hydration : Hydration is the chemical addition of water molecules to a mineral. This

process frequently produce a new mineral compound. In addition, the size

of the mineral structure is increased causing stress and developing zones

of weakness. This can increase the overall permeability of the stone
and lead to spalling, pitting and flaking. Overall color changes can take
place as well.

Hydrolysis : This is the dissolution and alteration process that affects silicate minerals in
granite-type stones. As with the dissolution process the addition of a acidic
ingredient is an important element in this process. Feldspars are an important
silicate mineral group in granite and granite-type stones, with their general
formulas containing potassium, sodium and calcium. These soluble elements
are leached out during the chemical reaction with acidicly charged waters and
carried away. As the process proceeds permeability increases exposing
more mineral surface to the process, the mineral grains will eventually weaken
leading to spalling and crumbling. Once this process has started it is irreversible