Combine All Chapter (3.1-3.18)

Module 3.
Electrical fundamentals
Item
3.1 Electron Theory

Structure and distribution of electrical
charges within: atoms, molecules, ions,
compounds; Molecular structure of
conductors, semiconductors and insulators.
Level
B1
B2
3.2 Static Electricity and Conduction

Static electricity and distribution of
electrostatic charges; Electrostatic
laws of attraction and repulsion; Units
of charge, Coulomb's Law; Conduction
of electricity in solids, liquids, gases
and a vacuum.
Module 3. Electrical fundamentals

Item
3.3 Electrical Terminology

The following terms, their units and
factors affecting them: potential
difference, electromotive force, voltage,
current, resistance, conductance, charge,
conventional current flow, electron flow.
3.4 Generation of Electricity
Production of electricity by the following
methods: light, heat, friction, pressure,
chemical action, magnetism and motion.
3.5 DC Sources of Electricity
Construction and basic chemical action
of: primary cells, secondary cells, lead
acid cells, nickel cadmium cells, other
alkaline cells;
Level
B1
B2

Item
Cells connected in series and parallel;

Internal resistance and its effect on a
battery; Construction, materials and
operation of thermocouples;
Operation of photo
photo--cells.
3.6 DC Circuits
Ohms Law, Kirchoff's Voltage and
Current Laws; Calculations using the
above laws to find resistance, voltage
and current; Significance of the internal
resistance of a supply.
3.7 Resistance/Resistor
a) Resistance and affecting factors;
Specific resistance; Resistor colour code,
values and ...
Level
B1
B2

Item
b)
tolerances, preferred values, wattage

ratings; Resistors in series and parallel;
Calculation of total resistance using
series, parallel and series parallel
combinations; Operation and use of
potentiometers and rheostats; Operation
of Wheatstone Bridge.
Positive and negative temperature
coefficient conductance; Fixed resistors,
stability, tolerance and limitations,
methods of construction; Variable
resistors, thermistors, voltage dependent
resistors; Construction of potentiometers
and rheostats; Construction of
Wheatstone Bridge.
Level
B1
B2

Item
3.8 Power
Power, work and energy (kinetic and
potential); Dissipation of power by a
resistor; Power formula; Calculations
involving power, work and energy.
3.9 Capacitance / Capacitor
Operation and function of a capacitor;
Factors affecting capacitance area of
plates, distance between plates, number
of plates, dielectric and dielectric constant,
working voltage, voltage rating; Capacitor
types, construction and function; Capacitor
colour coding;
...
Level
B1
B2

Item
Calculations of capacitance and voltage

in series and parallel circuits; Exponential
charge and discharge of a capacitor, time
constants;Testing of capacitors.
Level
B1
B2
3.10 Magnetism
a) Theory of magnetism; Properties of a
magnet suspended in the Earths Magnetic
field; Magnetisation and demagnetisation;
Magnetic shielding;
Various types of magnetic material;
Electromagnets construction and
principles of operation; Hand clasp
rules to determine: magnetic field
around current carrying conductor.

Item
b) Magnetomotive force, field strength,

magnetic flux density, permeability,
hysteresis loop, retentivity, coercive
force reluctance, saturation point,
eddy currents; Precautions for care
and storage of magnets.
3.11 Inductance/Inductor
Faraday's Law; Action of inducing a
voltage in a conductor moving in a
magnetic field; Induction principles;
Effects of the following on the
magnitude of an induced voltage:
magnetic field strength, rate of change
of flux, number of conductor turns;
...
Level
B1
B2

Item
Mutual induction; The effect the rate of

change of primary current and mutual
inductance has on induced voltage;
Factors affecting mutual inductance:
number of turns in coil, physical size of
coil, permeability of coil, position of coils
with respect to each other; Lenz's Law
and polarity determining rules; Back
emf, self induction; Saturation point;
Principle uses of inductors.
Level
B1
B2
3.12 DC Motor / Generator Theory

Basic motor and generator theory;
Construction and purpose of
components in DC generator;
....

Item
Operations of, and factors affecting

output and direction of current flow in
DC generators; Operation of, and
factors affecting output power, torque,
speed and direction of rotation of DC
motors; Series wound, shunt wound and
compound motors; Starter generator
construction.
3.13 AC Theory
Sinusoidal waveform: phase, period,
frequency, cycle; Instantaneous,
average, root mean square, peak, peak
to peak current values and calculations
of these values, in relation to voltage,
current and power;
Level
B1
B2

Item
Triangular/Square waves; Single/3Single/3-phase

principles.
3.14 Resistive (R), Capacitive (C) and
Inductive(L) Circuits
A
1
Level
B1
2
B2
2
Phase relationship of voltage and current

in L, C and R circuits, parallel, series and
series parallel; Power dissipation in L, C
and R circuits; Impedance, phase angle,
power factor and current calculations;
True power, apparent power and reactive
power calculations.
3.15 Transformers
Transformer construction principles and
operation;Transformer losses and methods
for overcoming them;
...

Item
Transformer action under load and nonoload conditions; Power transfer, efficiency,
polarity markings; Primary and
secondary current voltage, turns ratio,
power, efficiency; Auto transformers.
3.16 Filters
Operation, application and uses of the
following filters: low pass, high pass,
band pass, band stop.
Level
B1
B2
3.17 AC Generators
Rotation of loop in a magnetic field and
waveform produced; Operation and
construction of revolving armature and
revolving field type AC generators; ...

Item
Single phase, two phase and three phase

alternators; Three phase star
and delta connections advantages
and uses;Calculation of line and
phase voltages and currents; Calculation
of power in a three phase system;
Permanent Magnet Generators.
Level
B1
B2
3.18 AC Motors
Construction, principles of operation
and characteristics of: AC synchronous
and induction motors both single and
polyphase; Methods of speed control and
direction of rotation; Methods of
producing a rotating field: capacitor,
inductor, shaded or split pole.
Module 3
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
Module 3
3.1
ELECTRON THEORY
Electron theory
importance
contents
Describes specifically the

internal molecular forces
of matter as they pertain
to electrical power.
Structure and distribution

of electrical charges
within atoms, molecules,
ions and compounds.
Is a vital foundation
upon which to build
an understanding of
electricity and electronics.
Molecular structure of
conductors,
semiconductors and
insulators.
Basic Elements of an Atom

Atoms - An atom is the smallest possible particle of an element
An atom is taken to consist of the following :
- It has a hard central core known as nucleus
- It contains two types of particles :
- One is known as proton and carries positive charge
- The other is neutron which is electrically neutral i.e.,
it carries no charge though it is as heavy as proton
- The protons and neutrons are very closely held together
with tremendous nuclear forces
- Revolving round the relatively massive nucleus, in more or less elliptical
orbits (or shells) are infinitesimally small particles, known as electrons
- These electrons carry the smallest negative charge
orbits
and have a negligible mass
- The mass of an electron is approximately
1/1840 that of a proton
- The effective diameters of atoms are electrons
of the order of 10-10 meter and the
nucleus
diameters of their nuclei of the order
of 10-15 meter

Atoms of all substances consist of identical protons, neutrons,
electrons and mesons etc.
- The only difference is in their number and relative configuration
- The positive charge on a proton is numerically equal to the
negative charge of an electron
An atom is electrically neutral because it consists of as many
protons as electrons
The total weight of a nucleus (i.e. protons plus neutrons)
is called the atomic weight
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom gives the atomic number
The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
gives its atomic mass number
K
K
K
L
K
P
Atom of hydrogen
Atom of helium
Atom of Lithium
1
1H
4
2He
3Li
Atom of Beryllium
4Be
The subscript is the atomic number and the upper number represents the atomic mass number
Structure of atom
Matter is made up of atoms which are composed primarily of
protons, neutrons and electrons while the former two form
the nucleus of the atom.
atom
nucleus
electron
negative charges
neutron
proton
no charges
positive charges
Valence orbit -The outermost orbit (shell) of the atom.

Valence electrons -The electrons in this valence orbit.

Important points about atomic structure
- The mass of a proton is 1.66 x 10-27 kg and that of an electron 9.1 x 10-31 kg
- The charge carried by an electron is the natural unit of electricity
- The unit of charge or quantity of electricity is one coulumb which
is equal to the charge of 6.242 x 1018 electrons
- The charge of single electron is 1.602 x 10-19 coulumb
- The maximum number of electrons possible in one extranuclear orbit
or shell is fixed
- Counting these orbits from nucleus outwards
- The first orbit can have a maximum number of 2 electrons
- The second orbit 8 electrons
- The third orbit 18 electrons
- The fourth orbit 32 electrons, and so on
e.g., a copper atom has 29 electrons which will be grouped as 2, 8, 18, 1 electrons
a silver atom has 47 electrons which will be grouped as 2, 8, 18, 18, 1 electrons
Molecules of Matter
Molecules - The smallest particle into which any compound can
be divided and still retain its identity.
The molecules of any substance are identical
The same structure, same mass, same mechanical and
electrical properties
One of the outstanding characteristics of a molecule is
the force that exists between it and a neighbor
- The forces that hold the molecules of a liquid (or solid) together are of
electrical origin and do not follow a simple inverse square law
- When the separation of the molecules is large, as in a gas, the force is
extremely small and is an attraction
- The attractive force increases as a gas is compressed and its molecules
brought closer together
- Tremendous pressures are needed to compress a liquid
Temperature
Phase
Attractive forces Molecular kinetic
energy
(state)
among molecules
Solid
Liquid
Gas
Strong
Moderate
Weak
Small
Moderate
Large
Low
Medium
High
Atoms and Ions

All atoms are more or less complex arrangements of subatomic particles
- The negatively charged electron
- The positively charged proton
- The negative charge of the electron is of the same magnitude as the
positive charge of the proton
- The neutral neutron

If the atom is undisturbed, and no electrons are removed from the space
around the nucleus, the atom as a whole is electrically neutral
The process of losing or gaining electrons is called ionization
Ions charged molecules
A positive ion is an atom which has lost one or more electrons
A negative ion is an atom which has gained one or more extra electrons
The masses of a proton and a neutron are nearly equal, and the mass of
each is about 1840 times as great as that of an electron
- All the mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus
Compounds - Chemical combination of two or more different elements. e.g. H2O
A water molecule
A molecule of water
(H2O) consists of two
atoms of hydrogen
and one atom of oxygen.
Oxygen Atom
Electrons
Hydrogen Atoms
Electric charge
Nucleus
(neutron and proton)
Orbit
Centripedal force
Centrifugal force
Electron
The protons and

neutrons of an atom are
contained in its nucleus,
and electrons orbit the
nucleus like planets
around the Sun.
Electrons are held in their
orbit by a balance between
centripetal and centrifugal
forces.
The centripetal force is
attributed to a property
of protons and electrons,
known as electric charge.
Electric charge
A positive charge is carried
by each proton.
No charge is carried by the

neutrons.
Negative charge is carried

by each electron.
The electric charges

of protons and electrons
are equal and opposite,
an atom with an equal
number of each has
zero net electric charge,
or in other words, is
electrically neutral.
Electron and proton

Phenomena
Electron
Proton
Electrons and protons attract each other.
Electrons repel each other.
Protons repel each other.
The atoms' internal forces are caused by the repulsion

of two similar charged bodies, and the attraction of
two dissimilar charged bodies.
Electrons and protons

Electrons orbit the nucleus in paths known as shells.
Atoms for which the electron exist in closed shells
form very stable configurations.
Electrons and protons possess electric charges that are
equal in magnitude, but of opposite polarity.
An atom with a normal complement of electrons and
protons shows no external manifestation of electric
charge.
Positive and negative ion

state
will be
shortage of electrons positively charged
named
positive ion
Atom
excess of electrons
negatively charged
negative ion
Protons remain within the nucleus; only electrons

are added or removed from an atom, thus creating
a negative or positive ion.

An atom, or a molecule, with one more or less proton
than electrons is electrically unbalanced.
Externally it manifests a positive charge equal to one
proton or a negative charge equal to one electron.
Neutral atom
Ion
+ Ion

The net charge of an
ion externally manifests
itself through the force
of repulsion or attraction
with which it reacts with
other like or unlike
charges.
Electron
Electron
Random movement of electrons between atoms

Electrons are fairly
readily dislodged from
the outer shell of the
atoms in some elements.
Dislodgement may be
caused by vibration or
collisions between atoms.
An electron dislodged
from an atom may be
attracted back to its
original atom or
It may be attracted
to a positive ion to
neutralise it or
It may drift into an

orbit in the outer shell
of another atom to
form a negative ion.
Direction of current flow

Since a negatively charged
body has an excess of
electrons and a positively
charged body a deficiency
of electrons, the electron
flow will be from the
negatively charged body
to the positively charged
body.
Metal wire
Movement of electrons
from ve charge to +ve
charge
Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors

Conducting materials a conductor of electricity is any substance or
material which will afford continuous passage to an electric current when
subjected
to a difference of electric potential . e.g. metal, gold, silver
A conductor is a body so constructed from conducting material that it
may be used as a carrier of electric current
A conductor is a material of relatively high conductivity
Metals and other solid conductors possess free (unbound) electrons; these
free electrons move as if they were the particles of a gas dissolved in the metal
Property of conductors
- Electric circuits possess four fundamental electrical properties, consisting of
resistance, inductance, capacitance, and leakance
- Only two properties, resistance and inductance,
inductance, are related to the
conductor considered by itself
- Capacitance and leakance depend in part upon the external dimensions of the
conductors and their distances from one another, and in part upon the dielectric
properties of the materials employed for insulating purposes
- The inductance is a function of the magnetic field established by the
current in a conductor
- The resistance is strictly a property of the conductor itself

Gaseous conduction
- A gas may be put in the conducting state by such means as
- Raising its temperature
- Placing it in the neighborhood of flames
- Placing it in the neighborhood of flames, arcs, or glowing metals
- Passing an electric discharge through it
- The conductivity is due to free electrons
- The process by which a gas is made conducting is called ionization
Insulators - A material whose valence electrons are so tightly bound to the atom
that they resist any for a that tries to move them from one atom to another.
e.g. glass, plastic, neon, helium
An ideal insulator (more correctly called a dielectric

dielectric)) allows only a brief
transient current which charges it electrostatically
- This charge
charge,, or displacement
displacement,, of electricity produces a counter emf
equal and opposite to the applied emf, and the flow current ceases

Gaseous conduction
- A gas may be put in the conducting state by such means as
- Raising its temperature
- Placing it in the neighborhood of flames
- Placing it in the neighborhood of flames, arcs, or glowing metals
- Passing an electric discharge through it
- The conductivity is due to free electrons
- The process by which a gas is made conducting is called ionization
- A gas is a highly compressible dielectric medium, usually of low conductivity
- In high electric fields the gas may become conducting as a result of impact
ionization (very high temperature and ionized radiation such as ultraviolet
rays, xx--rays etc.) of the gas molecules by electrons accelerated by the field
Insulators A material whose valence electrons are so highly bound to the
atom that they resist any force that tries to move them from one atom to another
An ideal insulator (more correctly called a dielectric
dielectric)) allows only a brief
transient current which charges it electrostatically
- This charge
charge,, or displacement
displacement,, of electricity produces a counter emf
equal and opposite to the applied emf, and the flow current ceases

Semiconductors - A material whose electrical characteristics may be
changed from that of a conductor to that of an insulator by changing its
-e
circuit conditions, e.g. germanium, silicon
+ charge
The conductivity is wholly dependent on impurities
Valence
electron
The semiconductor materials possess a crystalline structure
-e
+4e
-e
The atoms are arranged in an orderly manner
silicon,, each atom has four electrons
- In both germanium and silicon
-e
orbiting in the outermost shell and is said to have valency of four
an isolated
- The atoms are said to be tetravalent
tetravalent atom
In case of the silicon atom, the nucleus consists of 14 protons and 14 neutrons
- When the atom is neutral, the nucleus is surrounded by 14 electrons,
4 of which are valence electrons
- if the four valence electrons were detached, the atom would
be left with 14 units of positive charge on the protons and 10
units of negative charge on the 10 remaining electrons
- Thus giving an ion (i.e. an atom possessing a net positive or
negative charge) carrying a net positive charge of 4e
4e..
- Where e represents the magnitude of the charge on an electron, 1.6 x10-19 C
- The neutrons possess no resultant electric charge
Semiconductor Atomic Structure of a Lattice Crystal

C
B
A
D
E
Atom A shares its four

valence electrons with atoms
B, C, D and E
- One of As valence electrons
is linked with A and B, another
with A and C, etc.
- The covalent bonds are
represented by the pairs of parallel
lines between the respective atoms
Cubic diamond lattice of atom

The cubic diamond lattice arrangement of the atoms in a perfect crystal
of germanium or silicon is represented by the circles
- Atoms B,
B, C, D and E are located at diagonally opposite corners of
the six surfaces of an imaginary cube
- Atom A is located at the center of the cube
- The length of each side of the dotted cube is about 2.8 x 10-10 m for germanium
- The length of each side of the dotted cube is about 2.7 x 10-10 m for silicon
Covalent Bonds
Atoms A, B, C, D, and E are
tightly packed as they are in a
germanium or a silicon crystal
the four valence electrons of
each atom are now shared with
the adjacent four atoms
-eA
E
+4
+4
+4
+4
+4
+4
+4
+4
+4
-eE
A
-eD
-eA
Covalent
bonds
Atom A shares its four

valence electrons with atoms
B, C, D and E
The four dots, -eA :
valence electrons of atom A
-eB, -eC, -eD and eE :
-eA
valence electrons of
atoms B, C, D and E
-eB
-eC
-eA The electrons on the various dotted

lines move around the two atoms
enclosed by a given dotted line
the covalent bonds serve to keep the

atoms together in crystal formation and are
strong that at absolute zero temperature, i.e.
-2730C, there are no free electrons
Covalent electron bonds

Each positive ion of germanium or silicon carrying a net charge of 4e, has 8 electrons,
i.e. 4 electronelectron-pairs surrounding it.
Each electron pair is referred to as a covalent bond (represented by the pairs
of parallel lines between the respective atoms)
Electrons and Holes

-e
+5e
-e
-e
-e
-e
An isolated pentavalent atom

A
+5
+4
Pentavalent atom : each atom has 5 valence electrons

An isolated pentavalent atom can be represented
by an ion having a net positive charge of 5e and
5 valence electrons
- Certain elements such as phosphorus,
arsenic and antimony are pentavalent
- When an atom of a pentavalent element is introduced into a
crystal of pure germanium, it enters into the lattice structure by
replacing one of the tetravalent germanium atoms
- Only four of the five valence electrons of the

antimony atom can join as covalent bonds
- The substitution of a pentavalent atom for a germanium atom
+4
+4
provides a free electron.
The free electrons move from one atom to another
An n
n--type semiconductor
- The pentavalent impurity atoms are responsible for
introducing or donating free electrons into the crystal, they
donors.. They provide fixed +ve charged ions and
T are termed donors
S
+ + + +
equal number of electrons free to move about in the crystal
- The crystal doped with such impurity is referred to as an
n-type seminconductor
An n
n--type semiconductor
- Each antimony ion has a positive charge of 5e and that
+ Fixed positive ion
the valence electrons of each antimony atom have a total
Free electrons
negative charge of -5e. The doped crystal is neutral
B
Electrons and Holes

the greater the amount of impurity in a semiconductor, the greater is the
number of free electrons per unit volume and therefore the greater is the
conductivity of the semiconductor
C
+4
+4
+3
D
+4
+4
+4
- C represents the indium atom

- There is an incomplete valence bond, i.e.
there is a vacancy represented by the small circle D
- This vacancy is referred to as a hole
- Holes are the space created by the absence of
electrons a term peculiar to semiconductors
An p
p--type semiconductor
Material such as indium, gallium, boron and aluminum, are trivalent

trivalent,, i.e. each
atom has only three valence electrons and may be represented as an ion having a
positive charge of 3e surrounded by 3 valence electrons
- When a trace of indium is added to pure germanium, each indium atom can
provide only three valence electrons to join with the four valence electrons of
adjacent germanium atoms
- The incomplete valent bond due to hole D has the ability to attract a
covalent electron from a nearnear-by germanium atom, filling the vacancy at D
but creating another hole at E
Simple facts about conductors

There are solid, liquid and gas conductors of electricity.
Conductors have relatively low resistance, but there
are no perfect conductors with zero resistance.
Carbon is the only non-metal solid that has
significance as a conductor.
Liquids which are able to conduct ionically are electrolytes.
In normal state gases are insulators, but when ionized
they become conductors.
Module 3
3.2 STATIC ELECTRICITY

AND CONDUCTION
Quantity of Electricity
Electric charge
- Electric charge is a fundamentally assumed concept, required
by the existence of forces measurable experimentally
- It has two forms, known as positive and negative
- Electric charge on (or in) a body or within a closed surface is the
excess of one form of electricity over the other
static electricity
- Electric charges that are at rest
The unit of quantity of electricity is in coulomb
electrostatic force
- The force that is created between two charged bodies
Electric field strength
- The electric field strength at a given point in an electric field is the
quotient of force that a small stationary charge at that point will experience,
by virtue of its charge, to the charge as the charge approaches zero
Electric Field Strength and

Electric Flux Density
dielectric
The electric field strength in the region
N
M
between the two plates M and N is :
+Q coulomb
-Q coulomb
- The potential drop per unit length or
potential gradient, i.e. V/d volts per metre
d metres
The direction of the electric field strength at
any point is :
- The direction of the mechanical force on a positive
V
charge situated at that point, namely from the positively
charged plate M towards the negatively charged plate N
electrostatic potential difference

- The electrostatic potential difference between two points is the
scalar--product line integral of the electric field strength along any
scalar
path from one point to the other in an electric field resulting from a
static distribution of electric charge
Electric flux density

- One unit of electric flux is assumed to emanate from a positive charge of
1 coulomb and to enter a negative charge of 1 coulomb
- If the charge on plates M and N is q coulombs, electric flux
between M and N = Q coulombs
- Electric flux density = D = Q/A coulombs per metres square, where A = area of dielectric
Quantity of Electricity
Quantity of electricity
- The unit of electrical quantity is the coulomb
- The quantity of electricity passing a given point in a circuit
when a current of 1 ampere is maintained for 1 second
Q (coulombs) = I (amperes) x t (seconds)
Therefore 1 ampere hour = 3600 coulombs
- When a current is passed through an electrolyte, chemical decomposition
takes place, and the mass of an element liberated by 1 coulomb is termed
the electrochemical equivalent of that element
mass of element liberated = zIt milligrams
Where z = electrochemical equivalent of an element in milligrams
per coulomb; and I = current, in amperes, for time t, in second
Quantity of Electricity - Coulomb

One coulomb is the amount of electricity that, when
passed through a standard silver nitrate solution, will
cause 0.001118 gram (g) of silver to be deposited upon
one electrode. A coulomb is also defined as 6.25 1018
electrons.
Simple facts
Every material in its
electrically neutral
state has equal number
of positively charged
protons and negatively
charged electrons.
Neutral
Negatively charged electron
Positively charged proton
Simple facts
Under certain
conditions, material
becomes electrically
charged due to gain
or loss of electrons.
Negatively charged
Negatively charged - gain of

electrons
Positively charged - loss of
electrons
Positively charged
Simple facts
Without a conductive
path, the charged
material will maintain
the charges resulting
in static electricity.
Negatively charged
Positively charged
Electrostatic laws of attraction and repulsion

The behavior of the two suspended low mass balls of
substance reflects the electrostatic laws of attraction
and repulsion.
Neutral Neutral
No electric force
acts between
electrically
neutral bodies.
Repulsion between
two negatively
charged bodies.
Repulsion between Attraction between

two positively
bodies of different
charged bodies.
charge.
Conduction of electricity in solids

As is almost always the
case with electric current
in solid substances, the
transfer of charge was
by a flow of electrons.
Metal wire
Electron flow
Metal wire
Electron flow
Metal wire
Electron flow
Static discharge pin

Many airplanes have
static discharge points
or wicks to allow the
static charges which
build up on the control
surfaces as air flows
over them to discharge
harmlessly into the air,
thus preventing static
interference in the
radio equipment.
Discharge pin
Discharge pin
Blade
Control surface
Static discharge points are

installed on the trailing edge
of control surfaces to bleed
off the static charges.
Electrically grounded
Aircraft must be electrically
grounded before they are
fueled. Ground wires connect
the aircraft and the fueling
truck or pit together, and
both of them are connected
to the earth ground so that
static charges that build up
during fueling can pass
harmlessly to the ground.
4 Ground wire
Transfer of charge through an ionised liquid or gas

Positive ions
In liquids and some gases,

the nature of electric
current may be different.
The positive ions would
move in the opposite
direction to the negative
ions and electrons.
Liquid or gas
Negative
polarity
plate
Positive
polarity
plate
Negative ions
Electrons
Liquid conductors
Liquids which are able
to conduct ionically are
known as electrolytes. It
is the chemical nature
of these liquids to form
positive and negative ions.
When ions reach the electrodes,
depending on their polarity, they
either give or receive electrons,
to thus contribute to the electron
transfer of charge through the
solid conducting circuit external
to the electrolyte.
Positive
electrod
e
Negative
electrode
Ions of one polarity are attracted to

electrodes of opposite polarity.
Distribution of electrostatic charges

When an object is given a
charge of static electricity,
the charge will usually (by
conduction) spread all over
it.
Static electrical charge

tends to be concentrated
more on the outside
surfaces of bodies than
within them.
Electrostatic charges concentrates

at points, external angles and
outside curvatures of small radii.
Electrical potential
Charged bodies have a property known as electrical
potential measured in units called volts, and is
proportional to the amount of positive or negative
charge possessed by the body.
Charged
body with
more
than
potential
electrons
protons
negative
protons
electrons
positive
Methods of producing electrical potential

Listed below are four practical methods of producing
sustained differences of electrical potential, and hence
of forcing current through any conducting path or
circuit between points (terminals) of different potential.
methods
example
electro--magnetically
electro
as with generators
as with batteries
electrochemically
thermoelectrically
photo--electrically
photo
as by the effect that heat has on

joints between some dissimilar
metals (thermocouples)
as by the effect that light has on
light sensitive cells
Factors affect electrostatic force

+
The amount of static

charge contained within
a body.
d = 1 in
FORCE = 1
d = 1 in
FORCE = 4
The distance between the

two charged bodies.
The electrostatic force
between two charged bodies
is inversely proportional to
the square of the distance
between those two bodies.
CHARGED
BODIES
d = 1 in
+
+
FORCE = 4
d = 2in
FORCE = 1
Module 3
3.3
ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY
Electromotive Force
Electromotive force (e.m.f.)
- An electromotive force is that which tends to produce an
electric current in a circuit;and the unit of e.m.f. is the volt
The principal sources of e.m.f. are :
- The electrodes of dissimilar materials immersed in an
electrolytes, as in primary and secondary cells
- The relative movement of a conductor and a magnetic flux; this
source can be expressed as the variation of magnetic flux linked
with a coil
- The difference of temperature between junctions of dissimilar
metals, as in thermo
thermo--junctions
Electromotive force
Electromotive force
The force that causes electrons to flow through a
conductor is called electromotive force (EMF).
eOn electron into the conductor instantaneously

means one electron out of the conductor
The potential difference between two points A and B
is defined as the work required to move a unit charge from
one point to the other.
Electrical Potential
Potential difference
- The unit of potential difference is the volt
- The difference of potential between two points of a conducting
wire carrying a current of 1 ampere, when the power dissipated
between these points is equal to 1 watt
- Property of charged substances or bodies.
- Unit of measurement is called VOLT.
- Proportional to the amount of positive or negative charge
(deficiency or excess of electrons) possessed by the body.
Strictly speaking, a body with more electrons than
protons has a negative potential, and the one with fewer
electrons than the protons has a positive potential.
In practice, a potential to be positive or negative is
relative to datum such as earth, chassis or frame.
In an electric circuit, when
the electron level is higher
at one point than at
another point, there is a
difference of potential
between the points. When
the points are connected
by a conductor, electrons
flow from the point of high
potential to the point of
low potential.
The difference in water pressure is due

to the higher water level in one tank.
A
B
Conventional current
direction: A
B.
Voltage potential
direction: B
A.
Electric charge moves
or tends to move, not
only between electrical
potentials of opposite
polarity, but also between
differences in potential
of the same polarity.
Interconnection of any
two balls permits a
transfer of charge from
one to the other, until
both are at the same
value somewhere between
the original potentials.
+4V
+2V
0V
- 2V - 4V
Potential difference of 8V
Electric charges moves or tends to move between electrical
potentials of opposite polarity.
+ Ve charge
- Ve charge
Movement of electrons from - to +
Unit of potential difference

The practical unit for measurement of EMF or
potential difference is the VOLT (V).
One volt is the EMF required to cause current to flow
at the rate of 1 ampere through a resistance of 1 ohm.
Voltage
Voltage or potential difference (V) between
two points is the work in joules required to move
1 coulomb of electric charge from one point to the other.
V (volts) =
W (joules)
Q (coulombs)
Voltage source
Battery source or generator source, provides a voltage that
does not depend on the current flow through the source.
12 volts
Battery source
12 volts
DC source
12 volts
AC source
Current
- The unit of current is the ampere
- The ampere is defined as:
that current which , if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of

infinite length, of negligible circular crosscross-section, and place 1 metre
apart in a vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force of
2 x 10-7 newton per metre of length
An electrical current is defined as flow of electrons through
a conductor.
If the terminals of a battery are connected to the ends of a wire
conductor, the negative terminal forces electrons into the wire and
the positive terminal takes electrons from the wire. As long as the
battery is connected, there is a continuous flow of current through
the wire until the battery becomes discharged.
battery
current flow direction
Electrons flow direction
Wire conductor
lamp
Unit of current
Unit of current (I)
The unit of quantity for electricity is the coulomb (C).
A coulomb is defined as 6.25 x 1018 electrons.
The rate of flow for an electric current is measured by
the number of coulombs per second passing a given
circuit.
The rate of flow of 1 coulomb of charge per second
is called one ampere (A).
I (amperes) =
Q (coulombs)
t (seconds)
Where Q is the quantity of electric charge in coulombs and

t is time in seconds
Current reference
Current reference
A current that flows in only one direction all the time
is a direct current (DC).
A current that alternates in direction of flow is
an alternating current (AC).
DC - one direction

in half cycle
conductor
AC - alternate direction
Current source
A circuit element that provides
a specified current in the direction of
the arrow irrespective of the voltage

across the source.
6A
current source
Resistance
The property of a
conductor which tends to
hold, or restrict, the flow
of an electric current.
It is encountered in every
circuit.
May be termed electrical
friction because it affects
the movement of electricity
in a manner similar to the
effect of friction on
mechanical objects.
Low Resistance
High Resistance
Movement
No Movement
Force
Low Friction
(Slick Floor)
Force
High Friction
(Rough Floor)
Electron
Movement
No Electron
Movement
Low Electrical
Resistance
(Completed Circuit)
High Electrical
Resistance
(Open Circuit)
Resistance
Resistance is the property of materials that opposes or resists
the movement of electrons and makes it necessary to apply
a voltage to cause current to flow.
The SI unit of resistance is the ohm with symbol .
The quantity symbol is R.
In metallic or some other types of conductors, the current is
proportional to the applied voltage.
Relation between V, I and R
V (volts)
I(ampere) =
R (ohms)
This relation is known as Ohm's law.
Resistance via conductance

From the Ohm's law, the electric resistance of a conductor is
1 ohm if an applied voltage of 1V causes a current of 1A to flow.
1
1A
1V
Resistivity
Resistivity
The resistance of a conductor of uniform cross section is directly
proportional to the length of the conductor and is inversely
proportional to the cross-sectional area.
R=
L
A
L is the length in meters and

A is the cross-sectional area in square meters.
The constant of proportionality , rho, is the quantity symbol

for resistivity.
The SI unit of resistivity is the ohm-meter with unit symbol m.
A good conductor has a resistivity close to 10-8 m at 20 C.
But materials with resistivities greater than 1010 m are insulators.
Resistivity
Materials with resistivities in range of 10-4 to 10-7 m
are semiconductors, from which transistors are made.
The relationship among conductance, length, and
cross-sectional area is
G=
A
L
Where G is the conductance.

, sigma, is the constant of proportionality and is the quantity
symbol for conductivity.
The SI unit of conductivity is the siemens per meter with symbol
Sm-1.
Conductance
The conductance of an element, device, branch, network, or system is
the factor by which the mean-square voltage must be multiplied to give
the corresponding power lost by dissipation as heat or as other permanent
radiation or loss of electromagnetic energy from the circuit
conductance (G) is the real part of admittance (Y)
The reciprocal of the specific resistance of a material
is called conductance and it's symbol is G. The SI unit is
the siemens with symbol S which is replacing the non-SI
unit mho with symbol .
For conductances G1, G2, G3, etc., in parallel, the total
conductances G is given by :
G = G1 + G2 + G3 + .
conductivity (r)
- The conductivity of a material is a factor such that the
conduction current density is equal to the electric field strength
in the material multiplied by the conductivity
- In practice, conductivities are used chiefly to compare one
conductor material with another
Conductivity
conductivity (r)
- The conductivity of a material is a factor such that the
conduction current density is equal to the electric field strength
in the material multiplied by the conductivity
- In practice, conductivities are used chiefly to compare one
conductor material with another
- It is to choose one material as the standard and to compare
the others with it
- Accordingly, pure annealed copper has been chosen as the standard
and its conductivity is taken as being 100%
- The actual reference standard has been fixed by the definition :
- If a uniform wire of any given material one meter long and
weighing one gram has a resistance of 0.15328 ohm at 200C,
the conductivity of that material shall be rated as 100%
Temperature effect on resistance

Temperature effects on resistance
The resistance of most good conducting materials increases
almost linearly with temperature over a range of normal

operating temperatures.
Some materials and common semiconductors have
resistance that decrease with temperature increases.
T0 is the inferred
zero resistance temperature
The actual zero resistance
temperature is -273 C
R
R2
R1
R2 =
T2 - T0
T1 - T0
T2
T0
T1
T
Positive temperature co-efficient of resistance
R1
Temperature coefficient
Resistance at a temperature other than 20 C
A different way of finding R2 is from

R2 = R1 [ 1 +
Where
(T2 -T1)]
Is the temperature coefficient at the temperature T1.
Often T1 is 20 C.
Note that the unit of
CIs
per
degree
Celsius
with
symbol
1
.
Typical values
Material
Resistivity (
Silver
1.64 x 10-8
Copper, annealed
1.72 x 10-8
Aluminum
2.83 x 10-8
Silicon
2500
Paper
1010
Quartz
1017
m at 20 C)
Typical values
Material
Temperature coefficient
(C-1 at 20C)
Tungsten
0.0045
Copper
0.00393
Aluminum
0.00391
Constantan
0.000008
Carbon
-0.0005
Module 3
3.4
GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY
Electricity from light

Solar cells are large-area pn junction photodiodes, usually in
silicon, which is optimized to convert light to electrical power
they are normally operated in photovoltaic mode without a
reverse bias being applied
- In a reversed-biased pn junction photodiode, incident light with energy greater
than the bandgap creates electrons in the p region and holes in the n region.
The light also creates electro-hole pairs in the junction region.
Electricity produced by light is called photophoto-electricity.

Solar cells can be activated by light from any source.
Solar cell
When light strikes a solar cell, electrons are

driven from it to produce a flow of current.
Selenium Photovoltaic Cells

The sensitive element in a
photovoltaic cell is a
semiconductor of such material
that light flux falling on it
displaces electrons from some
of the atoms
Incident light
M
B
Direction of
electron flow
R
A
The two semiconductors are
selenium and cuprous oxide;
S
+
P
selenium as the active material
A steel plate P is coated with a thin layer
micrommeter
S of selenium at about 2000C and annealed
0
P - a steel plate
at about 80 C to produce crystalline form
S - selenium
The selenium layer is covered with a very thin
transparent film M of metal, and a collecting ring
M a very thin
R of metal is sprayed around the edge of the film
transparent film of metal
Between S and M, there appears to be a barrier layer B
B barrier layer between
S and M
With the light falls on the cell, it passes through the
transparent film M and causes electrons to be released
R collecting ring of metal
from the metallic selenium
sprayed around the edge
of the film
These electrons travel across the barrier layer to the
metal film M, from which they are collected by ring R
With a suitable resistance of external circuit between R and P, the current through A
is proportional to the illuminance and the micrommeter can be calibrated to read the
illuminance directly in lux
Semiconductor Photodiode
In a reverse-biased p-n junction photodiode
Clear plastic
- the current varies almost linearly with the light
flux; a photocurrent flows across the junction
- the effect is exploited in the semiconductor
photodiode
P type
Current flow
the device consists of a p-n junction
embedded in a clear plastic
radiation
radiation is allowed to fall upon one
surface across the junction
n type
Reverse-bias
- The remaining sides of the plastic are either
painted black or enclosed in a metallic case
Construction of a p-n
- If reverse voltages in excess of a few tenths of
junction photodiode
a volts are applied, an almost constant current
(independent of the magnitude of the reverse bias) is obtained
- The dark current corresponds to the reverse saturation current, due to thermallygenerated holes and electrons which constitute minority carriers
- If light falls upon the surface, additional electron-hole pairs are formed in the junction
- The injected minority carriers (electrons in the p side) diffuse to the junction, cross it,
and contribute to the current
If illuminates a reverse-biased p-n junction, the no. of new hole-electron pairs is
proportional to the number of incident photons
The current under large reverse bias is I = I0 + Is , where I0 , the reverse saturation
current; and Is, the short circuit current, is proportional to the light intensity
Semiconductor Photodiode
Diode current, uA
A typical photodiode volt-ampere

characteristics in reverse-bias
- The curves (with the exception
of the dark-current curve) do
not pass through the origin
- The characteristics is in
millivolt range for positive bias
- The slopes of the curves (for
voltages greater than a few
volts) corresponds to a
dynamic resistance of the
order of a megaohm to
hundred of megaohms
D
+
800
3.000 foot-candles
600
400
2.000
200
1,300
335
Dark current
I0
10
2
Is = KL
30
20
Reverse voltage, V
40
Volt-ampere characteristics for the

1N77 germanium photodiode
An ideal p-n junction diode is in parallel with a current source which is

proportional to the light intensity; where L represents light flux in lumens, and
K is a proportionality constant in the range 10 to 50 mA/lumen
Solar Cell
Photodiodes
- Ordinary pn-diodes that generate hole-electron pairs when exposed to light
- A photocurrent flows across the junction, if the diode is reverse biased
- Silicon p-n junctions are used to sense light at near-infrared and visible
spectra around 0.9 um
Solar cells utilize the p-n junction to convert light energy into electrical
energy.
Hole-electron pairs are generated in the semiconductor material by light
photons
The carriers are separated by the high electric field in the depletion region
across the p-n junction
The electric field forces the holes into the p region and the electrons into the
n region
The displacement of mobile charges creates a voltage difference between two
semiconductor regions
Electric power is generated in an external load connected bewteen the
terminals to the p and n regions
The conversion efficiency is relatively low, around 12%; efficiency up to
45% was achieved by using new material and monochromatic light
Thermo-emf systems
Depend for their operation on electrical energy which
is produced by the direct conversion of heat energy at
the source of measurement.
Unlike variable resistance systems, they are
independent of any external electrical supply.
A thermocouple made of two different kinds of metallic
wire produces electricity when one of its junctions is
heated.
Thermo-e.m.f. - Thermocouple
galvanometer
copper
Current flow
G
steel
copper
Note : the thermoelectric effect may

be utilized to measure temperature
It is possible to calibrate the
galvanometer in terms of the difference of
temperature between A and B
The temperature of
junction A being
The temperature of junction
B
A
maintained constant
B is heated or cooled
Cold junction
Hot junction
The thermoelectric effect was observed by Seeback in 1821

- In a closed circuit consisting of two different metals
- An electric current flows when two junctions A and B are at
different temperatures; it is referred as Seeback effect
A and B are junctions of copper and steel wire, each immersed in water
- If the vessel containing B is heated, it is found that :
- An electric current flows from the steel to the copper at the cold junction
and from the copper to the steel at the hot junction
a pair of metals arranged in this manner is termed a thermocouple and gives
rise to a thermo-e.m.f. when the two junctions are at different temperatures
Thermocouple Ammeter
DC current I
D
H heating element
B
C
Evacuated
glass bulb
C
A Moving-coil
micrommeter
A thermocouple ammeter
A thermocouple can be used to measure the r.m.s. value of alternating
currents of frequencies up to several magahertz
- By arranging for one of the junctions of wires of dissimilar material, B and
C, to be placed near or welded to a resistor H carrying the current I to be
measured
- The current due to the thermo-e.m.f is measured by a permanent-magnet
moving-coil micrommeter
- Ammeter A may be calibrated by noting its reading for various values of
direct current through H
Difference in temperature causes an e.m.f.

Two wires of dissimilar
metals joined at their
ends form a closed circuit.
Dissimilar
metals
Heating one of the

junctions to make it differ
in temperature from the
other will cause an e.m.f.
within the circuit.
The e.m.f. is directly
proportional to the
difference in temperature
between the hot and cold
junctions.
Cold junction
Hot junction
Basic thermocouple
Cold junction
Hot junction
Electricity from heat

A good example of producing electricity with heat is the thermocouple
system used to get an indication of the cylinder head temperature in an
aircraft reciprocating engine.
The amount of current that flows is determined by the difference in the
temperature between the hot and cold junctions, and by the resistance of
the wires.
Back of cockpit gauge
Cylinder head
temperature
indicator
Thermocouple leads
Spark plug
gasket
Thermocouple
Static Electricity
-
+
- +++- + +
+
- +++- +
+
neutral
Positively charged ion
No. of protons and

electrons are equal
Loss of electrons, or
gain of protons
+
- +++- + + negatively charged ion
Loss of protons, or
gain of electrons
Every material in their electrically neutral state has equal number of

positively charged protons and negatively charged electrons
Under certain conditions, material becomes electrically charged due
to gain or loss of electrons
Without a conductive path, the charged material will maintain the
charges resulting in static electricity
Static electrical charges (electrostatic charges) are brought about by
the movement of dissimilar materials against or near one another
Static Electricity from friction

Prior to the discovery of the
voltaic cell the only known
method of producing electric
charges and electric currents
was the friction method
If two materials are rubbed
together, one will become
positively charged and the
other negatively charged.
Frictional charging occurs
to varying degree with
different materials.
Cotton and ebonite rubbed

together. Cotton becomes
negatively charged. Ebonite
becomes positively charged.
Static Electricity from friction

Silk thread
-F
++
+
+-+
Glass rods
- Two bodies like glass and silk are rubbed

together, a small amount of charge is
transferred from one to the other, upsetting
the electric neutral of each
- The glass would become
positive, the silk is negative
-+
-F
There are two kinds of charge

- by rubbing a glass rod with silk and hanging it from a long silk thread
- A second glass rod is rubbed with silk and held near the rubbed end of the
first glass rod
- The rods will repel each other
- On the other hand, a hard rubber rod robbed with fur will attract the glass rod
- Two hard-rubber rods rubbed with fur will repel each other
The facts are that rubbing a rod gives it an electric charge and
that the charges on the two rods exert forces on each other
The charges on the glass and on the hard rubber must be different in nature
Triboelectric Series
The triboelectric series is a list of substances arranged so that :
one can become positively charged when separated from one
farther down the list
negatively charged when separated from one farther up the list
The series main utility is to indicate likely resultant charge polarities
after triboelectric generation
This series is derived from specially prepared and cleaned materials
tested in very controlled conditions
Materials reasonably close to one another in the series can produce
charge polarities opposite to the expected
Materials
Positive
Air
Human hands
Glass
Human hair
Nylon
wool
Cotton
PVC (vinyl)
Negative
sulfur
Gold, platinum
Brass, silver
Nickel, copper
Wood
Steel
Positive and
negative Charge
(relative magnitude
and polarity)
neutra
l
Electrostatic Charges
Voltages
10 to 20%
Relative
humidity
60 to 90%
Relative
humidity
Walking across carpet

Walking over vinyl floor
Walking at bench
Removing or replacing work
paper into vinyl envelopes
35,000
12,000
1,500
250
6,000
7,000
100
600
Picking up common poly bag

from bench
20,000
1,200
Movement when sitting on work

chair padded with polyurethane
18,000
1,500
Means of static generation
Typical electrostatic voltages
Electricity from friction

The friction of fuel flowing
through aircraft fuelling
pipes can cause a build up
of electric charge.
Fuel tankers become

charged through the
friction of their tires on
the road.
4 Ground wire
Electricity from chemical action

Faradays Laws of Electrolysis
Faraday deduced two fundamental laws which govern the phenomenon
- First Law :The mass of an ion liberated at an electrode is directly
proportional to the quantity of electricity, i.e., charge which passes through
the electrolyte
- Second Law : The masses of ions of different substances liberated by the
same quantity of electricity are proportional to their chemical equivalent
weights
- Explanation of the First Law
If m = mass of ion liberated
Q = quantity of electricity = I x t where I is the current and t is the time
Then m is proportional to Q ; or m = ZQ or m = ZIt
Where Z is a constant and is known as the electrochemical
equivalent (E.C.E.) of the substance
If Q = 1 coulomb, i.e., I = 1 ampere and t = 1 second, then m = Z
Hence, E.C.E. of a substance is equal to the mass of its ions liberated by
the passage of one ampere current for one second through its electrolytic
solution or by the passage of a charge of one coulomb
The constant Z is composite and it depends on the valency and atomic weight concerned

Faradays Laws of Electrolysis
- Explanation of the Second Law
- Suppose an electric current is passed for the same time through acidulated
water, solution of CuSO4 and AgNO3, then for every 1.0078 gram of hydrogen
evolved, 107.88 gram of silver and 31.54 gram of Cu are liberated.
- The values 107.88 and 31.54 represent the equivalent weights of silver and copper
respectively, i.e., their atomic weights divided by their respective valencies
Polarization or back E.M.F.

- Consider the case of two platinum electrodes dipped in dilute sulphuric acid solution
- When a small potential difference is applied across the electrodes,
no current is found to flow
- When a small potential difference is applied across the electrodes,
no current is found to flow
- When the applied voltage is increased, a temporary flow of current takes place
- The H++ ions move towards the cathode and O- - ions move towards the anode
and are absorbed there
- These absorbed ions have a tendency to go back into the electrolytic solution,
thereby leaving them as oppositely-charged electrodes
- This tendency produces an e.m.f. that is in opposition to the applied voltage which
is consequently reduced
This opposing e.m.f. which is produced in an electrolyte due to the absorption of gaseous
ions by the electrolyte from the two electrodes is known as the back e.m.f. of electrolysis

A flashlight battery is a device
that changes chemical energy
into electricity.
Chemical action changes the
zinc of the can into zinc
chloride, and when this change
is made, electrons are released.
Electrical load
+
Carbon rod
Electrolyte
When a wire connects the zinc

can to the carbon rod, electrons
flow from the can to the rod.
Zinc can
Electrolyte
Electrolyte - a compound that, when molten or in solution,
conducts electric current and is decomposed by it.
In simple terms,
terms, an electrolyte is a solution of water and a
chemical compound that will conduct an electric current.
An electrolyte will conduct an electric current because it
contains positive and negative ions.
The electrolyte in a typical aircraft storage battery consists
of sulfuric acid and water.
Primary Cell
In primary cell, the chemical process
of forming the solution is not reversible
Primary cells commonly use a
dry electrolyte and are usually
disposable items, e.g., flashlight cell.
A disadvantage is
that when current
depolarizer
flows the
decomposition of the
electrolyte releases
Electrolyte
hydrogen
Metal end cap
Hydrogen released
during current flow
ammonium
chloride in
paste form
Polarization effect
The hydrogen
accumulates around the
carbon electrode raising
internal resistance and
lower the output voltage
Carbon rod
+ve electrode
Zinc case (Zinc canister)

-ve electrode
-ve electrode
Carbon-zinc dry cell
For instance, zinc can dissolve in ammonium chloride, but the process
cannot be reverses to form the zinc electrode from the solution
Electrical Reference Standards

Weston Cadmium Standard Cell
The Weston cadmium standard cell intended only as a standard of e.m.f.
- The positive electrode is mercury
and the negative electrode is an
amalgam of mercury and cadmium
Cadmium
- The electrolyte is a saturated solution
sulphate
solution
of cadmium sulphate in water slightly
acidulated with sulphuric acid
- The mercurous sulphate acts as
a depolarizer
Cadmium
- This cell is manufactured to a Cadmium
sulphate
specification prescribed by the sulphate
crystals
International Electrotechnical crystals
Commission
Cadmium
Amalgam of
..
sulphate and
..
- Its e.m.f. is exactly
cadmium
and
mercurous
1.01859 volts at 200C
mercury
+ sulphate paste
mercury
electrode
- The volt can be taken as
- electrode
1/1.01859 of the e.m.f. of
a cadmium cell at 200C
Weston cadmium standard cell
- The e.m.f. of the cell falls by about 40 microvolts
per degree rise of temperature, since the internal
resistance is about 1000 ohms
Chemical action in a voltaic cell

When a rod of carbon and
a plate of zinc are placed
in a solution of ammonium
chloride, the result is an
elementary voltaic cell.
The carbon and zinc
elements are electrodes.
ELECTRON FLOW
Bubbles of hydrogen
gas escaping
2(NH4CL)
2(NH3CL)
The carbon is positively

charged - anode; the zinc
plate is negatively charged
- cathode.
The combination of two
electrodes surrounded by
an electrolyte form a cell.
ELECTRONS
ZN(NH3)2CL2
ZINC (ZN) PLATE
CARBON ROD
AMMONIUM CHLORIDE
ELECTROLYTE

The zinc atoms going into solution as positive ions cause
the zinc plate becomes negatively charged so that the zinc
ions remain near the zinc plate.
When the two electrodes are connected, the electrons will
flow to the carbon rod, where the hydrogen ions become
hydrogen atoms as the result of their neutralization by
the electrons.

Electron flow
2(NH4Cl)
H+
H+
e
-
2(NH3Cl)
e-
e-
e-
Zn
Zn++
Zinc
plate
Zn(NH3)2Cl2
Carbon
rod
Secondary Cell
Two types of secondary cell in common use
- The lead acid type
- The alkaline type
Lead acid type :
- The electrodes (plates) are a form of lead compound and
the electrolyte is dilute sulphuric acid
- In a fully charged cell, the mixture of water and sulphuric acid results
in a specific gravity of 1.280, approximately, at room temperatures of
70 to 800F
- A typical voltage for a single lead acid cell is 2.2 volts
- When initially diluting pure acid, acid must be added to water not
vice versa, otherwise a violent heat reaction may occur
Note : if acid is spilt it must be mopped up immediately with, e.g.,
sawdust and then the affected area neutralized with bicarbonate of soda
Secondary Cell
Alkaline acid type :
- Two subdivisions
-similar positive plate materials (nickle hydroxide)
1) the negative plate in one is nickle iron (NiFe) cell, is impregnated iron
2) the other negative plate is nickle cadmium (NiCd)
cell, is impregnated cadmium
-A typical voltage for a single cell of either type is of the
order 1.2 volts
- The electrolyte is dilute potassium hydroxide
Note : if the electrolyte is spilt it must be mopped up immediately with,
e.g. sawdust and then the affected area neutralized with boric acid
Electricity from pressure

Piezoelectric crystal - The characteristic of certain
materials that causes them to
produce an electrical pressure when
they are bent or twisted or when
pressure is applied to them
- Pulses of electricity applied to the
opposite faces of a crystal will case
it to distort
- Electrons move through the
external circuit from one side of
the crystal to the other
- Piezoelectric crystals are
particularly adapted to the
measurement of vibration
- The e.m.f. obtained is proportional
to the amplitude of deflection
multiplied by the frequency squared
Weak AC output
Piezoelectric
crystal
A piece of crystal produces

electricity when it is bent or
twisted by the needle riding
in the grooves of a phonograph
record.
Electricity from magnetism

By far the most important
exchange of energy is
between magnetism and
electricity.
Generators and alternators,

driven by aircraft engines,
rotate conductors through
magnetic fields to produce
electricity.
AC VOLTS
When a coil of wire

is moved back and
forth so that it cuts
across a magnetic
field, electrons are
forced to flow in
the wire.
Electricity from motion

When a current is passed
through the loop of wire
between the magnet poles,
the loop turns to the position
shown in figure (a) if there
is no restraining spring.
spring. That
is, the loop turns to a position
where its plane is perpendicular
to the magnet's flux lines.

If the currentcurrent-carrying loop
is turned either way from this
neutral position, as in figure
(b) and (c), the current and
magnet field will react in such
a way as to force the loop back
to its neutral position.

90
0
90
90
180
180
0
270
90
180
0
270
360
Module 3
3.5
DC SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
Battery Cells
Battery cells manufactured to store electricity are
classified as either primary or secondary.
Primary cell - a cell that can not be reactivated or
replenished when it becomes exhausted as source
of e.m.f. and current.
Secondary cell - a cell that can be reactivated or
recharged, and can be phased through a great
many chargecharge-discharge cycles.
The dry cells commonly used in torches and portable
radios are primary cells.
Construction of a simple dry cell Primary Cell

A dry cell is so called because
the electrolyte is in the form
of paste;
the cell may therefore be
handled without the danger
of spillage.
Wax seal
Porous
cardboard
Electrolyte solution
with manganese
dioxide as filler
Insulating material is placed

between the inner zinc can
and the outer can to prevent
short circuiting.
Zinc can
Carbon rod
Primary Cells
Type
Voltage (V)
Notes
Carbon--zinc
Carbon
1.5
Most common type; for flashlights

and toys; lowest cost but low current
capacity
Zinc--cloride
Zinc
1.5
Similar to carboncarbon-zinc type but

higher current
Manganese--alkaline
Manganese
1.5
Hydroxide electrolyte; high current

capacity
Mercury
1.35
Cathode is mercuric oxide; stable

voltage reference
Mercury
1.4
Cathode is mercuric oxide with

manganese dioxide; miniature button
sizes for cameras, electronic watches,
and hearing aids; high current
capacity; long shelf life
Silver oxide
1.5
Hydroxide electrolyte; miniature

button sizes
Lithium
2.95
Long life; high cost; high current

capacity and energy density
Secondary Battery - Lead-acid cells and Battery

Two types of lead
lead--acid batteries currently being used
in aviation are : vented cell and sealed battery.
battery.
Lead-acid secondary cells consist of lead
Leadlead--compound plates
immersed in a solution of sulfuric acid and water.
Each cell has an OCV of approximately 2.1 V when fully charged.
Aircraft storage batteries of the leadlead-acid type are generally rated
at 12 or 24 V.
Parts of a lead acid battery
- A battery consists of a number of cells and each of the battery consists of :
- Vent plugs or filler caps
- Positive and negative plates
- External connecting straps
- Separators
- electrolyte
Note : The separation between two plates is
achieved by using separators, made of
- Container
treated cedar wood, glass, wool mat,
rubber and microporous plastic
- Bottom grooved support blocks microporous
and in case of large stationary cells, they are
in the form of glass rods
- Connecting bars
Secondary Battery - Lead-acid cells and Battery

Plates consists of a lattice type of grid of cast antimonial lead alloy
which is covered with active material
Those substances of the cell which take active part in chemical
combination and hence absorb or produce electricity during charging
or discharging are known as active materials of the cell
- Lead peroxide (PbO2) for +ve plate
- A combination of one atom of lead and two atoms of oxygen
- Sponge lead (P
(Pb)) for ve plate
- Is pure lead in soft sponge or porous condition
- Dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4) as electrolyte
- Is approximately 3 parts water and one part sulphuric acid
- Is the medium through which the current produces chemical changes
The positive and negative plates are immersed in the solution which
is known as electrolyte
The lead acid cell depends for its action on the presence of two plates
covered with PbO2 and Pb in a solution of dilute H2SO4 of specific gravity
1.21 or nearabout
Lead-acid cells
Aircraft storage batteries of the leadlead-acid type have
either 6 or 12 cells connected in series.
The figure below illustrates how the individual cells of
a battery can be connected by external connector plates.
12V
24V
Lead-acid battery construction

The separators used in
lead--acid storage batteries
lead
are made of fiberglass,
rubber, or other insulating
materials to keep the plates
separated and thus prevent
an internal short circuit.
The material of the
separators must be
very porous so that it
will offer a minimum
of resistance to the
current passing through.
CELL
CONNECTOR
CELL COVER
TERMINAL POSTS
SEPARATOR
PROTECTOR
PLATE STRAP
PLATE
SEPARATORS
VENT
CAP
Chemical Changes Lead Acid Cell

load
+
Electron
current flow
cathode
anode
PSO2
PbSO
SO4
D.C. supply
cathode
Pb
anode
PbSO
SO4
Cell
Cell
2H20
H2S04
Discharging
Charging
Discharging
- When the cell is fully charged
charged,, its positive plate or anode is PbO
P O2 and
the negative plate or cathode is P
Pb
- When the cell discharges, i.e., it sends current through the external load
- Then H2SO4 is dissociated into positive H2 and negative SO4 ions
- As the current within the cell is flowing from cathode to anode, H2 ions move to
anode and SO4 ions move to the cathode
Chemical Changes
Lead Acid Cell discharging
Discharging (continued)
- At anode PbO
P O2, H2 combines with the oxygen of PbO
P O2 and H2SO4 attacks lead to
form P
PbSO
SO4
PbO
O2 + H2 + H2SO4
PbSO
SO4 + 2H2O
- At the cathode Pb,

P , SO4 combines with it to form PbSO
P SO4
Pb + SO4
PbSO
SO4
It will noted during discharging :

- Both anode and cathode become PbSO4 which is somewhat whitish in colour
- Due to formation of water, specific gravity of the acid decreases
- Voltage of the cell decreases
- The cell gives out energy
Chemical Changes
Lead Acid Cell Charging
load
D.C. supply
Electron
current flow
cathode
anode
PSO2
PbSO4
cathode
Pb
anode
PbSO4
Cell
Cell
2H20
H2S04
Discharging
Charging
When the cell is being recharged

recharged,, then H2 ions move to the cathode
and SO4 ions go to the anode, and the following changes take place
At cathode
At anode
PbSO
P SO4 + H2
Pb +H2SO4
P SO4 + SO4 + 2H2O

PbSO
PbO
P O2 + 2H2SO4
Hence, the anode and cathode become PbO2 and Pb respectively
Chemical Changes
Lead Acid Cell Charging
It will be noticed that during charging :
- The anode becomes PbO2 and cathode becomes metallic lead Pb
- Due to consumption of water, specific gravity of H2SO4 is increased
- There is a rise in voltage
- Energy is absorbed by the cell
The charging and discharging of the cell can be represented by a single
reversible equation given below :
positive
plate
negative
plate discharging
PbO
O2 + 2H2SO4 + Pb
charging
positive
plate
negative
plate
P
PbSO
SO4 + 2H2O + PbSO
P SO4
Note: for discharging, the equation should be read from left to right
and for charge from right to left
Internal Resistance and Capacity of a Cell

The secondary cell possesses internal resistance due to :
- Which some voltage is lost in the form of potential drop across it
when current is flowing
- The internal resistance of the cell has to be kept to the minimum
Way to lessen internal resistance :
- To increase the size of the plates, theoretically
- In practice, usually to multiply the number of plates inside the cell and
join all the negatives together and the positives together
(The effect is equivalent to joining many cells in parallel)
- The length of the electrolyte between the electrodes is decreased,

with a consequent reduction in the internal resistance
- The interlacing of plates decreases the internal resistance and
increases the capacity of the cell
- Always one more negative plate than the positive plates at both ends
- This gives not only more mechanical strength but assures that both
sides of a positive plate are used
- An approximated value of about 0.005 ohm for a fully charged 100 Ah cell at normal temperature
The capacity of a cell is given by the product of current in amperes and the time
hours during which the cell can supply current until its e.m.f. falls to 1.8 volt;
the openopen-circuit voltage of a fully charged cell is approximately 2.2 volts
in
Efficiency of the Cell

The efficiency of a cell can be considered in two ways :
- The quantity or ampereampere-hour (Ah) efficiency
- It does not take into account the varying voltages of charge and discharge
- The energy or wattwatt-hour (Wh) efficiency

- It does take into account the varying voltages of charge and discharge
- Is always less than Ah efficiency because average p.d. during
discharging is less than that during charging
- During discharge the e.m.f. falls from about 2.1 V to 1.8 V whereas
during charge, it rises from 1.8 volts to about 2.6 volts.
Ah efficiency =
Ampere-hr. discharge
AmpereAmpere--hr. charge
Ampere
The Ah efficiency of a leadlead-acid cell is normally between 90 to 95%
- the Ah available for delivery from the battery decreases

- Gassing takes place during the charge
- self
self--discharge of the plates caused due to local reactions
- Leakage of current because of faulty insulation between the cells of the
battery
Average volts on discharge
The Wh efficiency varies between 72 80 % = Ah x Average volts on charge
Charging Systems Constant Current

The constant
constant--current system
- The charging current is kept constant by varying the supply voltage
to overcome the increased back e.m.f. of cells
Rheostat
d.c. generator
and voltage
regulator
Ia
d.c.
supply
Rsh
+
Battery
- A charging booster is used, the current supplied by it can be kept

constant by adjusting its excitation
- On charging, the current is controlled by varying the rheostat
connected in circuit
- The value of charging current should be chosen that there would be
no excessive gassing during final stages of charging, and the cell
temperature does not exceed 450C
- This method takes a comparatively long time
Charging Systems Constant Voltage

The voltage is kept constant
- It results in very large charging current in the beginning when
the back e.m.f. of the cells is low
- A small current when their back e.m.f. increases on being charged
Time of charging is almost reduced to half
It increases the capacity by approximately 20% but reduces the
efficiency by 10%
Rheostat
I
Charging current
+
v
V
-
Eb
Battery
e.g., if V is the supply voltage which sends a charging current of I against

the back e.m.f. Eb
The input power is VI, and the power spent in overcoming the opposition
is EbI which is converted into chemical energy stored in the cell
The charging current is : I = (V Eb) R ; where R is total circuit resistance including
internal resistance of the battery
Charging Systems Trickle Charge

When a storage battery is kept entirely as an emergency reserve or in
standby service, it is essential that it should be found fully charged and
ready for service when an emergency arises
- Due to leakage action and other open
open--circuit losses when idle or on
open--circuit
open
- To keep it fresh, the battery is kept on a trickle charge
This is a continuous constantconstant-current charge given to a battery to maintain
it in a fully charged condition, with no external load connected to it
The rate of trickle charge is small current (about 500 :1) and is just
sufficient to balance the openopen-circuit losses
- In setting up such a trickle charge, a current of 50 to 100 mA / 100 Ah of
battery capacity is a good trail value
When during an emergency, the battery gets discharged, it is rere-charged

at its normal charging rate and then is kept on a continuous trickle charge
Chemical changes in a lead-acid cell

As the battery discharges
discharges,,
lead sulfate forms on both
plates, and the electrolyte
loses most of its positive
and negative ions, with
water taking the place of
much of the acid.
ELECTRON FLOW
+
+
+
+
As the cell discharges

discharges,, its
internal resistance
increases and the closedclosedcircuit voltage drops.
Chemical changes in a lead-acid cell

In charged condition, direct
current can force electrons
into the negative plate.
Electrons on the negative
plate attract positive lead
ions from the lead sulfate.
ELECTRON FLOW
+
+
+
+
As the battery charges and
water is changed into sulfuric
acid, the specific gravity of
the electrolyte rises.
+
+
Alkaline cells
Voltaic cells utilizing an alkaline electrolyte are usually termed
alkaline cells.
cells.
The electrolyte consists primarily of a potassium hydroxide
solution.
The electrodes of alkaline cells can be of different types
of materials, such as: manganese dioxide and zinc; silver
oxide and zinc; silver oxide and cadmium; mercuric oxide
and zinc; or nickel and cadmium.
Various electrode materials determine if the alkaline cell is a
rechargeable secondary cell or a non
non--rechargeable primary cell.
Most common alkaline cells produce approximately 1.5V
without a load applied to the cell.
Alkaline Battery
The two types of alkaline batteries in general use are :
- Nickel
Nickel--iron type or Edison type
- Nickel
Nickel--cadmium type or Jungur type which is commercially known as
NIFE battery
The other two types are uncommon alkaline batteries :
- Alkum type, which uses nickel hydroxide and graphite in the positive
plates and a powdered alloy of iron and chromium in the negative plates
- SilverSilver-zinc type, whose active material for the positive plates is silver
oxide (Ag2O) and for negative plates is zinc oxide and zinc powder
The electrodes or plates of the alkaline cells are either of :
- Enclosed
Enclosed--pocket type plates, the active material is enclosed in nickelnickelplated perforated steel envelopes or pockets which are pressed into the
steel frames of the plates
- Open
Open--pocket type plates, the active material is outside directly in
contact with the electrolyte
- They are made of the following three materials :
- metal
metal--ceramic plate; foil plate; and pressed plate (a nickel
nickel--plated
press steel grid)
Alkaline Battery Nickel-Iron

The active materials in a nickelnickel-iron cell are :
- Nickel hydroxide Ni(OH)4 or nickel peroxide NiO2 for the positive plate
About 17% of graphite is added to increase conductivity
- Powdered iron and its oxides for the negative. Small quantities of nickel
sulphate and ferrous sulphide are added to improve the performance of the cell
- The electrolyte is 21% solution of caustic potash KOH (potassium hydrate)
to which is added a small quantity of lithium hydrate LiOH for increasing
the capacity of the cell
The number of negative plates is one more than the positive plates
- The extreme negative plates are electrically connected to the container
Electrical characteristics
- When fully charged, is nearly 1.4 V which decreases rapidly to 1.3 V
and then very slowly to 1.1 or 1.0 V on discharge
- The average discharge voltage for a 55-hour discharge rate is 1.2 V
- For the same average value of the voltage, an alkali accumulator
will consist of 1.6 to 1.7 times as many as in a leadlead-acid battery
- The average charging voltage for an alkali cell is about 1.7 V
- Relatively higher internal resistance, the efficiencies of lower than those of
the lead acid cell, Ah efficiency 80% and Wh 60 or 50%
Nickel-iron Alkaline Cell
Nickel-iron Alkaline Battery

Chemical Changes
Assume that at positive plate, nickel oxide is in its hydrated form Ni(OH)4
During discharge
- Electrolyte KOH splits up into positive K ions and negative OH ions
- The K ions go to anode and reduce Ni(OH)4 to Ni(OH)2
- The OH ions travel towards the cathode and oxidize iron
Positive plate :
Ni(OH)4 + 2K
Ni(OH)2 + 2KOH
Negative plate :
Fe +2OH
Fe(OH)2
During charge
- Just the opposite reactions take place, i.e., K ions go to cathode and OH
ions go to anode
- The chemical reactions is : KOH
K + OH
Positive plate :
Negative plate :
Ni(OH)2 + 2OH
Fe (OH)2 + 2K
Ni(OH)4
Fe + 2KOH
The charge and discharge can be represented by a single reversible equation :

+ve plate
-ve plate discharge
Ni(OH)4 + KOH + Fe
charge
+ve plate
-ve plate
Ni(OH)2 + KOH + Fe(OH)2
Gassing
During charge :
- There is a certain amount of energy which the cells cannot absorb,
this is dissipated as gas
- This gas actually consists of oxygen evolved at the positive plate
and hydrogen at the negative plate
In nickel
nickel--iron cells, these gases are evolved during entire charge,
the amount increasing, as the charge progresses
- When the cell is fully charged, it represents the relation in which they exist in the
water which is being dissociated two parts of hydrogen to one part of oxygen
- The positives retain a certain amount of oxygen during the charge, and this
continues to evolve for some time after the charge has stopped
- The negatives also retain a certain amount of hydrogen during the charge
Note :
- When cells are fully charged, at which time virtually all the energy is dissipated as gas,
the amount of hydrogen is about 1 ft3 / cell for each 63 Ah of excess charge
- When hydrogen in the air reaches a proportion of about 4%, it can constitute an
explosive mixture
- The above value can therefore be used to relate the approximate amount evolved from
a given battery to the size of the room or compartment in which it may be located
Nickel-cadmium cells construction

Nickel-cadmium electric
Nickelcells and batteries have
been developed to a high
degree of efficiency and
dependability.
METAL CAP
POSITIVE TERMINAL
CONNECTING STRIP
INSULATING INSERT
POSITIVE PLATES
An advantage of this
kind of cell is that it
can stand in a discharged
condition indefinitely at
normal temperatures
without deterioration.
NEGATIVE PLATES
INSULATING CASE
NEGATIVE TERMINAL
Nickel-cadmium cells
The negative electrode consists of metallic cadmium (Cd),
and the positive electrode is nickel hydroxide (Ni(OH)4).
Electrons are released in the negative electrode as chemical
change takes place. These electrons flow through the outer
electric circuit and return to the positive electrode.
Positive ions in the electrolyte remove the electrons from the
positive electrode.
The electrodes alter chemical composition. The negative
electrode becomes cadmium hydroxide (CdOH), and the
positive electrode becomes nickel (Ni).
Nickel-cadmium cells
Nickel-cadmium cells generate gas during the latter part of
Nickela charge cycle and during overcharge. Hydrogen is formed
at the negative electrode, and oxygen is formed at the
positive electrode.
In vented
vented--type batteries, the hydrogen and oxygen
generated during overcharge are released to the
atmosphere together with some electrolyte fumes.
Nickel-cadmium Alkaline Cell
Nickel-cadmium Battery
The active materials in a nickelnickel-cadmium cell are :
nickel-iron cell
- Positive plate is Ni(OH)4 exactly as in the nickel- Negative plate is a mixture of cadmium or cadmium oxide and iron
mass
- The use of cadmium results in reduced internal resistance of the cell
- About 3% of solar oil is added for stabilizing the electrode capacity
- The electrolyte is 21% solution of caustic potash KOH (potassium
hydrate) to which is added a small quantity of lithium hydrate LiOH
for increasing the capacity of the cell
(the same electrolyte as in the nickelnickel-iron cell)
The cell grouping and plate arrangement is identical with nickelnickel-iron
batteries, except that :
- The number of positive plates is more than the number of negative plates
The advantage over nickelnickel-iron batteries :
- More suitable for floating duties in conjunction with a charging dynamo
- The difference between charging and discharging e.m.f.s is
not as great as in nickelnickel-iron batteries
Nickel-cadmium Battery Chemical Changes

The chemical changes are more or less similar to those taking place in
nickel--iron cell
nickel
The electrolyte is split up into positive K ions and negative OH ions
The chemical reactions at the two plates are as follows :
During discharge
Positive plate :
Negative plate :
Ni(OH)4 + 2K
Cd + 2OH
During charge
Positive plate :
Negative plate :
Ni(OH)2 + 2OH
Cd(OH)2 + 2K
Ni(OH)2 + 2KOH
Cd(OH)2
Ni(OH)4
Cd + 2KOH
Silver-zinc Battery
The active material of the positive plates is silver oxide, which is
pressed into the plate and then subjected to a heat treatment
The active material of the negative plates is a mixture of zinc powder
and zinc oxide
The chemical changes taking place within the cell can be represented :
+ve plate
AgO
-ve plate discharge
+ Zn
charge
+ve plate
2Ag +
-ve plate
ZnO
A silversilver-zinc cell has a specific capacity (i.e. capacity per unit weight)
4 to 5 times greater than that of other type cells
Their efficiency is high and self
self--discharge is small
Advantages :
- Can withstand much heavier discharge currents
- Can operate over a temperature range of -200C to + 600C
Disadvantage :
- SilverSilver-zinc battery or cell is its higher cost
Module 3
3.6
DC CIRCUITS
Ohm's Law
Definition
This Law applies to electric conduction through good conductors and
may be stated as follows :
The ratio of potential difference (V) between any two points on a
conductor to the current (I) flowing between them, is constant, provided
the temperature of conductor does not change
In other words,
V
V
=
constant,
or
I
I =R
Where R is the resistance of the conductor between the two points considered
It simply means that provided R is kept constant, current is directly

proportional to the potential difference across the ends of a conductors
- This linear relationship between V and I does not apply to all
non--metallic conductors
non
- It does not apply to nonnon-linear devices such as Zener diodes voltage
regular (VR) tubes
The current flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the
applied voltage, and is inversely proportional to the resistance
Ohm's Law
Example :
A coil of copper wire has resistance of 90 ohms at 200C and is connected to a
230 V supply. By how much must the voltage be increased in order to
maintain the current constant if the temperature of the coil rises to 600C ?
Take the temperature coefficient of resistance of cooper as 0.00428 from 00C.
R60
=
R20
1+
o x 02
1+
o x 01
1 + 0.00428 x 60
1 + 0.00428 x 20
R60 = 90 x 1.2568 / 1.0856 = 1.4.2 ohms

Now, current at 200C = 230 / 90 = 23 / 9 A
Since the wire resistance has become 104.2 ohms at 600C,
The new voltage required for keeping the current constant at its previous value
= 104.2 x 23 /9 = 266.3 V
Therefore, increase in voltage required = 266.3 230 = 36.3 V
Resistance in Series
A
R1
R2
R3
D
V
V1
V2
V1
B
V2
V3
V3
Resistances R1, R2, and R3 are connected in series in the above circuit
The equivalent resistance or total resistance between points A and D is equal to :
The sum of the three individual resistances R1, R2, and R3
Being a series d.c. circuit, current is the same through all the three resistances
voltage drop across each resistance is different, and is given by Ohms Law
sum of the three voltage drops is equal to the voltage applied across
the three resistances
i.e., V = V1 + V2 + V3 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 ; but V = IR
When R is the equivalent resistance of the series combination, R = R1 + R2 + R3
Resistance in Parallel
R1
R2
R3
V
Resistances R1, R2, and R3 are connected in parallel in the above circuit
The equivalent resistance R or total resistance between points A and B is equal to :
The reciprocal of the sum of the three individual reciprocal resistances R1,
R2, and R3
Being a parallel d.c. circuit, potential different across all resistances is the same
Current in each resistor is different and is given by Ohms Law
The total current is the sum of the three separate currents
V
+ V = V
I = I1 + I2 + I3 = V +
R1
Now, I =
V
R
R2
R3
where V is applied voltage ;
1 = 1 + 1 + 1
R 1 R1 R1
R
Ohm's Law
Relationship between voltage, current, resistance and
Power in an electrical circuit.
The top quantity is equal to the product of the two
bottom quantities.
The one bottom quantity is equal to the top quantity
divided by the other bottom quantity.
P
E
I R
E2
P R
I2 R
Where E is voltage, I is current, R is resistance and P is power
Ohm's Law
The four circles produce twelve formulae, i.e.,
E=IR
P=IE
E=
I=ER
I=PE
P = E2 R
P = I2 R
I=
E=PI
R = E2 P
PR
PR
R=EI
R = P I2
Ohm's Law
Simple Questions using Ohm's Law.
1. Find the voltage needed to force 10 amps through
a resistance 100 ohms.
2. Find the amount of current that 24 volts can force
through a resistance of 144 ohms.
3. Find the amount of resistance needed to drop 6 volts
when 3 amps is flowing.
4. Find the amount of power used when 4 amps is being
forced through 16 ohms of resistance.
Ohm's Law
5. Find the amount of current needed to produce 60 watts
of power in circuit having a resistance of 20 ohms.
6. Find the amount of resistance needed for 16 amps of
current to produce 800 watts of power.
7. Find the amount of resistance in a circuit in which
100 volts is producing 200 watts of power.
8. Find the voltage needed to produce 100 watts of power
when the resistance is 25 ohms.
Ohm's Law
9. Find the amount of power produced when 120 volts
are applied to a resistance of 6 ohms.
10. Find the electrical power equivalent to 6 horsepower.
11. Find the electrical power required to produce
10 horsepower if the motor is 75% efficiency.
12. Find the electrical energy consumed by a 20 horsepower
motor of 70% efficiency for 5 hours.
Kirchoff's Laws
Kirchoffs Laws are more comprehensive than Ohms Law and
are for solving electrical networks
They are particularly useful :
a). in determining the equivalent resistance of a complicated
network of conductors
b). for calculating the currents flowing in the various conductors
The two Laws are :
Current Law (KCL) or Point Law. It states :
- In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the current meeting
at a point (or junction) is zero
Voltage Law (KVL) or Mesh Law. It states :

- The algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances in
each of the conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a network plus
the algebraic sum of the e.m.f.s in that path is zero
Kirchoff's Current Law

Kirchoff's Current Law (KCL)
Has three equivalent versions, at any instant in a circuit :
1. The algebraic sum of the currents leaving a closed
surface is zero.
2. The algebraic sum of the currents entering a closed
surface is zero.
3. The algebraic sum of the currents entering a closed
surface equals the algebraic sum of those leaving.
Kirchoff's Current Law

The total current leaving a junction is equal to
the total current leaving that junction
There is no accumulation or depletion of
current at any junction of the network
Consider a few conductors meeting at a point A
- Some conductors having currents I1, I5, and I7
leading to point A whereas some have currents
I2, I3, I4, and I6 leading away from point A
- Assuming the incoming currents to be positive
and the outgoing currents negative, we have
I1 + ((-I2) + ((--I3) + ((-I4) + I5 + (( - I6 ) + I7 = 0
Or I1 + + I5 + I7 = I2 + I3 + I4 + I6
I3
A
I7
I4
I6
I5
Assume the incoming currents

to be positive and the outgoing
currents negative
Or incoming currents = outgoing currents

Conclusion of the above is
I2
I1
I = 0 at a junction
Kirchoff's Voltage Law

Kirchoff's Voltage Law: (Abbreviated: KVL)
At any instant around a loop, in either a clockwise
or counterclockwise direction, has three equivalent
versions :
1. The algebraic sum of the voltage drops is zero.
2. The algebraic sum of the voltage rises is zero.
3. The algebraic sum of the voltage drops equals
the algebraic sum of the voltage rises.

Kirchoffs Voltage Law (KVL) or Mesh Law
- It states that :
The algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances in
each of the conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a network
plus the algebraic sum of the e.m.f.s in that path is zero
In other words, IR + e.m.f. = 0
Hence, it means that all the sources of e.m.f. met on the way must
necessarily be equal to the voltage drops in the resistances,
every voltage being given its proper sign, plus or minus
Determination of sign
- In applying Kirchoffs Laws to specific problems, particular attention
should be paid to the algebraic signs of voltage drops and e.m.f.s
- A rise of voltage should be given a +ve sign and a fall in voltage a ve sign
- It is clear that, goes from ve terminal of a battery to its +ve terminal,
there is a rise in potential, hence this voltage is given a +ve sign;
on the other hand, goes from +ve terminal to ve terminal,
there is a fall in potential, hence the voltage should be preceded by
a ve sign

Sign of IR drops
I4
I1
I2
R1
R4
I1 R 1
R2
I 1 R1
R3
E2
I5
E1
R5
I 2 R2
I3
I2R5
R6
I3 R 6

In the application of Kirchoff's voltage law, a loop current
is usually referenced clockwise, and KVL is applied in
the direction of the current.
Vs
R1
R2
V1
V2
I
V3
R3
Vs = V1 + V2 + V3 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = IRt

Where Rt = R1 + R2 + R3
Rt is the total resistance of the series connected resistors,
another term is equivalent resistance, with symbol Req.

For any closed network, some of voltages are sources
while others will result from current in passive elements
creating a voltage drop.
vb
R1
v1
va
v2
R2
v3
R3
The algebraic sum of the voltages in a mesh is zero
- va + v1 + vb + v2 + v3 = 0

Voltage Division
The voltage division or voltage divider rule applies to resistors
in series.
R1
R2
V1
V2
Vs
V2 =
R2
R1 + R2 + R3
V3
Vs
Vx =
Rx
Rt
R3
Vs

Voltage Division
The voltage division or voltage divider rule applies to resistors
in series.
R1
R2
V1
V2
Vs
V2 =
R2
R1 + R2 + R3
V3
Vs
Vx =
Rx
Rt
R3
Vs
Ideal Voltage Sources

A mathematical model of an electric circuit contains ideal models of physical
circuit elements, e.g., the resistor, capacitor, inductor, and transformer
Ideal Sources : assumes that the parameters of the source, such as its magnitude,
are independent of other circuit variables
Ideal independent voltage source

- Constrains the terminal voltage across the element to a
prescribed function of time, vs(t), as v(t) = vs(t)
- The polarity of the source is denoted by +/+/- signs within the circle that
denotes this as an ideal independent voltage source
- An ideal independent d.c. voltage source is described by vs(t) = Vs,
where Vs is constant
vs(t)
b
+
i(t)
vs(t) +- v(t) = vs(t)

t
Ideal independent voltage source
Ideal Current Sources

A mathematical model of an electric circuit contains ideal models of physical
circuit elements, e.g., the resistor, capacitor, inductor, and transformer
Ideal Sources
Ideal independent current source
- Constrains the terminal current through the element to a
prescribed function of time, is(t), as i(t) = is(t)
- The polarity of the source is denoted by an arrow within the circle
that also denotes this as an ideal independent current source
- An ideal independent sinusoidal current
source is described as is(t) = Is sin(wt + 0)
or is(t) = Is cos(wt + 0), where Is is a
constant, w = 2 f with f the frequency in
hertz and 0 is a phase angle
is(t)
b
+
is(t)
i(t) = is(t)
v(t)
t
Ideal independent current source
Practical Voltage Source

Practical voltage Source
Actual sources such as batteries have their terminal voltage
(current) dependent upon the terminal current (voltage) caused by the
circuit attached to the source terminals
- e.g., a storage battery, terminal voltage is approximately 12 V on no load
- When the battery is applied across the terminals of the starter,
a current of approximately 40 A is drawn from its terminals
- During starting, its terminals voltage drops to about 9 volts
A circuit model uses the ideal elements to simulate the non
non--ideal behaviour
b
v
12 v
Rs =
0.075 ohms
Internal resistance
b
+
v
v
Vs =
12 v
+- Vs = 12 v
battery
i
Figure 1 - Terminal vv--i characteristic
Slope = -Rs
Figure 2 - Approximation by an ideal voltage source
A practical voltage source consists of the series connection of an ideal resistor,

Rs and an ideal independent voltage source. The terminal voltage v = Vs - Rsi
The equation gives a straight line with slope Rs that intersects the v axis (i = 0) at v = Vs
Practical Current Source

Practical Current Source
- An alternate form to a practical voltage source consists of :
- The parallel combination of an ideal independent current source, Is = Vs / Rs , and
- The same resistance, Rs, used in the practical voltage source model
- The model is equivalent to the series voltage source resistor model of figure 2
at the output terminals a - b
i
v
12 v
battery
Is = Vs / Rs
= 160 A
Figure 3 - Terminal v-i characteristic
Is
Current
source
Vs = 12 v
Rs = 0.075 ohms
(Internal
resistance)
a
-
Slope = -Rs
Figure 4 - Approximation by an ideal current source
By writing Kirchoffs current law at the upper node to give

I = Is 1 v
Rs
Or v = RsIs - Rsi
Therefore Vs = RsIs
Conclusion : An ideal voltage source is represented by the model with Rs = 0;

and an ideal current source is represented by the model with Rs =
Maximum Power Transfer

Internal Resistance
A voltage source, such as a
battery or a d.c. generator
- Having an e.m.f. E and an
internal resistance r
A variable resistive load R is
connected across terminals A and B
of the voltage source
Then, I =
I
r
+
E
E
r+R
The power transferred to the load = I2R

=
E2R
(r + R)2
E2
= 2
r /R + 2r + R
E2R
r2 + 2rR + R2
R
load
B
Voltage source
This power is a maximum when the denominator r2/R + 2r + R

is a minimum
Maximum Power Transfer

Resistance Matching
d ((r2 / R) + 2r + R) = 0
dR
d (r2 / R) = r2 d (R-1) = - r2 (R-2) = - r2
dR
R2
dR
That is, when

Because
Therefore
d ((r2 / R) + 2r + R) = - r2 + 1 = 0
R2
dR
r2
= 1
Or R = r
2
R
The power transfer is a maximum whenever the external resistance is

matched to the value of the internal resistance of the voltage source
To check the condition gives the minimum and not the maximum value
of the denominator (r2 / R )+ 2r + R
d ( 1 - r2 ) = 2r2
is a positive quantity, which is the condition
2
3
R
R
dR
for the denominator to be minimum and the
output power to be a maximum
Conclusion : The power transferred from the source to the load is a
maximum when the resistance of the load is equal to the internal resistance
of the source. This condition is referred to as resistance matching
Module 3
3.7
RESISTANCE / RESISTOR
Resistance
Resistance - the property of materials that opposes
or resists the movement of electrons and makes it necessary to apply a
voltage to cause current to flow.
Purpose inserts into a circuit either to reduce the current or to
produce a desired IR voltage drop
SI unit - ohm with symbol
; the quantity symbol is R.
It follows the Ohms Law - I(amperes) = V(volts) / R(ohms) the greater the resistance, the less the current for any applied voltage.
Resistor - a circuit element designed to insert resistance in the circuit.
The main types are the carbon resistors and the wirewire-wound resistors
Factors affecting resistance

Resistance always depends on three main factors :
resistivity of the specific material.
the length of the conducting path through the material.
the crosscross-sectional area of the conducting path.
Other factors :
Temperature and temperature coco-efficient of substance
electrolytes affected by its specific gravity
gas resistance affected by the degree of ionization
Factors affecting resistance
Cross sectional
area (A)
Resistivity ( )
Inverse proportion
Metals: Lower resistance at

lower temperature
2
0 (1+ T+ T )
Length (L)
Direct proportion
R=
L /A
where in ohm.m,
the resistivity
Temperature coefficients of resistance

The resistance of all pure metals increases with increase
of temperature; it has positive temperature coco-efficient
The resistance of carbon, electrolytes and insulating
materials decreases with increase of temperature; it has
negative temperature co
co--efficient
Certain alloys, such manganim, show particularly no change
of resistance for a considerable variation of temperature
For any material: R l /A
where R is resistance, l is length, and A is cross
cross--sectional area.
The resistance of most materials is affected by temperature to
extents expressed as temperature coefficients of resistance.
The coefficient is the proportional change of resistance of a
material per degree change of temperature.
The coefficient may be positive(+) or negative ((--).
Resistor
Depending on the construction and use, resistors
in electronic circuits are generally classed as fixed,
adjustable, or variable. The capacity of a resistor
must be that it can handle the current through the
circuit without damage.
In a practical sense, a resistor is a circuit component
that is used because of its resistance.
Mathematically, a resistor is a circuit component
for which there is an algebraic relation between
its instantaneous voltage and instantaneous current
such as v = iR.
Linear and nonlinear resistor

Linear resistor - The voltage-current relation for a
resistor that obeys Ohm's law.
Nonlinear resistor - any other type of voltage-current
relation.
(a)
(b)
(a) shows the circuit symbol for a linear resistor.

(b) shows the circuit symbol for a nonlinear resistor.
Typical fixed resistor

This type of resistor is constructed of a small rod of a
carbon compound. The value of the resistance for each
resistor is determined by the makeup and size of the
carbon compound.
2ND SIGNIFICANT FIGURE
MULTIPLIER
TOLERANCE
1ST SIGNIFICANT FIGURE
Typical fixed resistor

The two important values associated with resistors are the
value in ohms of resistance and the value in watts, which
represents the capacity of the resistor to dissipate power.
2ND SIGNIFICANT FIGURE
MULTIPLIER
TOLERANCE
1ST SIGNIFICANT FIGURE
Wire-wound resistor
Resistors required to carry a comparatively high current and
dissipate high power are usually of the wirewire-wound ceramic type.
Consists of a ceramic tube wound with fine resistance wire,
which is then covered with a ceramic coating or glaze.
The terminals for the resistance wire extend out at each end of
the resistor as shown.
BARE
CERAMIC COATED
Wattage ratings
Every resistor has a power rating, also called wattage rating,
rating,
that is the maximum power that the resistor can absorb
without overheating to a destructive temperature.
Substitution from V = IR into P = VI gives the power

absorbed by a linear resistor in terms of resistance:
P = V2/R = I2R.
Nominal values and tolerances

Manufacturers print resistance values on resistor
casings either in numerical form or in a color code.
The values are only nominal values:
values: only
approximately equal to the actual resistance.
The possible percentage variation of resistance about
the nominal value is called the tolerance
tolerance..
The popular carboncarbon-composition resistors have
tolerances of 20, 10, and 5 percent, which means that
the actual resistance can vary from the nominal values
by as much as +20, -20, +10, -10, +5 and -5 percent
of the nominal values.
Resistor color code

The most popular resistance color code has nominal
resistance values and tolerances indicated by the colors of
either three bands around the resistor casing.
Each color has a corresponding numerical value as specified
in the table shown on the next slide.
Gold corresponds to a tolerance of 5 percent, silver to 10
percent, and a missing band to 20 percent.
A B C D
Resistor color code

A B C D
First
Second
Significant figures
Resistance values
Tolerance
Multiplier
The colors of the 1st and 2nd bands correspond to the

1st two digits of the nominal resistance value.
Resistor color code

First figure (A) and
Multiplier (C)
Tolerance (D)
Second figure (B)
Black
Brown
1%
Brown
Red
2%
Red
Gold
5%
Orange
Silver
10%
Yellow
Black
Brown
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Green
Blue
Blue
Violet
Gold
0.1
Gray
Silver
0.01
White
Adjustable resistors
An adjustable resistor is usually of the wire
wire--wound
type with a metal collar that can be moved along
the resistance wire to vary the value of the resistance
placed in the circuit.
To change the resistance, the contact band must be

loosened and moved to the desired position and then
tightened so that it will not slip.
Variable resistor
A variable resistor is arranged
so that it can be changed in
value at any time by the
operator of the electronic circuit.
load
Change is accomplished by
rotating a small adjustment
knob or by turning a screw
adjustment.
Variable resistors are commonly known as

rheostats or potentiometers.
Rheostats
A rheostat is typically connected in a circuit merely
to change the current flow and has a comparatively
low resistance value (usually below 500 ).
A RHEOSTAT CIRCUIT
Note that the rheostat has two terminals, one connected

to the wirewire-wound resistor and the other connected to
the sliding contact arm, which moves along the resistor.
Potentiometer
A potentiometer normally is connected with three

terminals: one terminal is connected at each end
of the resistor, and the third terminal is connected
to the sliding contact arm. The vary of the resistance
of a potentiometer is to vary the voltage in a circuit.
Potentiometer
The voltage applied between the base and emitter of the

transistor is controlled by the potentiometer.
Voltage division
A set of seriesseries-connected
resistors as shown in the
figure is referred to as a
voltage divider.
i
+
+
R1
v1
v
Since v1 = iR1 and
v = i(
i(R1 + R2 + R3),
v1 = v[
v[R1 / (R
(R1 + R2 + R3)]
R2
R3
Series resistance calculations

The resistance of the
conducting path of the
one material of constant
cross--sectional area is
cross
proportional to the
length of the path.
The total resistance of

the path is the sum of
the individual resistance
regardless of their physical
size, shape or material.
R1
R2
Equivalent resistance
R = R1 + R2
e.g. R1 = 2 ; R2 = 6
R = R1 + R2 = 2 + 6
=8
Parallel resistance calculations

The total circuit resistance of
parallel connected resistance
is always less than the lowest of
the individual resistance because
two or more parallel paths will
together permit more current than
any one of the paths on its own.
The total resistance of any number
of resistance connected in parallel
can be found by the formula as
shown on the right.
When the resistance of a number
of parallel paths are equal, Rt is the
resistance of one path divided by
the number of paths.
R1
R2
Equivalent resistance
1/R = 1/R1 +1/ R2
e.g. R1 = 2 ; R2 = 6
1/R = 1/R1 +1/R2
= 1/2 + 1/6
= 2/3
R = 1.5
Current Divider with Two Parallel Resistances

It is often necessary to find the individual branch currents in a bank
from the resistances and total current IT, without knowing the voltage
across the bank
The problem can be solved by using the fact that currents divide inversely
as the branch resistances
R1
R2
x IT
I1 =
R1 + R2
IT
I1
IT
I2
R1
I2 =
x IT
R1 + R2
R2
e.g., if IT = 30 A, R1 = 2 ohms, and R2 = 4 ohms
4
2+4
x 30 = 20 A
2
I2 =
2+4
x 30 = 10 A
I1 =
Current division
A parallel arrangement of
resistors as shown in the
figure results in a current
divider.
The ratio of the branch
current i1 to the total current
i illustrates the operation of
the divider.
i
+
v
i1
i2
i3
R1
R2
R3
i = i1 + i2 + i3
Current division
i
i
+
i1
i2
i3
R1
R2
R3
i - i1
R1
R2 // R3
i1
R2R3
R2 // R3 =
R2 + R3
i = i1 + i2 + i3
R1//R2 // R3
R2 + R3
1
+
R1//R2 // R3 =
R1
R2 R3
R1R2R3
R =
R1R2 + R2R3 + R3R1
therefore
v = i
R1R2R3
R1R2 + R2R3 + R3R1
= i1R1 = i2R2 = i3R3

R2R3
i1 = i
R1R2 + R2R3 + R3R1
And so on .
Resistance transformation - Delta to Star

A
A
R31
R12
R23
RAB
C
B
RBC
Three resistances R12, R23 and R31 are

connected in delta fashion between
terminals A, B and C
R1
RCA
R3
RAB
RCA
R2
RBC
Three resistances R1, R2 and R3 are

connected in star fashion between
terminals A, B and C
So far the respective terminals are concerned, these given three resistances
R12, R23 and R31 connected in delta can be replaced by three resistances R1, R2
and R3 connected in star
These two arrangements of delta and star will be electrically equivalent if the
resistance between any pair of terminals is the same in both the arrangements
Taking delta connection :
RAB = R12 // R23 + R31
RBC = R23 // R31 + R12
RCA = R31 // R12+ R23
Taking star connection :

RAB = R1 + R2
RBC = R2 + R3
RCA = R3
R1
Resistance transformation - Delta to Star

RAB = R12 // R23 + R31
R12 x (R23 + R31)
RAB =
R12 + (R23 + R31)
RAB = R1 + R2
Therefore,
RBC = R23 // R31 + R12
RCA = R31 // R12+ R23
R23 x (R31 + R12)

RBC =
R12 + (R23 + R31)
R31 x (R12 + R23)

RCA =
R12 + (R23 + R31)
RBC = R2 + R3
RCA = R3
RAB = R1 + R2 =
R12 x (R23 + R31)

R12 + (R23 + R31)
(1)
RBC = R2 + R3 =
R23 x (R31 + R12)

R12 + (R23 + R31)
(2)
RCA = R3 + R1 =
R31 x (R12 + R23)

R12+ (R23 + R31)
(3)
R1
Subtracting (2) from (1) and add the result to (3); and so on ..
R1 =
R12 R31
R12 + R23 + R31
R2 =
R23 R12
R12 + R23 + R31
R3 =
R31 R23
R12 + R23 + R31
Resistance transformation - Star to Delta

RAB = R12 // R23 + R31
R12 x (R23 + R31)
RAB =
R12 + (R23 + R31)
RAB = R1 + R2
Therefore,
RBC = R23 // R31 + R12
RCA = R31 // R12+ R23
R23 x (R31 + R12)

RBC =
R12 + (R23 + R31)
R31 x (R12 + R23)

RCA =
R12 + (R23 + R31)
RBC = R2 + R3
RCA = R3
RAB = R1 + R2 =
R12 x (R23 + R31)

R12 + (R23 + R31)
(1)
RBC = R2 + R3 =
R23 x (R31 + R12)

R12 + (R23 + R31)
(2)
RCA = R3 + R1 =
R31 x (R12 + R23)

R12+ (R23 + R31)
(3)
R1
Multiplying (1) and (2), (2) and (3), (3) and (1), and add them together and then simplifying them
R12 = R1 + R2 +
R 1 R2
R3
R23 = R2 + R3 +
R 2 R3
R1
R31 = R3 + R1 +
R 3 R1
R2
Wheatstone bridge
The figure shows a purely
resistive (Wheatstone) bridge
in its simplest form. The
excitation voltage Eex may
be either ac or dc
dc..
In measurement applications,
one or more of the legs of the
bridge is a resistive transducer
such as a strain gage, resistance
thermometer, or thermistor.
The basic principle of the
bridge may be applied in two
different ways: the null method
and the deflection method.
B
i2
i1
Eex
R2
R1
A
Rm
R4
R3
i1 + im
i2 im
D
galvanometer
When the bridge is in balance

R1
R4
R2
R3
Positive and negative temperature coefficient

Metals and alloys usually have positive temperature
coefficients of resistance. Electrolytes, carbon, most insulators
and semiconductors have negative temperature coefficients.
The resistance of positive coefficient materials increases
with rise of temperature.
The resistance of negative temperature coefficient materials
decreases with rise in temperature.
Pure metals have positive temperature coefficients of about
0.004 ohms per C.
There are some alloys have such low coefficients that they can
be considered as zero. E.g. Manganin and constantan.
Temperature effects
The resistance of most good conducting materials increase
almost linearly with temperature over the range of normal
operating temperatures.
R
R2
R1
T0
T1
T2
Temperature effects
If the straight-line portion is extended to the left, it crosses
the temperature axis at a temperature T0 at which the
resistance appears to be zero. This temperature T0 is the
inferred zero resistance temperature.
R
R2
R1
T0
T1
T2
Temperature effects
If T0 is known and if the resistance R1 at another temperature T1 is
known, then the resistance R2 at another temperature T2 is also
known, from straight-line geometry, R2 = R1 (T2 - T0) / (T1 - T0).
R
R2
R1
T0
T1
T2
Thermistors
Thermistors are heat
heat--sensitive
devices used on some aircraft to
monitor the temperature of
certain electric equipment.
Thermistors are semiconductor
devices that change resistance as
their temperature changes.
- Negative temperature coco-efficient
Thermistors are formed from

metal oxides and coated with an
epoxy, glass, or similar material.
Thermistors styles are variable
such as rods, discs and washers.
Module 3
3.8
POWER
Work
Refers to the application of force to a body and the
displacement of the body in the direction of the force.
Is the product of the force applied to an object and the
distance the object moves in the direction of the force.
Work (W) = force (F) distance (D)
If the distance is 0, no work is done by the force no
matter how great it is.
Work is measured by foot
foot--pound (ft
ft--lb
lb).
).
Work
d
Work refers to the application of force

to a body and the displacement of the
body in the direction of the force.
W =F
F
d (ft. lb. or Joule)
Torque Mechanical Power

Power = torque (T) in newton
newton--metres
-e.g. If T is the torque due to a force acting about an axis of rotation,
and if n is the speed in revolutions per second
Power = torque x speed in radians per seconds
= T x 2 n joules per second or watts
= T watts
Where
= angular velocity in radians per seconds
-e.g. A stone block, having a mass of 120 kg, is hauled 100 m in 2 minutes
along a horizontal floor. The coefficient of friction is 0.3.
- Weight of stone = 120 kg x 9.81 N/kg = 1177.2 N
- force required = 0.3 x 11772.2 N = 353.16 N
- Work done = 353.16 N x 100 m = 35,316 N
N--m (J) = 35.3 kJ
- Power =
35,316 J
2 x 60 s
= 294.3 watts
Specific Heat Capacity

Different substances absorb different amount of heat to raise
the temperature of a given mass of the substance by one degree
Specific heat capacity of a substance :
- the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1 degree
- If c represents the specific heat capacity of a substance
in joules per kilogram kelvin (J/kg.K),
- the heat required to raise the temperature of m kilograms
of the substance by 0 degrees = mc0 joules
the approximate values of the specific heat capacity of some well
well--known
0
0
substances for a temperature range between 0 C and 100 C
Water
Copper
Iron
aluminum
4190 J/kg.K
390 J/kg.K
500 J/kg.K
950 J/kg.K
Efficiency Electrical Power

Example : An electric heater is required to heat 15 litres of water from
120C to the boiling point (1000C)
-Assume
:
- the specific heat capacity of water to be 4190 J/kg.K
- 1 litre of water to have a mass of 1 kg
- the efficiency of the heater to be 0.85
- the charge of electricity is 4.7 p/kWh
a. The electrical energy consumed (i) in megajoules, (ii) in kilowatt

kilowatt--hours
Mass of water = 15 kg
Rise of temperature = 100 -12 = 880C = 88 K
From the expression of specific heat capacity, mc0 joules
- Useful heat = 15 kg x 4190 J/kg.K x 88 K = 5.53 MJ
5.53 MJ
Useful energy
or 0.85 =
Since efficiency =
Energy absorbed
Energy absorbed
Energy absorbed = 6.51 MJ
and since 1 kWh = 3.6 MJ
Therefore energy absorbed in kWh = 6.51 MJ / 3.6 MJ/kWh = 1.8 kWh
b. The cost of energy = 1.8 kWh x 4.7 p/kWh = 8.5 p
Energy
Defined as the capacity for doing work.
Two forms of energy: potential energy and kinetic energy.
Potential energy - the form of energy possessed by a body
because of its position or configuration.
Kinetic energy - the energy possessed by a body because
of its motion.
Potential energy is expressed as Ep = Wh
where W = weight of a body; h = height to which it has
been raised.
Kinetic energy can be expressed as Ek = Wv
Wv2/2g
where W = weight; v = velocity; g = acceleration of gravity.
Energy
Potential energy
The capacity of
doing work by
virtue of position.
Load
Load
A raised body has

potential energy
which can be used
to lift a load.
PE = m g h
Load
Body
Load
Energy
Kinetic energy (KE) = 1/2 mv2

Where m is mass and v is velocity
Load
Kinetic energy
Load
The capacity of doing work by virtue of

motion.
Load
Load
e.g., a moving body has kinetic energy

which can be used to lift a load.
Law of Conservation of Energy

Energy can be neither destroyed nor created; it can be
changed only in form.
The total amount of energy in the universe always remains
constant.
The amount of energy imparted to a body is equal to the
energy released by the body when the body is returned to its
former state.
Any change in the state of a body requires either that energy
be given to the body or that energy be given up by the body.
Work and Power

Work and energy are essentially the same with identical units
Power is different, it is the time rate of doing work
work
- While work is power used during a period of time, i.e., power = time
and work = power x time
The watt unit for power, one watt used during one second equals the
work of one joule, or one watt is one joule per second (1W = 1 J/s);
the joule is a basic practical unit of work or energy
A unit of work that can be used with individual electrons is the
electron volt (eV)
- The electron is charge while the volt is potential difference
- Then 1 eV is the amount of work required to move an electron
between two points having a potential difference of one volt
- Since 6.25 x 1018 electrons equal 1 coulomb ( C) and a joule is a
volt--coulomb, there must be 6.25 x 1018 eV in 1 joule (J)
volt
The electron volt (eV) or the joule unit of work is the product of
charge times voltage
- The watt unit of power is the product of voltage times current
The division by time to convert work to power (joule/sec)
corresponds to the division by time that converts charge to current (C/sec)
Power
Defined as the work done in unit time.
Power = work done / time taken to do the work
Expressed in several different units: watt, foot
foot--pounds per
second..
second
The most common unit of power in general use in U.S.A is
the horsepower.
One horsepower (hp) = 550 ftft-lb/s
In the metric system, the unit of power is the watt (W) or the
kilowatt (kW)
One watt = 1/746 hp ; or
one horse
horse--power = 746 watts = kilo watt
watt--hours (Kwh)
Kilowatt-hours
Kilowatt-hours is a unit commonly used for large amounts of electrical
Kilowattwork or energy
- The amount is calculated as the product of the power in kilowatts
multiplied by the time in hours during which the power is used
e.g. If a light bulb uses 300 watts or 0.3 kW for 4 hours (h),
the amount of energy is 0.3 x 4, which equals 1.2 kWh
We pay for electricity in kilowatt

kilowatt--hours of energy
- If the power line voltage is at 120 V, the total load current on the main line equals
20 A required for the electrical appliances and light bulbs to use for 5 hours
The energy supplied equals : 120 x 20 x 5 = 12 kWh

At 60 cents per kWh, the cost is 12 x 0.06 = 0.72 cents
Since 1 kWh = 1000 watt hours
= 1000 x 3600 watt seconds or joules
= 3,600,000 J = 3.6 MJ
Power Dissipation In Resistance

When current flows in a resistance,
- Heat is produced because friction between the moving
free electrons and the atoms obstructs the path of
electron flow
- The heat is that power is used in producing current
The power is generated by the source of applied voltage
and consumed in the resistance in the form of heat
The correspondence between electrical power and heat is
indicated by :
- the fact that 1 watt used during the time of 1 second is
equivalent to 0.24 calorie of heat energy
The electrical energy converted to heat is considered to
be dissipated or used up because the calories of heat
cannot be returned to the circuit as electrical energy
Electrical power
Since power is dissipated in the resistance of a circuit, it
convenient to express the power in terms of the resistance R
The V x I formula in Ohms Law can be arranged as follows :
Substituting IR for V
P = V x I = IR x I = I2R This is a common form for the
power formula
For another form, substitute V/R for I
Then P = V x I = V x V/R = V2/R
In all the formulas, V is the voltage across R in ohms,
producing the current I in amperes, for power in watts
I=2A
6V
R = 3 ohms
Power = V x I = 12 watts
= I2 x R = 12 watts
= V2 / R = 12 watts
Module 3
3.9
CAPACITOR / CAPACITANCE
Capacitor
The foil of paper is rolled

A simple capacitor can be made from two strips of metal foil sandwiched
with two thin layers of insulation
Waxed paper is a suitable insulant, the wax is needed to keep damp out of
the paper which would quickly cease being an insulator
A capacitors ability to hold electric charge is measured in farads
Capacitor theory
Electrical energy may be stored in
electrostatic fields caused by an
accumulation of electrical charges
that are static.
The strength of the electrostatic
field is determined by the amount
of pressure (voltage) on the static
charges.
A capacitor (condenser) is device
that stores electrical energy in the
electrostatic fields that exists
between two conductors that are
separated by an insulator, or a
dielectric (air, paper, mica or
electrolyte)
Dielectric
Metal Plate
Switch
Voltage source
A simple capacitor circuit.
Capacitor theory
When the switch is closed, electrons will
be drawn from the plate attached to the
positive terminal and will flow to the
plate attached to the negative
Two flat metal plates facing each other,

but separated by an insulator
Charging current
+ -
There can be no current flow across

the insulator, but the plates will become
charged.
Voltage taken across C and D, would be
the same as that taken across A and B
ammeter
Electrons flow
Switch
A
Current flow would be indicated by the

ammeter A during the time the plates
are being charged.
When they become fully charged,
no more current will flow.
A simple capacitor circuit.
A capacitor circuit
Power
source
A power source is connected to a capacitor through a resistor limits the

current initially flows into the capacitor
When the switch is at A, the voltage across the capacitor rises
to the voltage source, no more current will flow
When the switch is moved to B to complete the circuit across the neon light,
the capacitor will immediately discharge through the light and cause it to flash.
If the switch is placed in its neutral position, when the capacitor is charged,
the capacitor will remain charged until the electrons eventually leak off
through the dielectric
Capacitor and Capacitance

Capacitance and capacity
A capacitor is a device to store an electrical charge, its capacity
is measured in farads
The property of a capacitor to store an electric charge when its plates ate
different potentials is referred to as its capacitance
A capacitor has the capacity of one farad between the plates of which there
appears a potential difference of 1 volt when it is charged by 1 coulomb of
electricity (6.28 x1018 electrons)
i.e., With one farad the amount of capacity that will hold on coulomb of
electricity (6.28 x1018 electrons) under a pressure of one volt
Formula : C = Q / V farads ; or Q = CV coulombs

C = capacity in farads
Q = charge in coulomb
V = voltage in volts
1 microfarad (uF) = 1 x 10-6 farad
1 picofarad (pF or uuF) = 1 x 10-12 farad

Small area
Small capacity
large area
large capacity
The area of the plates affects the capacity of a capacitor

i.e., The greater the area of the plates,
the greater will be the capacity of the capacitor
Small capacity
Wide separation
weak electrostatic field
Large capacity
Close separation
strong electrostatic field
i.e., the closer the plates of the capacitor, the greater will be the capacity
Less capacity
More capacity
Area of the plate
Less capacity
More capacity
Thickness of the dielectric
Capacitance is proportional to
area of plates
Capacitance is inversely proportional
to distance between of plates
Less capacity
More capacity
Dielectric constant

The dielectric
constant of
the insulation
between the
plates of a
capacitor
determines its
capacity.
Energy is
Uncharged plates do not affect orbital pattern stored in the
of the material in the dielectric
stress of the
dielectric.
+
+
+
+
+
+
When the capacitor is charged, the orbits of the electrons in the
dielectric are distorted and energy is stored in the distorted field
Charged Capacitor
The charges on the capacitor plates distort the dielectric atoms,
with the result that there is a net negative charge on the top
dielectric surface and a net positive charge on the bottom
dielectric surface. This dielectric charge partially neutralizes
the effects of the stored charge to permit an increase in charge
for the same voltage.
Capacitor construction
One common type of capacitor is the parallel-plate capacitor of
Figure (a). This capacitor has two spaced conducting plates that
can be rectangular, as shown, but that often are circular. The
insulator between the plates is called a dielectric. The dielectric is
air in Figure (a), and is a slab of solid insulator in Figure (b).
(a)
(b)
Capacitor construction
Two polymer tapes in
(a). Each with a metallized film electrode on the surface (offset
from each other), can be rolled together (like a swiss roll) to
obtain a polymer film capacitor as in
(b). As the two separate metal films are lined at oppose edges,
electroding is done over the whole side surface.
Al metallization
Polymer film
(a)
(b)
Electrolytic Capacitor Construction

Negative electrode (electrolyte)
Aluminum Oxide film
Gauze separator
saturated with electrolyte
Positive electrode (aluminum foil)
_
+
The construction of a typical electrolytic capacitor consists of :
- Two metal electrodes, usually aluminum, in an electrolyte of borax, phosphate or carbonate
- Between the two aluminum strips, absorbent gauze soaks up electrolyte to provide electrolysis
- When dc voltage is applied to form the capacitance during manufacture, the electrolytic
action accumulates a molecular-thin layer of aluminum oxide at the junction between the
positive aluminum electrode and the electrolyte
- The aluminum oxide film is an insulator, there is capacitance between the positive
aluminum electrode and the electrolyte in the gauze separator
- The negative aluminum electrode provides a connection to the electrolyte
Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitor Construction
Electrolyte
Al2O3
Anode
Al foils
Cathode
Al
Al
Al case
Aluminum electrolytic capacitor
Factors affecting capacitance

The capacitance of a capacitor depends on three factors:
the area of the plates
the separation between the plates
the dielectric constant of the material between the plates
Formula : C
A/d
C is capacitance
is the dielectric constant of the material
A is the area of the facing plates
d is the distance between the plates
Electric Field Strength

Lines of electric force
+ Q coulombs
+ +++ + + + + + +
V volts
d meters
- - - - - - - - - - Q coulombs
The electric field arrangement between parallel charged plates

Suppose the plates are very large and that the distance between them is
very small and there is free space between the plates
Potential difference V volts between the plates
The work in transferring 1 Coulomb of charge between

the plates is V joules
Work is the product of force and distance (d metres)
Therefore the force experienced by the charge is the electric field strength E,
E,
in which E = V / d volts per meter.
(It is also referred as dielectric strength of a capacitor)
Permittivity of Free Space

The total electric effect of a system by the lines of electric
force is termed the electric flux linking the system
Electric flux is measured in the same units as electric charge,
A flux of Q coulombs is created by a charge of Q coulombs
The electric flux density is the electric flux passing at right
angles through unit area of 1 m2
The area of the plates in the capacitor is A
The electric flux density D is given :
D = Q / A coulombs per square meter
Electric flux density
= D / E = Q/A V/d
o =
Electric field strength
= Q/V / d/A = Cd / A
Where C = Q / V
In electrostatics, the ratio of the electric flux density in a vacuum to the
electric field strength is termed permittivity of free space represented by
o ( = C d / A ) farads/m ; or C = o A / d farads
- Permittivity is the ability of an insulator to concentrate electric flux
Relative Permittivity
The value of permittivity of free space o is 8.85 x 10-12 F/m
Hence the capacitance of a parallel
parallel--plate capacitor with
vacuum or air dielectric is given :
-12 F/m x A m2
8.85
x
10
C =
dm
farads
Glass dielectric
(5 - 10 farads per m)
Compared to air (1 farads per m)
A sheet of glass filling the space between plates

It is found that the value of the capacitance is greatly increased
The Relative Permittivity r = the ratio :
The capacitance of a capacitor having a given material as dielectric
The capacitance of that capacitor with vacuum (or air) dielectric
= o r is the Absolute Permititivity
Dielectric constant
Typical values are given below for a selection of materials used
as capacitor dielectrics
Air is given a relatively permittivity of 1
dielectric constant is the absolute permittivity in F/m
Material
Air
Relative permittivity
Very close to 1 (1.0006)
Porcelain
6-7
Gasoline and Kerosene
About 2
2 2.5
Paper (dry)
Insulating Oil
Mica
3 -7
Glass
5 - 10
Capacitor ratings
Capacitors are rated not only in respect to their capacitance,
but also in respect to their maximum working voltage.
For any one type of capacitor, physical size is proportional
to both capacitance and voltage ratings.
Higher capacitance rating is achieved by increasing the
plate area.
Higher voltage rating is achieved by increasing the thickness
of the dielectric.
On capacitors the symbol used for microfarads may be F,
f, mf, Mf, mfd, Mfd or MFD, and pF , pFD or mmF
Types of capacitors
There are two general types of capacitors:
fixed
variable
Adjustable
Fixed capacitors include:
Air capacitor
paper capacitors
mica capacitors
polyester capacitors
ceramic capacitors
tantalum electrolytic capacitors .........
Fixed Capacitor
Fixed capacitors of the mica type are often constructed as
shown in the Figure below. The plates are connected to
form two groups with mica sheets separating the alternate
plates.
Individual
capacitor
PLATES
MICA DIELECTRIC
Individual capacitors connected in parallel to a form a single capacitor
Paper capacitors
In this construction, two rolls of tinfoil
conductor separated by a tissue-paper, or
paper impregnated with wax or oil as
insulator are rolled into a compact cylinder
Each outside lead connects to its roll of
tinfoil as a plate
The entire cylinder is placed in a cardboard
container coated with wax or encased in plastic
Paper capacitors are often used for medium
capacitance values of 0.001 to 1.0 uF
A black band at one end of a paper

capacitor indicates the lead connected to
the outside foil, and is used for the ground
or low-potential side of the circuit
There is no required polarity
Usage should be used in the power circuits of household electric appliances
Mica Capacitors
It consists of : alternate layers of mica sheets and
metal foil clamped tightly together, or
Thin mica sheets are stacked between tinfoil
sections for the conducting plates
- Alternate strips of tinfoil are connected together
and brought out as one terminal for one set of plates, while
the opposite terminal connects to the other set of plates
Or, thin films of silver sputtered on the two

sides of a mica sheet
The entire unit is generally in a molded
bakelite case
Mica capacitors are often used for small
capacitance values of 50 to 500 pF, and are
mainly used in high frequency circuits
Polyester capacitors
It is manufactured in very thin films of thickness as little
as 2 m (2 microns) and is metallized on one side
Two films are then rolled together rather like the paper
paper-insulated capacitor
There is a black band is printed near the lead connected to
the outer metal foil electrode.
It can operate at high voltages
Its leakage resistance is high, say 100M
Ceramic Capacitors
The ceramic dielectric materials are made from
earth fired under extreme heat
By use of titanium dioxide, or several types of silicates,
very high values of dielectric constant can be obtained
In the disk form, silver is fired onto both sides of the
ceramic, to form the conductor plates
With dielectric constant value of 1200, the disk
ceramics feature capacitance values up to 0.01 uF in
much less space than a paper capacitor
For tubular ceramics, the hollow ceramic tube has a
silver coating on the inside and outside surfaces
Disk form ceramic capacitor
It has small capacitance values from 1 pF to 1 uF, its working voltage can be up to
few thousand volts, and its leakage resistance can be as high as 1,000 M ohms
Ceramic capacitors are often used for temperature compensation, to increase ort
decrease capacitance with a rise in temperature, the temperature coefficient is given
in parts per million (ppm) per degree Celcius, with a reference of 250C
- e.g., a negative temperature coefficient 750 ppm unit is stated as N750,
and a positive one of the same value would be stated as P750
Variable and Adjustable Capacitors

Variable air capacitor
Variable air capacitors

the fixed metal plates connected
together form the stator
the moving plates connected
together on the shaft form the rotor
Capacitance is varied by rotating
shaft to make the rotor plates mesh
with the stator plates; the plates do
not touch each other
Stator plates
Adjustable capacitor
Since air is the dielectric, full mesh is

maximum capacitance
Moving the rotor completely out mesh
provides minimum capacitance
A common application is the

tuning capacitor in radio receivers
Rotating
plates
Changing the
effective area
of the facing
plates changes
the capacitance
Set screw
Pile of
mica sheets
Connections
- Combined with an inductance, the

variable capacitance tunes the receiver to a
different resonant frequency for each station
Adjusting the distance between the

plates changes the capacitance
Tantalum electrolytic capacitors

The construction takes the form :
- one plate consists of pressed, sintered tantalum powder coated with an
oxide layer, which is the dielectric.
- The case of brass, copper or even silver forms the other plate
- Layers of manganese dioxide and graphite form the electrolyte
higher capacitance, but with polarity (electrolyte)
They are much smaller than the corresponding aluminum electrolytic capacitors
Metal case
Terminal wire
Oxide
layer
Insulated seal
(layers of manganese
dioxide and graphite)
Sintered tantalum
Electrolyte
dielectric
Terminal wire
Solder
Electrolytic capacitors
The dielectric is a liquid or paste
It consists of two aluminum foils
It can be have a high capacitance in a small physical size
It is also belong to the fixed capacitor
Commonly used for capacitance values of 5 to 100 uF
Precaution: it can not be connected in reverse and that they are not
overload
Disadvantages::
Disadvantages
the insulation resistance is comparatively low; therefore its
working voltage is relatively low
it is only suitable for circuits where the voltage applied to the
capacitor never reverse its direction
Electrolytic capacitors
It is mainly used where very large capacitance are required.
Electrolyte
impregnated paper
or gauze acting as
the negative plate
Negative pick-up
electrode in contact
with the electrolyte
Positive metal plate

with oxide film on
both sides
Electrolyte capacitors
Solid type of electrolytic capacitors have been
developed to avoid some of the disadvantages of the wet
electrolytic type
The methods are shown in the following:
the wet electrolyte is replaced by manganese dioxide
or the anode is a cylinder of pressed sintered
tantalum power coated with an oxide layer which
forms the dielectric
Capacitor Symbols
There are two kinds of capacitor symbols
international symbol
alternative symbol
General fixed value

Variable value
Adjustable value
+
+
Electrolytic
Capacitors Connected in Series

When the switch switch S is put over to
position a, A1 and A2 are indicated exactly
the same charging current, each reading
decreasing from maximum to zero
The displacement of Q coulombs of electricity
is the same in every part of the circuit
The charge on each capacitor is therefore
Q coulombs
V1 and V2 are the corresponding p.d.s
across C1 and C2
Q = C1 V 1 = C 2 V2
I=Q/t
b
s
A1
+
C1 _ V1
V
A2
+
C2 _ V 2
The source voltage V is the sum of the

p.d.s V1 and V2
V1 = Q/C1
V2 = Q/C2
If C is to replace C1 and C2 having the same
charge Q coulombs with the same p.d. of V volts; Q = CV; or V = Q/C
or Q/C = Q/C1 + Q/C2
V = V1 + V2 ;
Therefore 1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2
The reciprocal of the resultant capacitance of capacitors in series is the
sum of the reciprocals of their respective capacitance.
Capacitors Connected in Series

The distribution of voltage across capacitors in series
Since Q = C1V1 = C2V2

V1
C2
=
C1
V2
A1
+
C1 _ V1
V = V1 + V2
Therefore V1 = V - V2
V - V2
C2
=
C1
V2
And
b
s
V1 = V x
C2
C1 + C2
V2 = V x
C1
C1 + C2
A2
+
C2 _ V 2
R
Capacitor Connected in Series
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
0.05 uF
0.05 uF
0.05 uF
0.05 uF
0.05 uF
The capacitors are connected in series,

The effect is comparable to increasing the separation
between the capacitor plates
The total capacity will be less than that of any of the series capacitors
The total capacitance is found by dividing the value of one
capacitor by the number of capacitors in series
Ct = C / n
Ct = 0.05 / 5 = 0.01 uF
Capacitor Connected in Series

d1 d2
C2
C1
0.10 uF 0.25 uF
C1 C2
The distance between plates is d = d1 + d2

The two center plates will not contribute to capacitance
because their charges are opposite and neutralize each othee
Ct =
C1 x C2
C1 + C2
0.10 x 0.25
0.10 + 0.25
0.025
0.35
= 0.0714 uF
C1
C2
C3
0.05 uF
0.25 uF
0.10 uF
1
1
Ct =
=
1/0.05 + 1/0.10 + 1/0.25
1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3
= 0.029 uF
Capacitor Connected in Parallel

I1
C1
+
_
I2
+
C
_ 2
Two capacitors having capacitances C1 and C2 connected in parallel

across a p.d. of V volts
The charge on C1 is Q1; the charge on C2 is Q2
Q1 = C1V and Q2 = C2V
If a single capacitor of capacitance C farads replaces C1 and C2
The same total charge Q coulombs replaces Q1 and Q2 would be
produce by the same p.d. V volts
Q = Q1 + Q2 = C1V + C2V = CV
The total capacity is the sum of the parallelparallel-connected capacitors

C = C1 + C2 farads
Capacitor Connected in Parallel

C1 = 0.005 uF
C2 = 0.005 uF
C3 = 0.005 uF
Ct = C1 + C2 + C3
= 0.005 + 0.005 + 0.005 = 0.015 uF
When capacitors are connected in parallel,
The effect is the same as adding the areas of their plates
The total capacity is the sum of that of the individual capacitors
Ct = C1 + C2 + C3 + --------
Voltage across Unequal Capacitances

I = 600 uA
600 V
+
VT = 900 V
_
e.g. The charging current is 600 uA

for 1 sec
C1 = 1 uF
_
The charge Q is I x t or 600 uC
+
300 V
Both C1 and C2 have the same

coulombs
C2 = 2 uF
In series circuit, the voltage across each capacitor is inversely proportional

to its capacitance
the smaller capacitance has the larger proportion of the applied voltage
The series capacitors have the same charge because they are in one current path
For each capacitor, V = Q / C
Therefore : V1 = Q / C1 = 600 uC / 1 uF = 600 V
V2 = Q / C2 = 600 uC / 2 uF = 300 V
Charging and Discharging Characteristics

Charging current I
R
Applied voltage
+
_
A charging circuit with R and C in series

If the resistance of R is low, the capacitor charges almost immediately
when a voltage is applied to it
Increasing the resistance R, the capacitor C slows down its charging rate,
and also slows down its discharging rate
The capacitance C is not changed, it takes longer time to charge or discharge it
The time taken (in seconds) to charge or discharge a capacitor is

directly proportional to the product of capacitance (in farads) and
resistance (in ohms)
This product of C and R is known as CR time constant in seconds
Capacitor Charging Characteristics

In a charging or discharging
CR circuit, the time taken
(in CR seconds) in which :
- A capacitor becomes charged
to 63 % of its fully charged p.d.
Or
- A capacitor becomes discharged
to 37 % of its fully charged p.d.
The time taken for a capacitor to
become almost fully charged
or discharged is 5 CR
e.g. For a capacitance of 1 uf
and a series resistance of 1 M
ohms, the time constant is CR
= 10-6 x 106 = 1 second
The time to almost completely
charge or discharge the capacitor
is 5 CR = 5 seconds
pd across capacitor
Battery voltage
Charging current
63% of maximum
pd across the capacitor
37% maximum
charging current
CR seconds
(time constant)
Switch closed
at this instant
Electron flow of
charging current
Time
5 CR seconds
The capacitor is fully charged
5CR seconds after the switch is
closed.
A charging or
discharging circuit
Capacitor Discharging Characteristics

In a discharging CR circuit
after closing the switch :
The capacitor p.d. and discharge
current are both at their maximum
at the instant the shorting circuit
is made
Both the capacitor p.d. and
discharge current fall to 37 % of
their initial discharge values in
CR seconds (time constant)
Both of them fall to almost
zero in 5 CR seconds
The discharging current is
in the opposite direction to the
charging current
The time constant is always CR
seconds and a complete discharge
always takes 5 CR seconds
Pd of discharging capacitor
37% of the charged pd

37% of initial discharge current
CR seconds
(time constant)
5CR seconds
The capacitor is fully discharged 5CR seconds

after the switch is made to the short circuiting
position.
Electron flow of discharge

current
The discharging
current is in the
opposite direction to
the charging current
Time constant
Definition : The time constant is
the time is seconds in which a capacitor becomes
charged to 63% of its fully charged pd
the time is seconds in which a capacitor becomes
discharged to 37% of its fully charged pd
T = CR
T - second
C - farads
R - ohms
Time constant
The time to almost completely charge or discharge a
capacitor is 5CR seconds
99.8 percent charged
Percentage 100
of voltage
Charge
63.2
Percent of
full charge
The curves showing the

charging and discharge of a
capacitor according to the
time constant
36.8
percent of
full charge
Discharge
No of time constants in CR seconds
RC Time and Oscillators

An important use for capacitors is in circuits for measuring
time --- Timer.
A simple timer consists of a switch, capacitor, resistor, and dc
voltage source, all in series. At the beginning of a time interval
to be measured, the switch is closed to cause the capacitor to
start charging. At the end of the time interval, the switch is
opened to stop the charging and "trap" the capacitor charge.
R
v
+
Vs
Discharge V
F
bulb
Gas
tube
VE
Ionization by
the discharge
voltage
(a)
2T
(b)
Energy stored in a charged capacitor

Suppose the p.d. V across a capacitor of capacitance C farads
the potential difference to be increased from v volts to (v + dv) volts
then the charging current, i amperes, is given by
dv
.
i = C
Since dq = C . dv ; dq = i . dt
dt
Instantaneous value of power to capacitor is : iv = vC . dv watts
dt
Energy supplied to capacitor during interval dt is :
dv
iv dt = vC .
x dt = Cv x dv joules
dt
therefore total energy supplied to capacitor v
v
2
Cv
.
dv
when p.d. is increased from 0 to V volts is :
= 1/2 C ( v )
0
= 1/2
Therefore the energy stored W = 1/2 CV2 joules
CV2
joules
Voltage Rating of Capacitors

the voltage rating specifies the maximum potential difference that can be
applied across the plates without puncturing the dielectric
Usually the voltage rating is for temperatures up to about 600C;
higher temperatures result in a lower voltage rating
Voltage ratings
- for general-purpose paper, mica, and ceramic capacitors are
typically 200 to 5000C
- Ceramic capacitors with ratings of 1 to 5 kV
- Electrolytic capacitors commonly used in 25 V, 150 V, and 450 V ratings
- In addition, 6 V and 10 V ratings of electrolytic capacitors are
often used in transistor circuits
- the voltage rating are for d.c. voltage applied
The breakdown rating is lower for a.c. voltage because of the internal heat
produced by continuous charge and discharge
- A voltage rating higher than the potential difference applied across the
capacitor provides a safety factor for long life in service
With electrolytic capacitors, the actual capacitor voltage should be close to the rated
voltage to produce the oxide film that provides the specified capacitance
Color codes for capacitors

The color code to represent capacitance values is similar to that
used to represent resistance values.
The color codes are complied with JAN (Joint ArmyArmy-Navy) code
and the RMA (Radio Manufacturers Association) code.
Colored dots or bands are used to indicate the value of the
capacitor.
Three or six dots or bands may be marked on the capacitor,
however, sixsix-dot code contains more information about
working voltage and temperature coefficient.
Either mica capacitor and tubular ceramic or molded paper
capacitor may be represented with colored codes.
Color coding is only for very small sizes of capacitance in pF
units

Capacitor type
The first dot at the base of the arrow sequence (> pointed
from left to right followed by the leftleft-most dot represents
the capacitor type.
Mica type is represented by a black or white dot.

Molded paper type is represented by a silver dot or dot
having the same color as the body of the capacitor.
Black dot
Mica type
White dot
Silver dot
Paper type

The first dot representing capacitor type read from the
leftmost
The two dots to the right of the type dot indicate the
first and second digits of the capacitance value.
The dot at the bottom right represents the multiplier in
picofarads (pF)
The dot in the bottom center indicates the tolerance
Black dot
Mica type
White dot
Silver dot
Paper type

Capacitance type, values, multiplier and tolerance
represented by dot codes
Capacitance value
arrow
Black or
white dot
Silver dot
arrow
tolerance
multiplier
Mica type
Paper type

Read the color codes on the capacitor below
Hold the capacitor so the arrow (s) point left the right
Read the first dot
Read the first digit dot and the second digit dot
Read the multiplier in picofarads
Read the tolerance dot
The capacitor is a paper capacitor whose capacitance is 2200 pF
with a +/- 40 % tolerance and working voltage of 440 volts
Capacitance value Working voltage tolerance
multiplier
Silver dot
(omitted)
Paper type
arrow

Color code : - 0 Black; 1 brown; 2 red; 3 orange;
4 yellow; 5 green; 6 blue; 7 violet;
8 Grey; 9 white
The capacitor is a paper capacitor whose capacitance is 2200 pF
with a +/- 40 % tolerance and working voltage of 440 volts
Capacitance value Working voltage tolerance
multiplier
Silver dot
(omitted)
Dot coding
Paper type
arrow
Red, red, yellow, yellow, yellow, red dots
Band coding
Temp coeff.
digit
digit
multiplier tolerance
Color codes for capacitors Six Dot System

white
digit
digit
3
Mica capacitor
class tolerance multiplier

Mica capacitors general use the sixsix-dot system
Read the top row first from left to right, then the bottom row in
the reverse order from right to left
The first dot indicates the nature of the coding,
the capacitance value is read from the next three dots
e.g. If the colors are red, green and brown for dots 2, 3 and 4,
the capacitance is 250 pF
The basic unit is pF
Testing of Capacitors
Checking a capacitor with an ohmmeter
The highest ohms range, such as R x 1 M ohms is preferable
In a CR circuit, disconnect one side of the capacitor
to eliminate any parallel resistance path
Discharge the capacitor before checking with an ohmmeter
Charging
oo
Charging
oo
Ohmmeter
Test
probe
Capacitor
unit test
Test
probe
For a good capacitor, the meter pointer moves quickly toward the
low resistance side of the scale and then slowly recedes toward infinity
The ohms reading is the insulation resistance of the capacitor, normally very high
The insulation resistance of different types of capacitors
Paper, mica and ceramic capacitors, the resistance can be
500 to 1000 M ohms; or practically infinite resistance
Electrolytic capacitors have a lower normal resistance of
about 0.5 M ohms
When the ohmmeter is initially connected to the capacitor under test,
The charging current moves the meter pointer away from infinity,
since more current through the ohmmeter means less resistance
Maximum current flows at the first instant of charge
Then the charging current decreases as the capacitor voltage
increases toward the applied voltage
The needle pointer slowly moves toward infinite resistance
The capacitor is completely charged to the ohmmeter battery voltage, the
charging current is zero; the reading is the leakage current through the dielectric
Charging effect, is called the capacitor action
The capacitor can store charge, indicating a normal capacitor
The capacitor discharges when the meter leads are reversed
Problems with a capacitor on ohmmeter readings

The capacitor is shorted-circuited (the dielectric deteriorates)
An ohmmeter reading immediately goes to zero and stays there
The capacitor is leaky
The capacitor shows charging, but final resistance is less than normal
The capacitor is open-circuited
The capacitor shows no charging action but read very high resistance
Electrolytic capacitor develops high resistance in the electrolyte
with age, particularly at high temperature; if dries out, it will be
partially open-circuited
Module 3
3.10
MAGNETISM
Magnetism
A magnet may be defined as an object that attracts
such magnetic substances as iron or steel. It produces
a magnetic field external to itself that reacts with
magnetic substances.
A magnetic field is assumed to consist of invisible lines
of force that leave the north pole of a magnet and enter
the south pole.
A permanent magnet is one that maintains an almost
constant magnetic field without the application of any
magnetizing force.
Natural magnet is one found in nature, called lodestone
(or leading stone); composed of an oxide iron called
magnetite
Magnetism
Theory of Magnetism
If a permanent magnet is suspended in a horizontal plane,
as shown in the figure below, it takes up a position such that
one end always points to the earth's North Pole. That end is
said to be the north-seeking end; the other the south-seeking
end. These are called the north (or N) and south (or S) poles
respectively of the magnet.
Magnetism
The earth a large
magnet and the earths
magnetic field exists over
the entire surface
The magnetic pole
near the earths north
geographic pole is the
earths south magnetic
pole
By suspending a magnet
on a string and noting the
direction in which the
north pole points
The magnets north pole
points to the earths
geographic north
S Permanent
magnet
Magnetism
One theory provides a logical explanation of magnetism
assumes that atoms or molecules of magnetic substances
are in reality small magnets.
When the substance is not magnetized, the molecules
lie in all positions in the material, and their fields tend
to cancel one another.
When the substance is placed in a magnetic field, the
molecules align themselves with the field, and the fields
of the molecules add to the strength of the magnetizing
field.
Magnetism
The electrons moving around
the nucleus of an atom create
minute magnetic fields
In an atom of unmagnetized
iron, the spin axes of the
electrons point in different
directions, so the atom has
no magnetic axis; it is
magnetically inert.
The atoms or molecules lie in
all positions in the material
and their fields tend to cancel
one another
+26
the spin axes of the electrons

point in different directions
Magnetism
When an atom of iron is magnetized,
the spin axes of all the electrons are
lined up in the same direction, and
the atom has a magnetic axis.
Most of the electrons are moving
on one general direction around
the nuclei
+26
These electrons produce noticeable

magnetic field in each atom
Each atom or molecule becomes
a tiny magnet
the spin axes of all of the electrons

When the substance is placed in a are lined up in the same direction
magnetic field, the molecules align
themselves with the field
Property of Magnetism
The field of force existing
between the poles of a magnet
is a magnetic field
The magnetic flux lines directly
between the poles are straight
A magnetic field between two

unlike magnetic poles
The magnetic flux lines farther

from the direct path are curves,
but never intersect
The lines of force from the two
poles come out and curve away
from one another
A magnetic field between two

like magnetic poles
Property of Magnetism
Magnetic fields are strongest
near the poles of the magnet
N
Field distorted by a
magnetic substance
Soft
SoftIron
iron
The external field of a magnet is distorted when any magnetic

substance is placed in that field because it is easier for the lines
of force to travel through the magnetic substance than through
the air
The Earths Magnetic Field

Earth's north magnetic pole
(conventional)
North geographic pole
Magnetic equator
Geographic equator
South geographic pole

Earth's south magnetic pole
The world is a huge permanent magnet

If a bar or needle magnet is suspended in perfect mass balance
by a thread, it will align itself with the local dip angle.
The end of the magnet always points in a northerly direction
termed the north-seeking pole (or abbreviated to north pole)
The earth's northern magnetic
pole is in this direction
Magnet suspended in
earth's magnetic field
horizontal
angle
of dip
Earth's magnetic field

The earth's southern magnetic
pole is in this direction.

A compass needle does not point
to the geographic north pole
The compass needle does not
point directly to the north
magnetic pole because earths
flux lines are distorted in may
areas
True
True
north
north
55 0
Compass
needle
Compass
AtAlice
Alice Springs
the
At
Springs
variation is 5 E
the variation
is 50 E
needle
The angle as indicated by a

compass needle, varies from
true north is known as magnetic
variation (or declination)
The magnetic variation is
different from place to place
The earths magnetic poles are about

1500 kilometers from its geographic poles
Magnetic Field
Compasses
Use of compass needles for

determining direction of
magnetic field
Use of steel filings for determining
distribution of magnetic field
Characteristics of Lines of Magnetic Flux
The objects attraction

between magnets of
different poles
The objects repulsion

between magnets of
similar poles
Magnetic Shielding
Flux lines will deviate from an
air path to pass more readily
through a ferromagnetic path.
This behavior of flux suggests
an easy way to shield an area
from unwanted magnetic flux.
Shields usually in box, iron
sheet or braid form (made of
iron based materials) are used
to protect sensitive electrical
sensing and signal devices from
disturbance by extraneous
magnetic fields.
Magnetic Flux lines
Shielded
area
Magnetic Shield
Magnetic and Non-magnetic Materials

Magnetic materials
Materials shows a fairly large reaction when close to a magnet
These materials are known as ferromagnetic substances
Magnetic properties are associated mainly with ferrous
(iron) based materials
Steel, iron, nickel, cobalt and alloys , some of them combined with
other elements are referred as ferrites (ferromagnetic and ceramic
substances in combination), are used to make magnetic materials
Hard magnetic (highly retentive) materials are used to make
permanent magnets as used in some magnetos, small motors/alternators
(permanent magnet rotors) and other electrical devices
Soft magnetic (low retentivity) materials are almost exclusively
electromagnets as used in devices as bell, solenoids, relays/contactors;
motors and generators (electro-magnet rotors)
Non-magnetic materials - Materials do not feel a force when near a magnet
Property of Magnetic Materials

Relative permeability of a magnetic material
The ease with which a magnetic material can carry magnetic
flux in comparison to the ability of a vacuum or air
The relative permeability (ur) of a material is the ratio of
the flux density which a magnetizing force will induce in it,
to that which is induced in air by the same magnetizing force
(some ferromagnetic materials have u about 100,000)
Ur = flux density in the material / flux density in air
The permeability of a material is a measure of its ability

to carry magnetic flux, reluctivity is the reverse
A material of high reluctivity has low permeability and vice versa
It is the degree to which a magnetic material retains its
magnetism when the magnetizing force is removed
The magnetism left in a magnetic material after the
magnetizing force is removed is the Residual Magnetism
Magnetic Field
Electromagnets, as the name implies,
are produced by using
an electric current to create a magnetic
field which is created owing to the
movement of electrons through the
conductor.
Cross section of a Conductor
Most electromagnet conductors are

wound into coils to create the desired
magnetic field strength.
The electron current flow is from
negative to positive; the magnetic field
is in a counterclockwise direction
The electric current (conventional
current) flow is the reversed direction,
as well as the magnetic field.
Electron current flowing into

the conductor end
(left hand rule)
Magnetic field around

a conductor
Magnetic Field
Force apart
Pull together
Electron current flow

The magnetic fields caused by
electron current flowing
through wires in the opposite
direction will force the wires
apart
The magnetic fields caused by

electron current flowing in the
same direction through
parallel wires will pull the
wires together
Magnetic field around conductors
Magnetic Field
N
Conductor moves
across the field
Electrons are forced to flow in a conductor when lines of magnetic flux

wrap around the conductor as it moves through a magnetic field
When the conductor moves across the magnetic field, it cuts the lines of flux
and they wrap around it, creating a magnetic field around the conductor
Magnetic Field
Pole piece
(a) A magnetic field

test arrangement
WA conductor
P
-
(b) Magnetic flux even

distribution without current
flow in the conductor
( c ) Magnetic flux distribution

distorted by current flow in
the conductor
F
Flux distribution with and without current
Magnetic Field
distorted
magnetic field
Conductor
Motion of a magnet
C
The magnetic field is distorted by the

induced current flow in the conductor
Magnetic Field of a Coil

A currentcurrent-carrying wire is bent
into a loop, it assumes the
properties of a magnet
(a)
When a wire is made into a coil

and connected to a power source ,
the field of the separate turns join
and thread through the entire coil
(figure (a) )
Figure(b) shows a cross section
of the same coil giving the coil a
magnetic polarity.
Polarity of the coil is determined
by the leftleft-hand rule for coils : A
coil is grasped in the left hand
with the fingers pointing in the
direction of electron current flow.
(b)
When a soft iron core is placed in a coil,

an electromagnet is produced
Magnetic Polarity
Magnetic polarity
- To determine the magnetic polarity, use the left-hand rule for electron current flow
or use the right-hand rule for conventional current flow configuration
- If the coil is grasped with the fingers of the left hand curled in the direction
of electron flow around the coil, the thumb points to the north pole of the coil
- The left hand is used here because the current is electron flow
Magnetic Field due to an Electric Current

I
Conductor
Compass
needle
Oersted's experiment
The current flowing in the conductor creates a magnetic field
which in term affects the deflection of the compass needle
Magnetic Field due to an Electric Current

Approaching
current
Direction of electron current
Departing
current
Current Convention
Magnetic field
Right-hand Screw Rule

(clockwise direction)
Magnetism
The direction in which the field acts
around a conductor is determined
by the direction of current.
The Figure (a) shows how the
method is used for conventional
current. Figure (b) shows how
the clasp method is used if
electron current flow is considered.
It is the same current with the
same voltage polarity. The only
difference is that in figure (a) the
current is thought of in terms of
conventional current flow, while
in figure (b) the same current is
thought of in terms of electron
current flow.
Conventional
current
Right
hand
(a)
Left
hand
+
Direction of field
Electron flow
(b)
Direction of field
Current Generated Magnetism

Iron powder
Magnetic field direction
S
N
Straight
conductor
Paper
The direction of conventional

current flow
Straight
conductor
Flux lines of an electromagnetic field are illustrated by iron filings

sprinkled on a sheet of paper around a straight conductor
Electromagnets
When a soft-iron core is
placed in a coil, an
electromagnet is produced
Soft-iron core
Fiberwasher
A typical electromagnet is
made by winding many
turns of insulated wire on
a soft-iron core wrapped
with an insulating material
The turns of wire are
close together to prevent
magnetic lines of force
from passing between turns
Winding
Electric
leads
A solenoid with a soft-iron
core placed in a coil
The magnetic strength is directly proportional to the current

carried by the wire coil and to the number of turns in that coil
Electromagnets
If the axis of the coil is placed
along that of the solenoid
Direction of lines
of flux
The coil is turned in the

direction of the current
The flux lines travel in the direction
of the magnetic field inside the
solenoid, towards the right
solenoid
Conventional
current flow
+
Electromagnets
The Left hand Rule, refers to the electron current flow
First finger
Flux (magnetic field)
Second finger
(Current induced)
The three fingers are

mutually at right angles
Thumb motion of conductor
(Mechanical force exerted by
the conductor)
The Flemings Right Hand Rule, refers to conventional current flow

Thumb
Motion of
conductor
relative to flux
First finger
Flux (magnetic field)
The three vectors are

perpendicular to one another
Second finger E.M.F or Current
Hysteresis of Magnetization and

Demagnetization
Let us trace what
happens to the flux
density B as we change
the applied field H.
In the figure, B follows
the initial magnetization
curve as H is increased
to a value Hm where the
curve flattens off and
saturation is reached
(at 2).
Now on reducing H to
zero, B does not go to
zero but has a residual
flux density or
remanence Br at 3).
Path as H is
decreased and
reversed
Flux density B
(T)
Saturation
Bm
2
3
Br
Magnetized area
Residual flux
density or
remanence
-Hm
Initial
magnetization
curve
-Hc
4
coercive
force
Hysteresis
loop
Demagnetized
area
5
Negative
saturation
Hc Field strength
7 H(Am-1) Hm
Start here
(specimen
unmagnetized)
Path as H is
increased to + Hm
-Br
-Bm

Demagnetization
If now we reverse H, by
reversing the battery
polarity, and increase H
negatively, B comes to
zero at a negative filed --Hc called the coercive force
(at 4).
As H is increased still
more in the negative
direction, the specimen
becomes magnetized
further with negative
polarity, the magnetization
at first being easy and
then hard as saturation
is reached when the field
equals --- Hm (at 5).
Path as H is
decreased and
reversed
Flux density B
(T)
Saturation
Bm
2
3
Br
Residual flux
density or
remanence
-Hm
Initial
magnetization
curve
-Hc
4
coercive
force
Hysteresis
loop
Hc Field strength
7 H(Am-1) Hm
Start here
(specimen
unmagnetized)
Path as H is
increased to + Hm
5
Negative
saturation
-Br
-Bm

Demagnetization
Bringing the applied
field H to zero again
leaves a residual
magnetization with
flux density --- Br
(at 6).
Reversing H and
increasing it in the
positive direction,
B comes to zero at
a positive field (or
coercive force) Hc
(at 7).
Path as H is
decreased and
reversed
Flux density B
(T)
Saturation
Bm
2
3
Br
Residual flux
density (Br) or
remanence
-Hm
Initial
magnetization
curve
-Hc
4
coercive
force
Hysteresis
loop
Hc Field strength
7 H(Am-1) Hm
Start here
(specimen
unmagnetized)
Path as H is
increased to + Hm
5
Negative
saturation
-Br
-Bm
Hysteresis Loss of Magnetic Materials

The energy loss in the
magnetization process is
proportional to the area of
the Hysteresis loop
In soft, or easily
magnetized, materials the
Hysteresis loop is thin
iron
The process of
magnetization
The process of
magnetization
iron
- The Hysteresis loss is small
In hard magnetic materials,

the Hysteresis loop is wide
- The Hysteresis loss is large
Eddy current loss in the ferromagnetic
cores is additional to Hysteresis loss, as
referred to as the core loss
Eddy current results in heat (joule) in
the conducting specimen
The Hysteresis Loops for soft

and hard magnetic materials
Hysteresis Loop of Magnetization

B
Retentivity
Normal
magnetization
curve
Coercivity
-H1
-H2
H2
H1
Saturation loop
The normal magnetization curve passes through the tips

of the Hysteresis Loop
Magnetization
The initial magnetization curve is divided into two sections :
1. The steep section
Corresponds to the condition of easy magnetization
2. The flat section, the point
P of division being on the
upper bend of the curve
Corresponds to the condition
of difficult, or
hard magnetization
Easy
magnetization
P
Hard magnetization
Flat section
Steep Regions of easy and hard

of initialsection magnetization
magnetization curve.
H
The magnetization portion of a Hysteresis loop
Magnetization
A piece of iron consists of an
aggregate of small crystal
fragments with axes oriented
at random
The boundaries between
crystal fragments indicate the
direction of the crystal axes
The piece or iron is
unmagnetized and the individual
crystal fragments are also
unmagnetized
Random arrows indicate directions
of magnetization domains
S
S N
S
N
N
S
S
N
Unmagnetized
The polarity of adjacent domains is opposite,

so that the total magnetization of each crystal is negligible
Magnetization
Successive stages of
magnetization of a
polycrystalling specimen
with increasing field.
Arrows indicate direction
of magnetization of
domains.
An N represents a domain
with a north pole pointing
out of the page; an S
represents a domain with
a south pole pointing out
of the page.
domains
The domains in each crystal are magnetized

along the directions of easy magnetization,
also along the three crystal axes
Partly
magnetized
Applied field
Magnetization
With further increase in
the applied field, the
direction of
magnetization of the
domains not already
parallel to the field is
rotated gradually toward
the direction of H field
Increase in
magnetization is more
difficult and very high
field strength is required
to reach saturation
Completely
magnetized
Further increase field
DE-Magnetization
Iron keeper
A bar of ferromagnetic material with

residual flux density tends to become
demagnetized spontaneously
(a) Demagnetization of
domain by bar-magnet field
(b) U-shaped
magnet with less
tendency for
demagnetization
( c) U-shaped
magnet with
keeper (ideally
no tendency for
demagnetization)
De-Magnetization
The process of removing the permanent magnetization
of a specimen so that the residual flux density is zero
under conditions of zero H field is called demagnetization
or deperming.
N S Domain
Demagnetization of domain by bar-magnet field.
De-Magnetization
It is evident that B can be reduced
to zero by the application of the
coercive force Hc, but on removing
this field the residual flux density
will rise to some value B0.
A longer but more simply applied
method is called demagnetization
or deperming by reversals
(AC reversal process)
In this method, H is brought to a
smaller maximum amplitude on
each reversal so that eventually the
specimen is left in a demagnetized
state at zero field, as suggested by
the figure.
Deperming by
reversal of
applied field H
Demagnetization
by reversals.
Module 3
3.11
INDUCTANCE / INDUCTOR
Inductance/ Inductor
Inductance is the ability of a conductor to induce a voltage into itself
when a change in current is applied to the inductor.
The inductance of a coil is measured in a unit called the henry (H).
One henry is the inductance of a coil when a change of current of one
ampere per second will induce an emf of one volt.
The symbol for inductance is L
Millihenry (mH) is used. one millihenry is oneone-thousandth of a henry.
The effect of an inductance coil in a circuit depends on the number of
turns of wire in the coil, the current flowing in the coil and the
material used in the core
Inductance coils made with soft iron cores when a high inductive effect is desired
Inductance coil has no core (air core) when a low inductive effect is desired
Inductance and Induced emf

Unit of Inductance
A circuit has an inductance L of 1 henry (1 H) if an emf of 1 volt
induced in the circuit when the current varies uniformly at the
rate of 1 ampere per second
Induced emf (volt) in a coil

If either the inductance or the rate of change of current is
doubled, the induced emf is doubled
If a circuit has an inductance of L henrys and if the current
increases from i1 to i2 amperes in t seconds
i2 - i1
The average rate of change of current is
ampere per second
The average induced emf is L x rate of change of current
i2 - i1
volts
= L x
t
di
volts
i.e., e = L x
dt
is
An electric Inductor possesses the property of inductance
Most inductors are specifically designed coils of wire
An inductor can be a straight piece of wire or a coil,
however, the inductance of a single straight wire is
negligible
If the wire is wound into a coil, the inductance increases,
due to the relatively strong changing field produced by
the current flowing through a coil
It is the change (increase and decrease) of the magnetic
field that produces the coils inductance
Inductors
High
Magnetic field strength
Magnetic field
strength
Internal
resistance
inductor
Applied voltage
A
Current flow
starts
- Switch closed
- Circuit on
Time
B
Current
reaches
C
Switch opened
circuit off
D
Current
flow stops
An inductance coil's magnetic field strength

plotted with respect to time
The magnetic field strength increases for a short period of time,

from point A to point B, at the instant current flow begins when the switch is closed
Immediately after the switch opens, the current flow drops to zero;
the magnetic field strength decreases between point C and point D
The changing magnetic field strength creates a relative motion between
the conductor and the magnetic field
Inductance/Inductor
inductor
(+ )
Source voltage
28 VDC
(-)
14 A at 28 VDC
0.4 A at 28 VDC
Induced voltage
(Back e.m.f. from the coil happens

while switch is opened)
Relationships of applied voltage to induced voltage

If the conductor is stationary and magnetic field changes around it
A voltage is induced into the inductor during changes in current flow
The induced voltage is opposite in polarity to the source voltage, and
is much less than the source voltage
The induced voltage only weakens the source voltage; so as current reacts
Inductance is thought of as the ability to oppose changes in current flow
The induced currents tend to oppose changes in electron motion
Polarity of induced emf in an inductive circuit
I
I
VR
VR
eL = - L di / dt
V
eL = L di / dt
If the induced emf in a

coil ( eL ) is taken as an
effective volt drop, it is
represented by an arrow
upwards, pointing in the
opposite direction of
current flow
V = VR + L di / dt volts
If the induced emf ((-- eL) is

taken in the reverse sense as
an effective volt drop, it is
represented by an arrow
downwards, pointing in the
direction of current flow
V = VR - L di / dt volts
Factors affecting the Inductance of a Coil

If a coil is wound on a closed
D
Magnetic
flux
C
ferromagnetic core, and the core has
initially no residual magnetism, an
increase of current from zero to OA causes
E
the flux to increase from zero to AC, but
when the current is subsequently reduced
G
F
A
to zero, the decrease of flux is only DE.
O Magnetizing
If the current is increased to OG in the
current
reverse direction, the change of flux is EJ.
The inductance (L) of a coil

= DJ / AG x number of turns
J
change of magnetic flux
H
= N
change of magnetizing current
dO
Variation of magnetic flux with magnetizing curren
= N
di
for a closed ferromagnetic circuit
Magnitude of EMF Induced in a Coil

distorted
magnetic field
Conductor
coil
The magnetic field is

distorted by the
induced current flow
in the conductor
Motion of a magnet
C
The magnetic flux through a coil of N turns to be increased by O webers
in t seconds due to :
The relative movement of the coil and a magnet, will induce an emf in the coil
- rate of change of magnetic flux (O t)
- each of the lines of magnetic flux cuts each turn of the coil
by O webers in seconds
Magnitude of EMF Induced in a Coil

The induced emf circulates a current in a coil tending
- to set up an opposing flux to prevent the increase of flux through the coil
(by Lenz Law)
Law)
The average emf induced in the coil of N turns is N x O / t volts
The instantaneous value of emf induced in a coil is the rate
of change of fluxflux-linkages, in weberweber-turns per second
i.e., e = d (N x O) volts
dt
d
volts
And e =
where is the total flux
dt
This relationship is is known as Faradays Law
Definition : When the magnetic flux linking a circuit is varied,
an emf is induced in the (coil) circuit
it is defined that the magnetic flux (in weber) which, linking a circuit of one turn,
induces in it an emf of 1 V when the flux is reduced to zero at a uniform rate in 1 sec.
In general, if the magnetic flux through a coil increases by

dO weber in dt second, emf induced in a coil is :
dO
volts
e =Nx
dt
Permeability of Free Space or

Magnetic Constant
Magnetic field at 1 m radius due to current Magnetic flux
in a long straight conductor, situated in a
path D
Mean length = 2 R
vacuum and carrying a current of 1 A
conductor 1 m
The lines of magnetic flux surrounding
Conductor C
A
C is parallel to
conductor A is in the form of concentric
conductor A
circles
The magnetomotive force (mmf)
1 turn of conductor
acting on path D is 1 AmpAmp-turn, or 1 A
The length of the line of flux is 2
meter , since R is 1 meter
The magnetic field strength, H, at a radius of 1 m is 1 / 2
amperes per meter
The flux density in the region of line D is B teslas
The force per meter length on a conductor C carrying 1 A at right angles to the flux is
Force per meter length = B (T) x 1 (m) x 1 (A) = B newtons
By the definition of ampere : that the current which, if maintained in two straight parallel
conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular crosscross-section, and placed 1 meter apart in a
vacuum, would produce between conductors a force of 2 x 10-7 newton per meter of length
The flux density at 1 m radius from conductor carrying 1 A is B = 2 x 10-7 T

Flux density at C
B
= 4
x 10-7 H/m (henry per meter)
=
Magnetic field strength at C
H
B
is termed the permeability of free space (uo)
The ratio
H
Magnetization Characteristics of
Soft-magnetic Materials
Flux B (T)
density
22
Silicon steel
20
Low-carbon mild steel
18
16
14
12
10
Cast iron
Mumetal
Ferrite
6
4
2
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
H (A/m) Field strength
Magnetization characteristics of soft-magnetic materials
Relative Permeability and

r / H characteristics
r
Where
4000
Silicon steel
3000
Absolute permeability (u) is the product of

the permeability of free space (uo) and
the relative permeability (ur)
Mumetal
2000
is relative permeability
- The ratio of the flux density produced in a
material to the flux density produced in a
vacuum (or in a non-magnetic core) by the
same magnetic field strength
H is the magnetic field strength
r
Ferrite
u = uo x ur
B=uH
1000
Mild steel
H (A-T/m), or (A/m)
Cast iron
2000
r/
4000
6000
8000
10000
H characteristics for soft-magnetic materials

The variations of relative permeability with magnetic field strength for
various qualities of steel
Inductance of a Ferromagnetic-cored Coil

inductance
current
Inductance and current relationship
If ur represents the value of the relative permeability corresponding to the

maximum value of the flux, then the inductance (L) of the steel-cored coil, is :
ur times that of the same coil with a non-magnetic core, i.e.,
2
AN
-7
Inductance (L) = 4 x 10 x
x ur henrys
= u0ur x A x
N2
l
henrys, where u0 = 4
x 10-7 H/m
Hence from the above expression,

- As the value of an alternating current through a coil having a closed steel circuit is increased
- The value of the inductance increases to a maximum and then decreases
- When the value of the inductance of such a coil is stated, it is necessary to specify
the current variation for which that value has been determined
Application of an inductor in an electrical circuit
Radio signals are transmitted using a rapidly changing (high(highfrequency) electromagnetic energy, inductors are often used in
combination with capacitors to provide tuned circuits.
circuits.
These tuned circuits are most valuable in radio and television for
filtering out unwanted frequencies and passing the desired
frequencies.
In many electronic circuits it is desirable to use inductors that are
variable in inductance.
A common method for changing the inductance is to use a ferrite
(powdered--iron) core in the inductor and provided a means
(powdered
whereby this core can be moved in and out of the coil.
Induction Principles
e.m.f. is induced
in coil C
galvanometer
Permanent magnet
movement
Electromagnetic Induction
When a permanent magnet NS was moved relative to a coil C, galvanometer
G was deflected in one direction when the magnet was moved towards the coil
and in the reverse direction when the magnet was withdrawn
Faradays Law stated that : - An electric current could be produced by
the movement of magnetic flux relative to a coil; and the magnitude of the
induced emf is proportional to the rate at which the magnetic flux passed
through the coil is varied
when a conductor cuts or is cut by magnetic flux, an e.m.f. is generated in
the conductor and the magnitude of the generated e.m.f. is proportional to
the rate at which the conductor cuts or is cut by the magnetic flux.
Direction of Induced EMF

Direction of Induced EMF
Two methods are available for deducing the direction of
the induced or generated emf
Flemings RightRight-hand Rule
The Lenzs Law which is expressed that :
The direction of an induced emf is always such that it tends
to set up a current opposing the motion or the change of flux
responsible for inducing that emf
In the ring circuit of the previous figure about electromagnetic induction
When S is closed and the battery has the polarity shown,
the direction of the magnetic flux in the ring is clockwise.
The current in C must be such as to try to produce a flux in an
counter--clockwise direction, tending to oppose the growth of the
counter
flux due to A, which is responsible for the emf induced in C
Electromagnetically Induced EMF

Conductor
movement at right
angle to the
magnetic field
If a conductor is moved
across a magnetic field,
an emf will be produced
in the conductor. This
effect is known as
electromagnetic induction,
and the emf is said to be
induced in the conductor.
If the conductor forms part

of a closed electrical circuit,
the induced emf will cause an
electric current in the circuit
N
Flux lines
orientation
An emf is induced in a conductor

when it is moved across
a magnetic field.
Electromagnetically Induced EMF

The conductor moves in
line of the magnetic flux
Conductor movement is
parallel to the magnetic field
There is no induced emf
when
the conductor is moved
parallel to the flux lines.
N
Flux lines
orientation
The conductor moves at
less than right angle
towards the flux lines
N
A conductor cutting flux
lines at less than 90
90
has less than a maximum
emf induced.
The emf is proportional
to the sine of the linkage
angle 0-
Flux lines
orientation
S
0-
Direction of an Induced Current
(a) Right-hand generator rule

(conventional current flow)
(b) Left-hand generator rule

(electron current flow)
The direction of an induced current depends on

the direction of magnetic flux, and
the direction in which the conductor moves in that flux
Values of an Induced EMF

The value of emf induced in a conductor depends on the
rate at which linkages occur between the conductor and
the lines of flux
(a) the length of the conductor in the magnetic field;
(b) the magnetic field density;
(c) the speed of conductor movement;
(d) the sine of the angle at which linkages occur
between the conductor and the lines of flux; and
(e) number of conductor turns.
The above five factors are summarized as the linkage rate.
Generation of an Alternating EMF

The induced emf
is proportional to the rate
at which linkages occur
varies from zero to a
maximum and back to zero,
twice in every revolution of the
conductor in its circular path
The polarity reverses every
half revolution (1800)
A circular path
for a straight
conductor moves
at a constant
speed in an
uniform
magnetic field
The waveform of generated

emf in the graph is a sine wave
The instantaneous generated
emf is proportional to the sine of
the angle at which the conductor
is cutting the flux lines
Zero + volts
volts
Zero
volts
- volts
Zero
volts
Self-Inductance
When the field of a varying current causes an emf in its
own conductor, it is known as self
self--induction.
Self-induction in straight conductors is usually negligible,
Selfbut in coiled conductors the effect is greatly increased.
The strength of a coil's magnetic field is proportional to
the current, to the number of turns in the coil and to the
permeability of its core material.
Any circuit that has a voltage induced in it by a change
of current through the circuit itself has selfself-inductance.
The property of selfself-inductance is to oppose any change
of current by virtue of the back e.m.f.
Self-Induction
Magnetic
field
Rise and collapse of a magnetic field about a coil

Flux lines rise out from the core when the coil current is increased.
Flux lines collapse into the core when the coil current is decreased.
When the magnetic field of a varying current causes an emf

in its own conductor, it is known as self-induction.
Selfinduction in straight conductors is usually negligible,
but in coiled conductors the effect is greatly increased.
Self-induction
The magnitude of a selfself-induced voltage depends on
The number of turns on the coil; an increase of turns
produces a larger flux from the same current
The material in which the magnetic field exists;
if in iron the permeability of the iron will multiply the flux
The rate of change of current in the coil
The factor associated with coil is called self-inductance, the symbol is L
Thus the inductance of a coil can be increased by
putting more turns on it, and
using an iron core, to increase the permeability
A high value of inductance gives a large self-induced voltage
Mutual Inductance
If two coils A and C are placed relative to each other as in
the following figure, then, when S is closed, some of the flux
produced by the current in A becomes linked with C, and
the e.m.f. induced in C circulates a momentary current
through galvanometer G.
Primary coil
Secondary
coil
A
S
C
Mutual inductance
Mutual Inductance
When S is opened the collapse of the flux induces an e.m.f. in the
reverse direction in C. Since a change of current in one coil is
accompanied by a change of flux linked with the other coil and
therefore by an e.m.f. induced in the latter, the two coils are said to
have mutual inductance.
The unit of mutual inductance (M) is henry (H)
Two coils have a
i
mutual inductance of
Primary coil
1 henry if an emf of
1 volt is induced in one
coil (C) when the
G
Secondary
current in the other
coil
coil (A) varies uniformly
at the rate of 1 ampere
per second
A
C
Induced emf in the
secondary coil is M di/dt
di/dt is the current change
Mutual inductance
in the primary coil
S
Mutual Inductance
The induced emf tends to circulate a current in the secondary circuit
in such a direction as to oppose the increase of flux due to the increase
of current in the primary circuit
If the direction of iA is that indicated by the arrowhead in the figure below,
then, by Lenz's law the direction of the e.m.f induced in B is anticlockwise
when the coil is viewed from the right-hand end; i.e. the induced e.m.f is in
opposition to IB and the p.d. across terminals 3 and 4 has to be increased
by Ml2.di/dt volts to maintain IB constant.
The emf induced in B = M12 . di/dt volts = - N2 dO/dt

M12 is the mutual inductance when A is primary and B is secondary
di/dt is the current change in primary coil A; dO/dt is the flux linkage with secondary coil B
M . di/dt = N2 . dO/dt
M = N2 . dO/di
= change of flux
linkage with
secondary /
change of current
in primary
Flux linkage
change
N1
N2
Secondary coil
Primary coil
Applied
emf
Induced
emf
Mutual-Inductance
The mutual induced voltage depends on:
(a) factors associated with the coils themselves --- number of turns of coil
- physical size of coil
- permeability of coil
- position (proximity) of coils with respect to each other
(b) How we vary the current in one of them.
The mutual inductance M of a pair of coils can be increased
by putting more turns on the coils, by placing them very
closely together and also by using an iron core.
Note that no mutually induced voltage will be developed in the
secondary unless the current in the primary is changing
Mutual-Inductance
Polarity Determination - Application of the dot notation
+ve M
Dot
e.m.f.A
-ve M
Dot
e.m.f.B
Dot
e.m.f.A
e.m.f.B
Dot
Figure (a)
Figure (b)
When two coils are on a common core

In figure (a), it shows the currents IA and IB enter (or leave) both coils;
the magnetomotive forces due to IA and IB are additive, when the direction of
currents are indicated by the arrows (by dot notation)
The mutual inductance (M) is then said to be positive
In figure (b), it shows the currents IA enters coil A and IB leave coil B;
the magnetomotive forces due to IA and IB are in opposition, when the
direction of currents are indicated by the arrows (by dot notation)
The mutual inductance (M) is then said to be negative
Coupling Co-efficient
Suppose a ring of non-magnetic material to be wound uniformly
with two coils, A and B,
the turns of one coil being as close as possible to those of the other coil
The whole of the flux produced by the current in one coil is linked
with all the turns of the other coil
The mutual inductance between the coil A and coil B is therefore :
M =
L1L2 ,
where L1 and L2 are self inductance of coil A and coil B
The assumption is that : 1. The reluctance remains constant

2. The magnetic leakage is zero, i.e., all the flux
produced by one coil is linked with the other coil
However, for a ferromagnetic core has one or more gaps of air or
non-magnetic material, there is magnetic leakage, i.e., when all the flux
due to current in one coil is not linked with the other coil
The mutual inductance becomes : M = k
L1L2
Where k is termed the coupling coefficient, which is a term much used in
radio work to denote the degree of coupling between two coils
Tightly coupled for coils close together and loosely coupled for coils well apart
Lenz's law
Lenz's law
The emf induced in a circuit, or the electromagnetic effect of
it, acts in a way that opposes the effect that produced it.
A selfself-induced emf which results from a reducing current
and field, will act in a direction that tends to sustain the
current at its original value.
A selfself-induced emf that results from an increasing current
and field acts in opposition to the applied emf.
The law also means that the magnetic field of an induced
current opposes the change in field strength or the relative
motion that induced the current and its emf.
Self-Induced EMF
No self-induced emf in a purely resistive circuit

In an inductive
circuit, the rise
of current will
lag behind the
rise in applied
voltage
The induced emf
opposes the
applied emf to
retard the growth
of current to its
ohms law value;
this value is
limited by the
cirucuits
resistance
Emf is
applied
Applied
emf
As soon as the current starts to rise, a

self-induced emf is created in the coil
coil
Inductive circuit
Self-Induced EMF
Decay of
current in
the coil
Switch over to
short-circuit path
Applied emf
is removed
Self-induced emf
Both the growth and collapse of

current in inductive circuits is
delayed by self-induced emf
(Emf is applied)
The instant that applied voltage is removed from the inductive

load, the current starts to fall towards zero, but its collapsing
field selfself-induces an emf that tends to keep the current flowing.
flowing.
It continues to flow through the short
short--circuiting path provided
for it until it diminishes to zero at an exponential rate as shown
in the graph.
graph.
Protection from Self-induced EMF

In an inductive circuit, the self-induced emf may be high enough to push
current across the initial gap of the opening switch contacts
The current jumping the gap forms an arc which can burn the switch contacts
The self-induced emf of short duration may be high enough to cause damage
breakdowns in voltage critical components, such as in transistorized circuit
Such self-induced emfs are known as voltage spikes
One method of suppressing voltage spikes is to connect diodes

across the inductive components in a circuit.
Spike
switch
suppression
diode
(for protecting the
Component with
Inductive
switch contact)
voltage critical
load(coil)
internal circuitry
Arcing occurs when switch
contacts are opened
instantly without protection
Direction of self
self--induced
emf and current (conventional)
when the switch is opened
Effects of Lenzs Law

In electric generators :
A magnetic field is produced by the current in the output
windings. This field interacts with the main field to cause a
motoring torque on the armature
In electric motors :
- An emf is generated in the armature windings.
- It is known as a back-emf or counter-emf.
- It opposes the applied emf and current by causing a reduction
of input current to the motor.
- The back-emf reduces motor torque
In transformer :
- The magnetic field produced by current in the primary winding
induces emf and current in the secondary winding.
- The field produced by the current in the secondary winding
opposes the primary field and the effect that produced it
Types of Inductor and Inductance

Inductors are designed to
have a great ability
to hold magnetic energy.
Inductors are generally
made to have a fixed
value of inductance, but
some are variable.
The symbols for fixed and
variable inductors are
shown on the right
figures.
Inductors cannot be considered
as pure element, but introduces
internal resistance
Inductor Symbols
Air--core inductor
Air
core
Ferromagnetic--cored inductor
Ferromagnetic
Variable inductor
Inductance in Series and in Parallel
Multi-inductor Circuit
(a) When inductors are wired in series with each other, the total
inductance is increased
The total inductance is the sum of the inductor values within the circuit
Lt = L1 + L2 + L3 + ..
(b) When inductors are placed in parallel with respect to each
other, the total inductance is decreased
The total inductance is the sum of the reciprocals of the inductor values
within the circuit
1/Lt = 1/L1 + 1/L2 + 1/L3 + ..
Inductive Reactance
A pure inductive circuit is considered

without resistance and capacitance
In a purely inductive circuit

current lags voltage by 90o
Inductance affects a circuit only

while the current is changing in value
Leading
The inductive reactance in ohms is :

XL = 2 f L
F is the frequency (rate of current
changing) in hertz and L is the
inductance in henries
Vector I lags
vector E by 900
lagging
I
L /R time-delay relationships
In inductive circuits, changes in current lag behind changes in voltage.
The extent of this lag depends on the ratio of L/R.
The current lagging is
directly proportional to the inductance of the circuit
inversely proportional to the circuits resistance.
V
vL
R
E
L
vR
Time Constant of an Inductive Circuit

Battery
switch off
Battery
switch on
Applied voltage
Current
63% of Max
Current
Current rise
Battery switch
37% of Max
Current
Current decay
Time in seconds
Time constant
(L/R seconds)
5(L/R) seconds
R
L
Time Constant
The time taken for a growing current to reach 63% of its Ohms
law value is L/R seconds.
It drops to 37% of its initial Ohms law value in L/R seconds.
It takes 5(L/R) seconds for a rising current to reach
approximately its Ohms law value or for a falling current to
reach zero.
Time constant = L/ R (seconds)
The relationship always applies regardless of the
magnitude of current
magnitude of inductance
magnitude of resistance
Module 3
3.12
DC Motor / Generator Theory
Introduction
Many devices in an airplane, from starter to the automatic
pilot, depend upon the mechanical energy furnished by
electric motors.
Electric motors utilize the principles of magnetism and
electromagnetic induction.
Conductor without current located in a magnetic field does not move.
Current from external source

If a current from an external source is passed through a
conductor while it is in a magnetic field; the conductor will
tend to move across the field; hence the flow of current causes
a movement of the conductor.
N
S
Direction tends to move

The direction in which a current
current--carrying conductor in a
magnetic field tends to move may be determined by the use of
the rightright-hand motor rule.
Right-hand
Rightmotor rule
(electron current
flow)
Left-hand
Leftmotor rule
(conventional
current flow)
FLUX
CURRENT
FLOW
CONDUCTOR
MOVEMENT
Attraction and repulsion

An electromagnet is placed between the poles of a field magnet and
is free to rotate, the flux of the electromagnet will react with the flux
of the field magnet and produce torque, which will cause the
electromagnet to turn.
Repulsion
Attraction
Stator field
N S
rotor field
S
S
S
Carbon brushes
Slip rings
Smooth power output

The right figure shows
a motor with four
armature poles. With
this arrangement the
torque on one set of
poles will increase as
the torque on the other
set decreases, and the
motor will deliver a
reasonably smooth
power output.
N
Field
magnet
Field
magnet
N N
Developing torque
If a coil in which current is flowing is placed in a magnetic field,
a torque is developed which will cause the coil to rotate.
The amount of torque developed in a coil depends upon several factors: the
strength of the magnetic field, the amount of current carrying in the coil, the
length of the coil and the number of turns in the coil, and the position of the
coil in the field.
Torque in a Motor
(A)
(C)
(B)
(D)
The torque in a motor containing only a single coil is neither continuous

nor very effective, because there are two positions where there is actually
no torque at all.
Multi-coil armature
A practical DC motor contains a large number of coils wound on
an iron core. These coils are spaced so that, for any position of
the armature, there will be coils near the poles of the magnet.
This makes the torque both continuous and strong.
Armature reaction
Since the motor armature has current flowing through it, a magnetic field
will be generated around the armature coils as a result of this current.
This armature field will distort the main magnetic field. The direction of
distortion due to armature reaction shifts the magnetic neutral axis against
the direction of rotation.
Rotation of motor
Carbon brush
Armature electron current flow
Load neutral
a
No-load neutral
c
armature
b + +
+
Rotation of
generator
Carbon brush
(a) Main field
+
+
+
(b) Armature field
(c) Armature reaction
Fig. (a) shows the magnetic flux produced in a two-pole d.c. machine by the field
current, when there is no current flowing in the armature winding
Fig. (b) shows the magnetic flux produced by the armature current when there is
no current flowing in the field coils
Fig. (c) shows the resultant distribution of magnetic flux when, as under load
conditions, the armature is carrying current and the field coil are excited
- It is obtained by combining the magnetic fields of fig. (a) and fig. (b)
No-load and Load Neutral

Under a north pole, flux is entering the armature
Under a south pole, flux is leaving the armature
A dividing line is drawn along the surface of the armature,
parallel to the axis, to separate these two directions of flux
- The line is called the neutral
The no-load neutral bisects the angle formed
by the axes of adjacent poles
0
(180 in the case of a two-pole machine)
Under load, the neutral is shifted
- In the case of a generator the shift
is in the direction of rotation
- In the case of a motor it is in the
opposite direction to rotation
If a d.c. generator is provided with
commutating poles,
- the brushes are placed on the no-load
neutral and remain there,
the only effect of armature reaction
is the cross-magnetizing effect
Neutral line
Back e.m.f.
As armature rotates, the armature coils cut the magnetic field
and thereby induce an electromotive force in these coils. Since
this induced voltage opposes the applied terminal voltage, it is
called the back e.m.f.
Voltage applied to the

armature is
230 - 220 = 10 volts
Generated back
e.m.f. 220 volts
230 volts
A rotating armature generates back

back--e.m.f. to limit current flow.
Starting Resistor
However, back e.m.f. is not generated in a stationary armature.
When the motor is just starting and the back e.m.f. is too small to limit
the current effectively, a temporary resistor called the starting
resistormust be put in series with the armature in order to keep the
current flow within safe limits.
As the motor speeds up, the back e.m.f. increases and this starting
resistor can be gradually reduced, allowing a further increase in speed
and back e.m.f. At normal speed, the starting resistor is completely
shorted out of the circuit.
To reduce the
starting torque
Starting
resistor
Armature
resistance
=1 ohm
230 Volt DC
Without the starting resistor:

I = 230/1 = 230 amperes
Placed in series with the armature
winding, to limit the starting
current (armature current)
Wound Field Windings

DC motors are seriesseries-wound, shuntshunt-wound, or compoundcompound-wound,
depending on the arrangement of the field windings with respect
to the armature circuit.
Series Field
winding
Shunt Field
winding
Armature
winding
Armature
winding
Shunt Field
winding
Series Field
winding
Series motor
Armature winding in series
with field winding
Armature
winding
Shunt motor
Compound motor
Armature winding in parallel

with field winding
Armature winding in series

with series field, and in
parallel with shunt winding
Series-wound Motor
Field winding
Armature winding
In the series motor, the field winding consisting of few turns of

heavy wire are connected in series with the armature winding.
high starting torque and high starting current
speed control is difficult, on no-load or light-load is not desirable
High Starting Torque Series Motor

Because of low resistance in the field windings, the series
motor is able to draw large current in starting.
This
starting current, in passing through both the field and
armature windings, produces a high starting torque,
which is the series motors principal advantage.
The speed of a series motor is dependent upon the load.
Any change in the load is accompanied by a substantial
change in speed. A series motor will run at high speed
when it has a light load and at low speed with a heavy load.
If the load is removed entirely, the motor may operate at
such a high speed that the armature will fly apart.
Series motors are often used in aircraft as engine starters
and for raising and lowering landing gear, cowl flaps, and
wing flaps.
Shunt-wound Motor
In the shunt motor, the field windings consisting of many
turns of fine wire are connected in parallel or shunt with the
armature winding.
If
Field
current
Ia
armature
current
Shunt-wound Motor - Regular Speed

Since the shunt field windings are connected directly across
the power supply, the strength of main field produced is
independent of variations in load and armature current.
So the torque developed varies directly with the armature
current.
The speed of the shunt motor varies little with changes in
load. When all load is removed, it assumes a speed slightly
higher than the loaded speed. This motor is particularly
suitable for use when constant speed is desired and when
high starting torque is not needed.
Compound-wound Motor
The compound motor is a combination of series and shunt
motor. The field consists of two separate sets of winding:
a shunt winding and a series winding.
Cumulatively-compound motors, whose series and shunt fields
are connected to aid each other, are the most common.
Universal Motors a.c. Series Motors
the same general

characteristics as a
d.c. Series motor
Universal motor is operated on d.c. or a.c.

the number of series field turns in the a.c. series motor is less than in
the d.c. series motor, in order to decrease the reactance of the field so
that the required amount of current will flow
- if the d.c. current through a series motor field and armature is
reversed, the direction of rotation remains unchanged.
- when a.c. is applied to series motor, the current through the armature and
field change simultaneously and therefore, the motor will rotate in one direction
- a.c. series motor is not built above fractional horsepower sizes for 50 Hz operation
Exploded View of a Motor-actuator

An exploded
view of a
typical dc
motor as an
actuator.
Direction of CW or CCW rotation

Thermal protectors are connected in the circuit for each field
winding.
Monitor light
RED
CW
+ve
CW winding
THERMAL
PROTECTOR
FIELD
WINDINGS
ARMATURE
BLACK
CCW
CCW winding
Monitor light
-ve WHITE
Common wire
BRAKE
COIL
Schematic of a d.c. motor actuator
Torque, Speed and Direction

The turning moment or torque developed by a motor is caused by the
force arising from interaction of the magnetic field around the armature
coils with the main field. The amount of torque developed varies with the
strength of the main field and of the armature current.
Certain applications may call for motors whose speed or direction are
changed. Such as variable speeds for windshield wipers, or changing the
direction of the landing gear retraction motor.
By reversing the direction of current flow in either the armature or
the field windings, the direction of a DC motors rotation may be
reversed.
The speed of a DC motor depends on the strength of the magnetic
field and the voltage applied to the armature, as well as on the load.
The speed may, therefore, be controlled either by varying the field
current or by varying the voltage applied to the armature.
Reversing Motor Direction

One method for reversing the direction of rotation employs two
field windings wound in opposite directions on the same pole.
CW
winding
CCW
winding
Rheostat Speed Control

The speed depends on the amount of current which flows
through the rheostat to the field windings.
SCR Speed Control
+ve
V
Series field
Ia L
SCR
G
Shunt field
If
er
+
A
Diode
Full wave
rectifier
AC
Supply
-ve
The armature current (Ia) is controlled by the SCR, in turn,
the motor speed is controlled accordingly
- The voltage applied to the armature (A) changes to control the speed of the motor
Electric Starter Motor

A typical electric starter motor
for using in piston engine
The main components
are an dc series motor,
a reduction gear,
an overload clutch and
a ratchet device
the starter mode being
engaged by applying an
electric current to the
series field coils
Starter Motor
The armature winding is
heavy copper wire capable
of withstanding very high
amperage
the fieldfield-frame assembly is of
cast--steel construction
cast
an armature will withstand
the severe loads imposed for
brief intervals while the
engine starting
Intermittent duty
a short period ON and then
a period OFF
It is a seriesseries-wound motor
Starter Motor - Exploded View (1)

CE head assy
Brush spring set
Cover band
Sealed ball bearing
Armature
Retainer plate
*
Gear
Needle bearing
Bendix drive
Bendix drive Pinion housing assy
shaft
bronze bearing
Brush set
Needle bearing
Frame & field assy
Gear housing
assy
Starter Motor - Exploded View (2)

The starter motor consists of six major
components
Commutator end head assembly
armature
frame--and
frame
and--field assembly
gear housing
bendix--drive assembly
bendix
pinion housing assembly
Producing Electricity
Electricity is produced
in a generator by
electromagnetic induction.
When there is a relative
movement between a
magnetic field and a
conductor held
perpendicular to the line of
flux, an e.m.f. is produced in
the conductor.
If the ends of the conductor
are connected together, the
e.m.f. will cause a current to
flow.
Direction of
movement
Direction of
flux
Conductor
Direction of e.m.f.
The direction of e.m.f. is determined by the direction of the
magnetic flux and the direction in which the conductor is
moved through the flux.
Extend the thumb, index finger, and middle finger so
they are at right angles to one another, as illustrated below.
Turn the hand so the
thumb points in the
direction of movement of
the conductor and the
index finger points in the
direction of the magnetic
flux. Then the middle
finger will be pointing in
the direction of e.m.f.
FLUX
MOTION
Electron current
flow (left hand rule)
Flemings Right Hand Rule

If the first finger of the right hand is pointed in the direction
of the magnetic flux, and if the thumb is pointed in the
direction of motion of the conductor relative to the magnetic
field, then the second finger, held at right angles to both the
thumb and the first finger; represents the direction of the
e.m.f.
First finger
Magnetic Flux
ThuMb
ThuM
Motion of conductor
relative to flux
Note :
Right hand rule applies to
conventional current flow for
electrical generation
SEcond
SE
cond finger
E.M.F.
Loop Conductor
When a conductor is arranged in a loop to rotate in a
magnetic field, an e.m.f. is induced in each side of the loop.
Maximum e.m.f. is induced in the
conductor while in the horizontal
plane of magnetic field
Maximum current is
induced in the conductor
Direction of
rotation
Elementary Generator
An elementary generator consists of a loop of wire so placed
that it can be rotated in a uniform magnetic field to cause an
induced e.m.f. in the loop. Sliding contacts are used to
connect the loop to an external circuit in order to use the
induced e.m.f.
The pole pieces are the north and south
poles of the magnet which supplies the
magnetic field.
The loop of wire which rotates through
the field is called the armature.
The ends of the armature loop are
connected to rings - called slip rings,
which rotate with the armature.
Brushes ride up against the slip rings to
connect the armature to the external
circuit.
An Elementary Generator Operation
Position A (00) of the conductor
Inducing minimum voltage in

an elementary generator
Position B (900) of the conductor
Inducing maximum voltage in

an elementary generator
An Elementary Generator Operation
Position C (1800) of the conductor
Inducing minimum voltage in

the opposite direction
Position D (2700) of the conductor
Inducing maximum voltage in

the opposite direction
Output of an Elementary Generator

If the voltage induced throughout the entire 360
360of rotation
is plotted, the curve shows the output of a loop rotating in a
magnetic field is alternating current.
B
A
A
C
D
Basic DC Generator
By replacing the slip rings of elementary generator with two
half--cylinders, called commutator, a basic dc generator is
half
obtained.
Characteristics of d.c. Generator

The voltage generated in the armature winding of a d.c. generator, being
proportional to the rate of cutting the lines of magnetic flux, is proportional to :
- The speed and to the flux per pole
E0 = knO
Where E0 = voltage generated at no load
k = a constant
O = webers of flux per pole
n = rpm
E0 varies with the exciting current (field current) If ,

when the speed is constant, is called a no-load saturation curve
E0
If
d.c. source
E0
volts
Saturation curve of a d.c. generator
r
Exciting current
If amp
Commutation - D.C. Generator

The only way that e.m.f. can be obtained from the
generator is to convert the generated a.c. to d.c.
+ve
00
1800
3600
-ve
The a.c. voltage induced
in the loop reverses its
polarity every time the
loop goes through the 00
Change a.c. to d.c.
and 1800 points
using a
reversing switch
At these points, the conductors of
the loop reverse their direction
through the magnetic field;
polarity of the induced e.m.f. depends on the direction a
conductor moves through a magnetic field
If the direction reverses, the polarity of the induced e.m.f. reverses
e.m.f. Can only be obtained from the generator is to convert the generated a.c. to d.c.
Operation of a Basic D.C. Generator

Though the current actually reverses its direction in the loop
in exactly the same way as in the elementary generator,
commutation action causes the current to flow always in the
same direction through the external circuit or meter.
Because of switching of commutator electrodes, the black brush is always

in contact with the coil side moving downward, and the white brush is
always in contact with the coil side moving upward.
Number of Loops
The voltage generated by the basic DC generator varies
from zero to its maximum twice for each revolution of the loop.
This variation of DC voltage is called ripple,
(due to many coils induce generator ripple).
Multiple-coil armature
As the number of loops is increased, the variation between maximum and

minimum values of voltage is reduced, and the output voltage of the
generator approaches a steady dc value.
Uniform Magnetic Field

The elementary generator is assumed to work in a uniform magnetic
field. To obtain this uniform magnetic field, concave pole pieces are
used and the armature coils are carries by an iron former.
The flux can be made greater and even more uniform by using
more than one pair of poles
Iron former
Construction of D.C Generator
Main
frame
Pole
piece
A rotating part and stationary part
Field
coil
- armature coil is mounted on the rotating part,

is referred to as the armature
- the field coils are mounted on the stationary part
is referred to as the field
There is relative motion between the armature and field coils,

- armature coils cut through the magnetic lines of force of the field
- as a result, e.m.f. Is induced in the armature, causing a
current to flow through the outside load
armature
To load
D.C Generator Assembly and Disassembly
Principal parts of a d.c. generator
D.C. Generator Construction Principal Parts

Main frame : is sometimes called the yoke.
- the foundation of the machine and supports the other components
- serves to complete the magnetic field between the pole pieces
Pole pieces : - made of many thin layers of iron or steel, called laminations,
joined together and bolted to the inside of the frame
- by laminating the poles, eddy current is reduced
- provide a support for the field coils produce a concentrated field
Field windings : mounted on the pole pieces
- form electromagnets which provide the magnetic field for generator action
- the windings and pole pieces together are often called the field
- the windings are coils of insulated wires wound to fit closely around pole pieces
- the current flow through these coils generates the magnetic field
- alternate poles will always be opposite polarity
- can be connected in series or in parallel (or shunt) with the armature
- shunt field windings consists of many turns of fine wires,
while series field windings consists of fewer turns of heavy wire
D.C. Generator Construction Principal Parts

End housings :
- attached to the ends of the main frame and contain the bearings for the armature
- the rear housing support the bearing and the front housing
supports the bearing and the brush assemblies
Brush gear : - supports the carbon brushes and their connecting wires
- the brush gear can be rotated around the shaft for adjustment of the
neutral plane shift due to armature reaction
Armature assembly : - rotates between the poles of the field
- is made up of a shaft, laminated armature core,
armature windings and commutator
Brushes : - ride on the commutatator
- carry the generated voltage to the load
- made of high grade carbon and held in place by brush holders
- a flexible braided conductor called a pigtail connects each
brush to the external circuit
Armature Winding - Lap Winding

A four-pole
generator windings
Lap windings wound on

the drum type armatures
Commutator segments
- the two ends of each coil are connected to adjacent commutator segments
- two points where the e.m.f.s in adjacent conductors are meeting - A and C; and
- two points where the e.m.f.s in adjacent conductors are diverging - B and D
- if brushes are placed at these points, current will flow from the armature
winding at A and C and into the winding at B and D
- the number of parallel paths through a lap winding is equal to the number of poles
- the terminal e.m.f. is equal to the e.m.f. induced in one path, the current is equal to
the sum of the currents in each of the parallel paths.
The lap winding is used for high-current applications
Armature Winding - Wave Winding

A four-pole
generator windings
Wave windings wound on

the drum type armatures
- The connections are made so that

the winding passes under every pole
before it comes back to the pole
Commutator segments
from which it started
- the winding is divided into only two parallel paths; if brushes placed at points A and B,
- the two paths are traced through the winding from A to B
- most of the e.m.f.s in each path are acting the direction A to B,
-the wave winding has only two parallel current paths, can use only two brushes
- emf developed equals that induced in 1/2 of the total number of armature conductors
- the current delivered is twice the current in an individual armature conductor
The wave winding is used for high-voltage applications.
Types of D.C. Generators

Excitation current is supplied either from :
- a separate d.c. voltage source, the generator is said to be separately-excited or
- using the d.c. output of the generator itself, the generator is said to be self-excited
In self-excited generator, the field coils may be connected :
- in series with the armature coils (series) or
- in parallel with the armature coils (shunt), or
- partly in series and partly in parallel with the armature coils (compound)
all the d.c. generators used
for lighting and power are the
self-excited type, in which
armature current is used to
excite the field
by reason of the magnetic
characteristics of the steel
structure , the field poles retain
a certain amount of magnetism,
called residual magnetism
from a previous generator run
Separately-excited D.C. Generators
The field is independent of the armature, since it is supplied with

current from either another generator (exciter) or a battery
- provides a means of controlling the power output of the generator
- with a slight change in the field current, a large change in the load current will result
- frequently used in automatic motor control systems, like positioning
a gun turret, or any other heavy load
Self-excited D.C. Generators Series Generator

+
series field
output
voltage
A
Voltage begins to drop
on overload
armature
load
Full load
current
Load current
Characteristic curve
The field coils are connected in series with the armature winding
- The whole armature current flows through both the field and the load
- If the circuit is incomplete, then no current will flow to excite the field
- The series field contains relatively few turns of wire
Self-excited D.C. Generators Shunt Generator

+
armature
A
output
voltage
shunt field
Rated load
load
Load current
The field coils are connected across the armature winding,

forming a parallel or shunt circuit
- only a small part of the armature current flows through the field coils
- the rest flows through the load
- the shunt field and the armature form a closed circuit independent of the load
- the generator is excited even with no load connected across the armature
- the shunt field contains many turns of fine wire
Self-excited D.C. Generators Compound Generator

overcompounded
- series field
armature
flat-compounded
output
voltage
shunt field
undercompounded
differential compound
load
rated load
Load current
T2
T1
Compound generator differential compound
load current
Characteristic curve
has both a series field and a shunt field, forming a series-parallel circuit
- two coils are mounted on each pole piece,
- one coil series-connected and the other shunt-connected
- the shunt field coils are excited by only a part of the armature current,
- while the entire load current flows through the series field
- as the load current increases, the strength of the series field increases also
Note : Most cumulative compound generators are over compounded
Compound Generator
compound generators were designed to overcome the drop in terminal voltage
(T1 T2) which occurs in a shunt generator when the load is increased
- by adding the series field which increases the strength of the total
magnetic field when the load current is increased,
- the voltage drop due to the added current flowing through the
armature resistance is overcome
- then constant voltage is practically attained

Flat-compounded : if the series windings are proportioned that the
terminal voltage is practically constant at all loads with its range
Over-compounded : the series winding turns so selected that the
full-load voltage is greater than the no-load voltage
Under-compounded : when the rated voltage is less than the noload voltage. These generators are seldom used.
Differential-compounded : the terminal voltage can always be
controlled by varying a field rheostat in series with the shunt field.
- the shunt and series fields are in opposition.
- therefore the difference, or resultant field, becomes weaker, and the
terminal voltage drops very rapidly with an increase in load current
Eddy Current Loss

If a solid piece of metal cuts through a magnetic field
instead of a single wire conductor, current will also be
induced inside the solid piece of metal. This current is
called eddy current.
Eddy current
Pole piece
Pole piece
Solid core
Since wire conductors used in motors and generators are

always wound around metal cores, eddy current would be
induced in these metal cores just as useful current is induced
in the wires of the generator.
Laminated Core
The eddy currents flowing in the core material of rotating
machinery are waste currents, since they have no useful purpose
and only heat up the metal cores. Consequently, the machine
operates at low efficiency. It is therefore important that eddy
currents in core material be kept to a minimum.
This is done by having the cores made up of laminations or thin
plates of metal, rather than one solid piece.
Laminated core
These laminations are insulated from each other, and this limits the eddy
current to that which can flow in the individual lamination.
Types of Armature
Armature used in DC generators are divided into two general
types. There are the ring type armature and the drum type
armature.
The ring type armature was used

in early designs of rotating
electrical machinery, but today is
seldom used.
The drum type armature is the

standard armature construction
today.
Drum Type Armature

A drum type armature has coils placed in slots in the core,
but there is no electrical connection between the coils and
core.
Usually, the coils are held in place in the slots by means of wooden or fiber
wedges. The use of slots increases the mechanical safety of the armature.
The coil ends are brought out to individual segments of the commutator.
Commutator
The commutator is located at the end of the armature and consists
of wedgewedge-shaped segments of hard
hard--drawn copper, insulated from
each other by thin sheets of mica.
Copper segment
Riser
Sleeve
Wedge
Insulation
The raised portion of each segment is called a riser, and the leads from
the armature coils are soldered to the risers. The use of slots increases the
mechanical safety of the armature.
Commutation
The currents induced in an armature conductors of a d.c. generator are alternating
To make their flow unidirectional in the external circuit, we need a commutator
Since the currents flow in one direction while armature conductors are
under N-pole, and in the opposite direction while they are under S-pole
Conductors pass out of the influence of a N-pole and enter that of S-pole,
the current in them is reversed
This reversal of current takes place along magnetic neutral axis or brush axis
- i.e., when the brush spans and hence short-circuits that particular coil
undergoing reversal of current through it
This process by which current in the short-circuited armature coil is
reversed while it crosses the magnetic neutral axis is call commutation
The brief period during which coil remains short-circuited is known as
commutation period
If the current reversal, i.e. the change from +I to zero and then to I, is completed
by the end of short circuit or commutation period, the commutation is ideal
If current reversal is not complete by that time, then sparking is produced between
the brush and the commutator which results in progressive damage to both
Commutation
Armature
coil
The coils a, b, c, d, etc.,

are intended to be a
conventional representation
of the coils of all types of
windings of d.c. generators
IC
motion
N
S
a
IC
motion
b c
3
d
5
N Pole piece
S
1
Carbon
brush
e
5
IC
Commutator segments
2 IC
S
(a)
motion
b c
IC
IC
IC
2 IC
2 IC
(b)
(c)
Each coil of a d.c. generator passes a carbon brush, the current in that coil is suddenly reversed
- Fig. (a) shows the brush in contact with a single commutator segment at midway
between the N and S poles
- Two equal currents IC coming through the winding from opposite directions and uniting
to leave the winding at segment 3
- fig. (b) shows the generator a moment later, with the coil c short-circuited by the brush
- Coil c is midway between the two poles and is not cutting the flux from either pole
- The current flowing in coil c is in the same condition as a disconnected rotating flywheel,
it accordingly begins to die down
Commutation
Coil c is suddenly
reversed under S-pole
motion
b c
IC
1
d
5
IC
Commutator segments
2 IC
(c)
- Fig. (c) shows that an instant later, segment 3 has broken contact with the brush,
coil c is suddenly thrown in series with the row of coils under the south pole
- The current IC coming through these coils must now flow through coil c
- That is, the current in coil c has been reversed under S-pole
The operation of reversing the current in an armature coil by means

of the carbon brush and commutator segments is called commutation
- Now the coil c, owing to self-induction, resists the reversal of the current
- The current in coil c is being brought to zero, its local field is collapsing
and is inducing an emf in the coil to maintain the current

- The magnitude of this emf of self-induction is directly proportional to the
rapidity of the reversal
Carbon Brush
The brushes ride on the surface of the commutator, forming
the electrical contact between the armature coils and the
external circuit.
The brushes, usually made of highhigh-grade carbon
and held in place by brush holders insulated
from the frame, are free to slide up and down in
their holders in order to follow any irregularities
in the surface of the commutator.
A flexible, braidedbraided-copper conductor, commonly
called a pigtail, connects each brush to the
external circuit.
The brushes are usually adjustable so that the
pressure of the brushes on the commutator can
be varied and the position of the brushes with
respect to the segments can be adjusted.
Line of limit
Electrical neutral position Proper Commutation

The brushes are positioned so that they short
short--circuit the
armature coil when it is not cutting through the magnetic
field.
At this instant no current flows and there is no sparking at the brushes.
Armature Reaction - Generator

When the armature rotates clockwise, two fields in existence;
the main field and the armature field.
The armature field distorts the
main field, causing the neutral
plane shifted in the direction of
rotation. This reaction of the
armature in displacing the
neutral plane is known as
armature reaction.
Generator
electrical
Old
neutral New neutral
plane
plane
rotation
If, now, the brushes are allowed to remain in the old neutral plane; they
will short
short--circuit the armature coils which have voltage induced in them.
Consequently, there will be arcing between the brushes and commutator.
Armature Reaction - Motor

When the armature rotates clockwise, two fields in existence;
the main field and the armature field.
Electrical
neutral
plane
If, now, the brushes are allowed to remain in the old neutral plane; they
will short
short--circuit the armature coils which have voltage induced in them.
Consequently, there will be arcing between the brushes and commutator.
Correcting Armature Reaction
To prevent this, the brushes must be shifted to the new neutral plane.
However, a mere shifting of the brushes to the advanced position of
the neutral plane does not completely solve the problems of armature
reaction.
Since the effect of armature reaction varies with the load current,
every time the load current varies the neutral plane shifts; meaning
that the brush position will have to be changed.
Compensating Windings or Inter-poles

In larger machines, more elaborate means are taken to eliminate
armature reaction, such as using compensating windings or
inter--poles.
inter
to provide true correction of
armature reaction over the effects
produced by the interpoles
- Compensating windings are
located in slots cut in the faces
of the main pole shoes
- compensating windings are

connected in series with the
armature windings
- the sides of the coils lie parallel

with the side of the armature coils
- the ampere-turns of the winding
equal to those of the armature
winding, while the flux due to it is
opposite in direction to the
armature flux
Interpole windings wound on narrow-faced

aux.pole pieces midway between the main poles
connected in series with the armature windings
interpole has the same polarity as the next main pole
in the direction of rotation
the fluxes are opposite in direction to the armature flux,
they can be equalized at all load
Electromagnetic field
Permanent-magnet fields are used only in very small generators called
Permanentmagnetos. Most practical DC generators have electromagnetic fields.
The field poles (pole shoes) are usually

laminated and bolted to the inside of
the frame, forming a core on which the
field coils are wound.
The field coils are made up of many

turns of insulated wire and are
usually wound on a form which fits
over the iron core of the pole shoe.
Aircraft D.C Generator

D.C. generators used on aircraft may differ somewhat in design, since
they are made by various manufacturers. All, however, are of the same
general construction and operate similarly. The major parts, or
assemblies of a DC generator are a field frame, a rotating armature, and
a brush assembly.
Generator efficiency
When a generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy,
certain losses occur; the lost energy being dissipated in the form
of heat.
The temperature of the machine rises until a steady state is reached,
when the rate of production of heat is equal to the rate at which it is
dissipated.
The temperature of the surrounding air influences the maximum
temperature which determines the maximum current output of a
generator
The electrical power developed in the armature is equal to the
applied mechanical power less the iron and frictional losses;
while the electrical power output is equal to the electrical power
developed in the armature less the copper losses.
Transformation of mechanical energy

into electrical energy
Electrical losses
Pin
pout
Rotational lossess
Core
Mechanical losses
losses
Rotor
Stator copper
Stray copper losses
losses losses
and
windage loss
The electrical power developed in the armature is equal to the applied

mechanical power less the iron loss, friction loss and windage loss
The electrical power output of the generator is equal to the electrical
power developed in the armature less the copper losses
The total losses which occur may be grouped as copper losses,
sometimes known as electrical losses; and the iron and friction
losses, or rotational losses.
Generator Losses
Copper losses (electrical losses), P = I2R, varies with the load current
Armature winding copper loss
Field windings (including series winding, shunt winding, compensating
winding and interpole winding) copper losses
Loss due to carbon brush contact resistance (contact surface resistance
between the brushes and the commutator)
Iron losses, sometimes referred to as core losses :
Hysteresis loss in the armature;
Eddy current loss in the armature and the pole pieces
Friction losses are purely mechanical losses :
Friction between brush contact surfaces and the commutator;
Friction in the bearing, oil drag, etc.;
Wind resistance of the rotating armature (windage loss) .
Core Losses
Core losses in the armature core due to hysteresis and eddy
currents. Hysteresis loss is dependent upon the quality of the steel.
It is proportional to the frequency and is approximately
proportional to the square of the flux.
The eddy current loss is due to circulating currents set up in the
steel laminations.
N
Large Eddy
current
circulating
Less Eddy
current
circulating
S
Solid core
S
Laminated core
Generator Efficiencies
Mechanical efficiency:
Power developed in the armature
power supplied by prime mover
Electrical efficiency:
Power in the external circuit
power developed in the armature
commercial efficiency:
( overall efficiency)
Kilo--Watts in external circuit
Kilo
mechanical power supplied
The efficiency of a generator is

usually closely related to its
output, voltage and speed.
A higher efficiency can be
expected from a machine of large
output than from one of small
output.
A high voltage machine will
usually be much more efficient
than a low voltage machine of
comparable output.
A high speed generator will
similarly be more efficient than a
low speed machine of comparable
voltage and output .
Generator Rating
The rating of an electrical machine:
machine:
is the output it can supply under specified conditions for a
specified period without exceeding a specified rise in temperature.
Normal economic rating :

as generators do not normally operate at maximum load for long
periods, but it operates most efficiently at a point rather lower
than full load.
Maximum continuous rating :

the highest load that the generator can carry continuously without
exceeding the specified rises in temperature.
A machine operates at the maximum continuous rating will not

normally be at the peak of efficiency
Generator or Motor
Shunt--wound machine as generator or motor
Shunt
motor..
ID
Rheostat
Center-zero
ammeter
A
Field regulator
IM
Shunt field
winding
If
ED
Ia - armature current
Ra - armature
resistance
BAT
EB
The machine acts as a generator : e.m.f. generated in the armature ED = V + IaRa

where V is the terminal voltage
The machine acts as a motor : e.m.f. Is less than than the applied voltage V
E = V - IaRa or V = E + IaRa where E is the back e.m.f. generated in the armature
Starter--Generator
Starter
A starterstarter-generator is a combination of a generator and a
starter in one housing. It is designed to provide high torque
for engine starting and generate dc electric power for the
aircrafts electrical systems.
Starter-generator
Most starterstarter-generators contain at least two sets of field
windings and only one armature winding.
While in the start mode, the starter
starter--generator employs a low
resistance series field. At this time a high current flows
through both the field and armature windings, producing the
high torque required for engine starting.
While in the generator mode, the starterstarter-generator is capable
of supplying current to the aircrafts electrical system.
Starter-Generator Schematic
Starter
Switch
+ve
Armature
Generator
output
28 VDC
Shunt
field
winding
Series
field
winding
Starter
cut--out
cut
switch
-ve
Starter-generator schematic diagram
Battery
Starter-Generator Acts as a Starter

Starter
Switch
+ve
Armature
closed
Generator
output
28 VDC
Shunt
field
winding
Series
field
winding
Starter
cut--out
cut
switch
-ve
Battery
Starter-Generator Acts as a Generator

Starter
Switchopen
+ve
Armature
Generator
output
28 VDC
Shunt
field
winding
Series
field
winding
Starter
cut--out
cut
switch
-ve
Battery
Ways to Monitor Generator Output

The ammeter can be placed in the generator output lead, as
shown in figure (a), or in the battery positive lead, in figure (b).
GEN
GEN
GENERATOR
OUTPUT
TO AIRCRAFT
LOADS
B
U
S
0 60
AMMETER
(a)
GENERATOR OUTPUT
TO AIRCRAFT LOADS
B
U
S
-60 TO 0 TO 60
AMMETER
(b)
Principles of Voltage Regulation

In a generator, the voltage produced depends on three factors:
(1) the speed at which the armature rotates,
(2) the number of conductors in series in the armature, and
(3) the strength of the magnetic field (field current).
A+
F+
RHEOSTAT
LOAD
(or carbon-piled
voltage regulator)
ARMATURE
SHUNT
FIELD
LOAD
Module 3
3.13
AC THEORY
AC Theory - Analogy
Alternating current
is defined as current
that periodically PUMP
changes direction
and continuously
changes in
magnitude.
Hydraulic analogy of
alternating current.
RECIPROCATING
MOTION
WORKING
PISTON
Alternating current waveforms

The curves relating current to time are known as waveforms.
Those shown in the Figure below are simple waveforms, but
waveforms can be quite complicated
i
Sinusoidal wave
Square wave
Triangular wave
Alternating current waveforms

When the waveform of an AC voltage or current passes through a
complete set of positive and negative values, it completes a cycle
Sinusoidal Wave
A current varies in the fashion of a sine curve is known as
alternating current
Values of alternating current and voltage are indicated by
a sine curve or sinusoidal wave.
It flows first in one direction and then in the other; the
cycle of variation is repeated for each direction
+
0
Maximum EMF
90
180 360
270
90
180
360
270
0
Alternating Current Waveform
90
180
270
360
Pulsating D.C waveform

Pulsating DC, other waveforms of
current
current
time
time
Pulsating DC does not always vary between zero and a maximum

value, but may vary over any range between these values
The waveform of a d.c. generator is pulsating d.c., which does not fall
to zero which varies instead only slightly below the maximum value
Sinusoidal wave of E.M.F.

+
Em isPeak value
The emf can be represented

by a sinusoidal wave
e is instantaneous value
e is the value after the loop

has rotated through an angle O
from the position of zero emf
The loop has rotated through
1800 or radians, the emf is
again zero
90
Where Em represents the

maximum value of the emf
-
Em
180
- Em
270
360
1 cycle
Sinusoidal wave of emf

+
3
2
0
90
180
270
360
The emf induced in position 2

can be seen to recur each time
the emf waveform rises from zero
Extended Sinusoidal wave of emf
Cycles and Periods

1 cycle
+
1 cycle
+
T = 1 mS
90
180
270
360
90
180
270
360
time
-
Period T seconds
Cycle is that each repetition of a variable quantity,

recurring at equal intervals
Period (T) is that the duration of one cycle
Instantaneous value is that the magnitude of a waveform
at any instant in time (or position of rotation)
Effect on waveform by varying frequency (f) = 1 / T
Frequency = 1 / 1 mS = 1000 Hertz if T = 1 mS
Superimposed A.C. Waveform

DC waveform and AC waveform
DC level
Transferred
AC axis
AC
axis
DC waveform + AC waveform = superimposed AC waveform
When direct current and alternating current voltages are both

present in the same circuit, the resulting voltage waveform is a
combination of the two voltages
The AC waveform is added to the DC waveform, with the value of
the DC voltage becoming the axis
Resembled A.C. Waveform Switching D.C.

Pulsating DC, resembles AC waveform
current
Switch
closed
Switch
closed
3
2
1
1 Switch 2 Switch 3
closed
closed
4 time
In a circuit consisting of a resistor and a switch connected across a battery,

open and close the switch, causing the current to stop and start but not to
reverse direction, the circuit current is pulsating direct current
AC Induction
Generation of
alternating current by
a simple generator.
The north and south poles of the
magnet supplies the magnetic field
The loop of wire rotates through
the field is the Armature
The emf is generated in the

loop, therefore the current
which flows and depends on
the position of the loop in
relation to the magnetic field
The emf generated is alternating
through a complete cycle of zero
through 360 degrees
Zero degree
90 degrees
180 degrees
270 degrees
The voltage output

waveform for the
complete revolution
of the loop
360 degrees
Frequency of A.C.
amplitude
1 cycle
+
time
25 cycles
1/2 second
Frequency is the number of cycles per second, in hertz

If 25 cycles are completed in 1/2 second, the frequency is 50 cycles per second
Instantaneous voltage of Sinusoidal Wave
0o
90o
180o
270o
(b) Conductor rotated

through a circular path in a
uniform magnetic field.
The angles of intersection
of the conductor with the
field are shown by the
arrows at 45o increments
360o
(a) Sinusoidal curve
Direction of
flux
0o
Instantaneous
direction of
conductor
270o
90o
180o
Peak and Peak-to-peak values of

Sinusoidal Wave
Maximum and Peak-to-Peak values of a Sinusoidal Wave
Maximum positive value
Peak-to-peak value
Peak value
of AC is twice the
maximum value Peak-topeak value
Maximum value
of DC waveform
The max. value

of AC
waveform
90
180
360
270
Maximum negative value
v
Peak-to-peak
voltage
Peak voltage
R.M.S. Value of A.C.

R.M.S. Value of an alternating current
d.c.
Imax = 1 A
a.c.
+ 1000 F
Imax = 1 A
+ 70.70 F
The rate at which heat is produced in a resistance forms a basis for

establishing an effective value of a.c., is known as the heating effect method
A d.c. current flows through a resistance produces heat of 1000 F is equivalent
to an a.c. current flows through a similar resistance produces heat of 70.70 F
The alternating current is only 0.707 as effective as a d.c. equal in
value to the a.c. peak value
Ieff = 0.707 Imax ; Then Ieff is the r.m.s. value of an alternating current
The r.m.s. or effective value of an alternating current is measured in terms of
the d.c. that produced the same heating effect in the same resistance
Measuring a Battery Voltage with

an a.c. Voltmeter
7.5 volts d.c.
battery
0 - 25 volt AC
r.m.s. voltmeter
r.m.s. AC voltmeter can give an approximate measure of the value of a d.c. voltage
The voltage indicated on the r.m.s. Voltmeter is approximately 10 % higher
than that of the battery
- The reason is that, although the a.c. voltmeter is calibrated in r.m.s. values, the needle
deflection is proportional to the average current through the meter movement
- Assume that, with 7.5 volts r.m.s., the mean current through the movement is 3 mA
- The r.m.s. value of this current will be 0.707 / 0.637 times 3 mA - i.e., 3.33 mA
- The meter resistance is then 7.5 volts / 3.33 mA = 2250 ohms
- When 7.5 volts d.c. is applied to an a.c. voltmeter, the r.m.s. voltmeter behaves as if
8.3 volts r.m.s. voltage has been applied, i.e., 10 % above the true voltage
Average and R.M.S. Values of A.C.

Average and R.M.S. values of an Alternating Current
Average current Iav
= i1 + i2 + i3 + ..in / n
Suppose I is the d.c. through the same

resistance R to produce a heating equal
to the average heating effect of the a.c
Then I =
Current
i1
i2
i3
i4
i5
i6
i52R
i62R
Time
-
Heating effect
Area enclosed over half-cycle

Length of base over half-cycle
In figure (b), the average
(a)
heating effect due to current I
passing through resistor R
i12R + i22R + . + in2R
2
IR =
n
=
Where i is the instantaneous current
i12 + i22+ . + in2 (b)0

)
(
n
Average current
i12R
i22R
i32R
i42R
= root mean square (or r.m.s.) value of the current; also

the effective value of the current
i2R
Average and R.M.S. Values

The r.m.s. value of a sinusoidal current is always greater than the
average value of that current, except for a rectangular wave, in
which case the heating effect remains constant so that the average
and the r.m.s. values are the same
r.m.s. value
= 1.11
Form factor of a wave is =
average value
peak or maximum value
Peak or crest factor of a wave is =
= 1.414
r.m.s. value
Average value of a sinusoidal current or voltage is 0.637 x maximum value
Iav = 0.637 Im
r.m.s. value of a sinusoial current or voltage is 0.707 x maximum value
Irms = 0.707 Im
Form factor of a sinusoidal wave is kf = 0.707 Im / 0.637 Im = 1.11
peak or crest factor of a sinusoidal wave is kp = Im / 0.707 Im = 1.414
An a.c. is said to have an effective value of 1 amp when it will produce heat in a given
resistance at the same rate does 1 amp of d.c.; the peak value of such an a.c. is 1.414 amp
Average and R.M.S. Values

Average and r.m.s. values of sinusoidal currents and voltages
voltage
current
im
t
Im is the maximum current
varies sinusoidally
Heating effect in
thermal ammeter
i m 2R
Average value
i is the instantaneous value
i 2R
i = Im sin 0 where 0 is the angle in radians from instant of zero current

For a small interval d0, the area of the strip is i d0 ampere-radians
The area enclosed by the current wave over half-cycle is
i d0 = Im
0
= - Im Cos 0
Sin 0 d0
0
= - Im (-1 - 1) = 2 Im ampere-radians
Average value of current over a half-cycle is 2 Im /
= 0.637 Im amperes
Phasor Representation of A.C.

Representation of an alternating current by a phasor
Current or voltage sinusoidal wave
When OA rotates through an angle 0 from the position of zero degree,

the instantaneous value of the current or voltage at that instant is : i = Im sin0
If f is the frequency in hertz, OA rotates through f revolutions of 2 f radians in 1 sec.
The angular velocity of OA is
= 2 f ; therefore i = Im sin
t = Im sin 2 f t
Phasor Representation of A.C.

Phasor representation of quantities differing in phase
The current lags the voltage by a phase angle O

If the instantaneous value of the current is represented by : i = Im sin 0 . Then
the instantaneous value of the voltage is represented by : v = Vm sin ( 0 + O )
Three-phase A.C.
The letters R, Y and B are abbreviations of red
red,, yellow and blue
blue,,
namely the colors used to identify the three phases.
Also,red--yellowAlso,red
yellow-blueis the sequence that is universally adopted to
denote that the e.m.f in the yellow phase lags that in the red phase
by a third of a cycle, and the e.m.f in the blue phase lags that in the
yellow phase by another third of a cycle.
Phase rotation
R
B1
Y
S
N
Y1
Each phase physically

displaces by 1200
R1
Generation of three-phase e.m.f.s
AC Generation
When the one of the loops has moved through 90o to the position
shown in the figure below, the generated e.m.f is at its maximum
value, its direction round the loop being from the start slip-ring
towards the finish slip-ring.
The loop
RR1 cuts the flux lines at right angle.
R
N
R1
S
Finish
Start
Slip-rings for phase RR1
The loopRR1 is at the instant of maximum e.m.f.
Three-phase A.C. Voltages

Three--phase system is known as polyphase circuit.
Three
Voltage A (leading)
Voltage B
Voltage C (lagging)
eR
ey
1200
1200
1200
eB
Vector diagram
shows the phase
rotation in anti-clockwise direction
360
00
120
240
The phase angle
difference between
voltages A, B and C are
Voltage sinusoidal curves of a threethree-phase circuit.
1200 apart
If the instantaneous emf of phase A is eR = Em sin 0

The instantaneous emf of phase Y is eY = Em sin (0 - 1200)
The instantaneous emf of phase B is eB = Em sin (0 - 2400)
Relationship of A.C. Current and Voltage

In most ac circuits consist of R, L and C, a phase shift exists
between voltage and current.
The figure shows sinusoidal curves representing the current lagging
the voltage, or the voltage leading the current.
Current
180
Voltage
360
Voltage leads current by a certain phase degrees difference
Relationship of A.C. Current and Voltage

The voltage is approximately 90
90out of phase with the current.
Current
Voltage
90
180
270
360
Current leads voltage by

a phase angle difference of 900
Three-phase A.C. System Connections

Three phase system connections
finish
eR
start R1
finish Y
Y1
start
finish B
Delta connection
eR
1
2,3
eY
Loads
eY
eR + eY + eB
=0
4,5
eB
eB
start
B1
A three-phase windings
with six line conductors
The instantaneous value of the

resultant e.m.f. in a delta-connected
windings is equal to zero
Three-phase A.C. Star-connections

Y
iY
Y
Y1
R1
iR
Line conductors
B1
B
iB
L3
iN
B
L1
L2
Neutral conductor
In a balance 3-phase system, the instantaneous value of the resultant
current in the neutral conductor of a Star-connected windings
is equal to zero
That is the neutral current : iN = iR + iY + iB = 0
Three-phase A.C. Delta-connections

In a delta connected windings, the voltage between any two terminals
of an alternator is equal to the voltage across one phase winding.
A
Phase 1
110V
Phase 2
110V
C
B
Phase 3 110V
Delta--connected alternator stator windings.
Delta
The line voltage VL is equal to the phase voltage VP
The line current IL is equal to the phase current of 1.732 x IP
Relationship of phase voltage and

line voltage - Star-connected
In an aircraft ac generator of Star
Star--connected (Y
(Y--connected)
stator windings, the neutral wire is grounded, and the three
phase connections, which may be 1, 2, and 3, are distributed to
the power system of the airplane.
120V
Neutral
wire
3
2
208V
208V
120V
120V
208V
A YY-connected alternator stator windings

The line current IL is equal to the phase current Ip
The line voltage VL is equal to the phase voltage of 1.732 x Vp
Three-phase A.C. generators

The figure shows three
identical singlesingle-phase
ac generators driven
by one shaft.
E or I
Phase a
Vectors of
E or I for
phases a,b
and c.
120 120
120
Common
drive shaft
Phase b
Phase c
Three-phase A.C. Generator

An elementary
3-phase
generator is
shown in the
right figure.
Three-phase A.C. windings

The three phase
phase--windings of a 33-phase generator
are represented schematically by coil symbols.
Phase a
Phase c
Phase b
3-phase star
connection
3-phase delta
connection
A.C. Power Distribution Star-connected

The figure shows a starstar-connected power source
with a four
four--wire distribution system.
Star or
neutral point
of generator
Loads supplied with Loads supplied with

line voltage
phase voltage
Line a
Phase a
Phase c
VL
VL
Vp
VL
Phase b
Line b
Line c
Vp
VL
Vp
Neutral
Vp
In a star
connected
supply system
EL = 1.73EP
and IL = IP
Vector Representation of
Three-phase A.C.
Three phase ac circuit theory
Line voltages
EL = 3 or
1.73 of EP
The sum of
a and c is
summed in
turn with b
to give the
Resultant
current in
the neutral.
c
b
Phase voltages
Balanced phase
currents
Unbalanced
phase currents
AC Theory
The voltage between any one line and the neutral is
known as the phase voltage because it is the same as
the voltage induced in one phase. The voltage between
an two lines is known as the line voltage.
With a star
star--connected power supply, the lines carry the
same current as the phases to which they are connected.
That is, line current = phase current.
With a perfectly balanced starstar-connected system,
the neutral wire carries no current, and in systems with
permanently balanced loads it can be dispensed with.
Relationship of phase voltage and

line voltage - Delta-connected
A delta connected generator with three distribution lines
connected to the junctions between the three phase windings.
Loads
Line 1
Phase b
Line 2
Phase a
Delta connected
3-phase generator
Phase c
Line 3
In a delta
connected
supply system
EL = EP and
IL = 1.73 IP
Three-phase Power
The output power of a 33--phase system is the total power
delivered in each phase
Assume balance loading
Pphase = IP x VP cos 0
Ptotal = 3 x Pphase = 3I
3IPVP cos 0
For star
star
connection
VL = 3 VP
&
IL = IP
For delta
delta
connection
VL = VP
&
IL = 3 I P
In both case, we get

Ptotal = 3ILVL cos 0
Where
cos 0
is the power factor
Module 3
3.14
RLC CIRCUITS
AC in a resistive circuit
i
i=v/R
v
Im = Vm / R
I=V/R
I = 0.707 Im
A resistive circuit
V = 0.707 Vm
I , V , R, t
The voltage and current are
in phase
Phasor diagram
AC in a resistive circuit
v, i
Voltage
+
v
0
Current
Vm
i
Im
1800
3600
Voltage and current waveforms of a resistive circuit

In a pure resistive circuit, voltage is in phase with current
AC in an inductive circuit
i
XL = 2 fL
XL = Vm / Im
v
A
XL = V / I
V = 0.707 Vm
I = 0.707 Im
An inductive circuit
V
the current lags the voltage

by 90o
I, R, t
Phasor diagram
i
E
B
H
G
F
Current
e, di/dt
e O
di / dt
K
0
Induced e.m.f.
R
M
S
P
L N
Rate of change of
current
t
Waveforms of current, rate of change of current

and induced e.m.f.
The inductive reactance

Definition: is the actual opposition to current flow created
by inductors in an ac circuit.
Symbol: XL
The formula is : XL = 2 fL
XL = inductive reactance,
f = frequency, Hz
L = inductance, H
voltage
current
v, e, i
Im
0
90o
180o
270o
360o
Voltage and current waveforms for a purely inductive circuit

The voltage leads the current by 900
v, i
Applied voltage
Current
Im
di
0
dt
1/2 f
1f
Voltage and current waveforms for a purely inductive circuit

The voltage leads the current by 900
Current
Inductive reactance
Frequency
Variation of reactance and current with frequency for

a purely inductive circuit
A
Applied
force
Reaction
Speed
Applied force
(Applied voltage)
Speed
( current )
Time
Reaction
( induced e.m.f. )
Mechanical analogy of a purely inductive circuit
Resistor and inductor in series

I
V = (VR2 + VL2)
V
VR = I R; VL = I XL
V=IZ
Impedance Z = (R2 + XL2)
the current lags the voltage by
a phase angle greater than 0o
but less than 90o
= tan-1 (XL / R)
VR
VL
(a)
V
Z
XL
VL
VR
I
(b) Phasor diagram
v, i
v
i
Vm
/
Angular
velocity
Im
/2
(c)
2 /
3 /2
Voltage in a R-L Series Circuit
IXL
IR
is the phase angle between current and voltage

The instantaneous phasor diagram, and the resulting wave
diagram, shows that the current lags the voltage by a phase
angle greater than 0o but less than 90o. The phase angle
between voltage and current is determined by the ratio of
resistance to inductive reactance in the circuit. The greater the
value of this ratio, the less will be the angle .
VL
V
XL
Z
VR
(a)
(b)
AC in a capacitive circuit
i
XC = 1 / 2 fC
XC = Vm / Im
v
A
A
C
XC = V / I
V = 0.707 Vm
I = 0.707 Im
A capacitive circuit
I , R, t
the current leads the voltage

by 90o
V
Phasor diagram
v, i
Applied voltage
Current
Im
dv
0
di
1/ 2 f
1f
Voltage and current waveform for a purely capacitive circuit
The capacitive reactance

Definition: is the actual opposition to current flow in a given
ac circuit.
Symbol: XC
The formula is
XC = 1 / 2 f C
XC = capacitive reactance,
f = frequency, Hz
C = capacitance, F
Xc , i
Current
Capacitive
reactance
0
Frequency
Variation of reactance and current with frequency

for a purely capacitive circuit
Resistor and capacitor in series

I
V = (VR2 + VC2)
VR = I R; VC = I XC
V=IZ
VR
VC
Z = (R2 + XC2)
the current leads the voltage
by a phase angle greater than
0o but less than 90o
=
tan-1
(XC / R)
I
R
Z
VR
VC
XC
V
Phasor diagram
v, i
v
i
Angular
velocity
Im
Vm
(c)Instantaneous
phasor diagram
/2
2 /
3 /2
(d) Wave diagram
VR
R
VC
XC
Z
(a) Voltage diagram
(b) Impedance diagram
Inductor and capacitor in series

I
V = (VL - VC)
VR = I XL; VC = I XC
VL
V=IZ
Z=
VC
(XL - XC)2 + R2 = XL - XC
where R is zero
the current leads or lags the voltage
by a phase angle of 90o depends on
the magnitudes of VL and VC
= tan-1 (XL - XC / R) = 900
VL
VL
XL
I
XC
VC
I
VC
Phasor diagram
AC in an RLC series circuit

V=[
VR2
+(
VL-VC)2 ]
VR = I R VC = I XC VL = I XL
R
V
C
V=IZ
Z=[
R2
+(
XL-XC)2 ]
Current flow in an ac series circuit is

maximum whenever XL = XC
XL - X C
= tan-1 [(XL - XC ) / R]
R
AC in an RLC series circuit

If the XL is greater
XL
R
than the XC, the

current lags the
voltage by an angle
XC
Initial diagram
RCL circuit
If the XL is less than

leads the voltage by an
angle
the XC, the current

X L X C
Resultant diagram
RCL circuit
Resistor and inductor in parallel

I=
(IR2
+ IL
2)
IR = V / R; IL = V / XL
V=IZ
IR
IL
Z = 1 / [(1/ R)2 + (1/ XL) 2]

the current lags the voltage by a
phase angle greater than 0o but
less than 90o
= tan-1 (IL/ IR) = tan-1 (R / XL)
Since IL = V / XL and IR = V / R
V
IR
IL
I
IR
Phasor diagram
Resistor and capacitor in parallel

I=
(IR2
IC2)
IR = V / R; IL = V / XC
V=IZ
IR
IC
Z = 1 / [(1/ R)2 + (1/ XC) 2]

the current leads the voltage by a
phase angle greater than 0o but
less than 90o
= tan-1 (IC/ IR) = tan-1 (R / XC)
Since IC = V / XC and IR = V / R
IC
IR
I
IR
Phasor diagram
Resistor, Inductor and capacitor

in parallel
I
I = (IR2 + (IC - IL)2)
IR
IL
IC
IR = V / R; IL = V / XL ; IC = V/XL
V
X = XL // XC
V=IZ
Z = 1 / [(1/ R)2 + (1/ X) 2]
IC
the current leads the voltage by a phase

angle greater than 0o but less than 90o
= tan-1 ((IC - IL)/ IR) = tan-1 (R / X)
Since IX = V / X and IR = V / R
I
IC - IL
IR
IL Phasor diagram
Phase Angle
Definition: it is the angular distance between current and
voltage in an ac circuit
Symbol:
Formula
tan
= opposite side / adjacent side
In a pure resistive circuit

= 0o
In a pure capacitive or inductive circuit
= 90o
Phase Angle
A small
means the resistance
the reactance vector

a large
XL = 10
vector is large compared with
Z = 22.4
occurs when the

R = 20
inductive or capacitive reactance

vector is much larger than the
resistance vector
Sin
= 10 / 22.4 = 0.446
= sin-1 (0.446) = 26.5o

for example ...
AC in an RLC Series Circuit
ET/Z = I
Resonance in RLC Series Networks

An a.c. Voltage of variable frequency is
applied to a circuit consisting of :
A resistor R, an inductor L and a capacitor C
a.c. voltage source of
variable frequency
R
V
As the frequency of the applied voltage rises,

- the capacitive reactance XC decreases but
the inductive reactance XL increases
- At one frequency, fr, such that XC = XL
- the frequency, fr, is called the resonant frequency
- then the impedance, Z, of the circuit is equal to
the resistance, and the current is maximum
2 frL = 1 / 2 frC
XL = XC
the resonant frequency, fr = 1 / 2
LC
The R is minimum and the current in C or L is maximum
L
XL
=0
R=Z
XC
Circuit Magnification
I
F1 - f2 is the bandwidth
current I = E / R
Narrow bandwidth, good selectivity
L
E
EL
Radio frequency
ER
EC
Input signal
maximum at f0
Impedance Z rises and

current I = E/Z, falls
either side at f0
Output voltage
EC = QE
By adjusting C or L for the tuning of the circuit
0.707
f2 f0 f1
Selectivity curve
(f0 is Resonant frequency)
At resonance, EL and EC are equal and opposite so that their resultant is zero
EL or EC is considered itself can be a high value of voltage which is
much greater that ER (which equal to the supply voltage E)
The ratio of the voltage across the L or C to the applied voltage E is
known as the voltage magnification or (Q factor) = EL/E or EC/E
Since EL = IXL and EC = I XC; then Q = wL / R or 1 / wCR and f0 = 1/2
LC
Resonance in RLC Parallel

Networks
In practice, the inductive circuit has some
resistance R, however small
R
V
IL
Current through inductive branch is :
IC
IL =
V
R2 + ( 2
fL)2
Phase angle between IL and V is : 0 = tan-1 2 fL / R

Since R is assumed to be very small compared
with the inductive reactance of L, 0 is nearly 900
Current taken by capacitor is :
IC = 2 fCV, leading 900
If IL and Ic be such that the resultant current I is in phase with

the supply voltage V, then the network is said to be in resonance
While the R is maximum, and the current through the C is maximum
Resonance in RLC Parallel

Networks
If IL and Ic be such that the resultant current I is in phase with the
supply voltage V, then the network is said to be in resonance Ic = IL sin 0
Ic
Reactance of coil
Sin 0 =
Impedance of coil
2 fr L
R2 + ( 2
fL)2
Where fr is the frequency at resonance, and

IL = V /
I
V
Therefore,
So that fr =
fr =
IL
2 fr CV =
1
2
1
LC
1
2
LC
R2 + ( 2
fL)2
2 fr LV
R2 + ( 2
R2
L2
or
Zr =
fL)2
C
(2
2 fr L
R
1
fr)2 L
When resonance occurs in a parallel circuit, the current in L and C can be many times greater
than the resultant current I, the current taken from the supply can be greatly magnified
sin 0
2 fr L
I sin 0
IC
= L
= tan 0 =
=
= Q factor of the circuit
cos 0
I
I
R
Phase angle
means the resistance
vector is large compared with

the reactance vector
a large
XL = 10
A small
Z = 22.4
occurs when the
R = 20
inductive or capacitive reactance

vector is much larger than the
resistance vector
Sin
= 10 / 22.4 = 0.446
= sin-1 (0.446) = 26.5o
Power in the AC circuit

The imaginary power
inductors and capacitors do not dissipate energy which
supports the theory of the impossible power
p = i 2R
The real power or active power
Resistive element can dissipates energy from the circuit

The apparent power (S)
Definition: it is the product of the voltage and the
current in an ac circuit
S = VI
Unit: volt-amperes (VA)
Symbol: S

The true power (P)
apparent power has two components:
true power or active power
Q
S
reactive power or wattless power

Symbol: P
Formula:
P = VI cos
0P
Unit: Watts
S2 = P2 + Q2

The reactive power (Q)
apparent power has two components:
true power or active power
reactive power or wattless power
Symbol: Q
Formula:
Q = VI sin
Unit: VAr
S2 = P2 + Q2
Power in a resistive circuit

Average power
P = I 2R
P = VI
The power in a non-reactive circuit is given by the
product of the ammeter and voltmeter readings
active power (P) = the average power = I2R
Power in a resistive circuit

Current in-phase with voltage
V,i, p
P
i
V
R
Average
Power (P)
Waveforms for a resistive circuit
In the pure resistive circuit

- active power, or true power would be absorbed
- the effective power is the active power, or real power
The real power due to the resistance R is I2R watts
Power in an inductive circuit

Current lags voltage by 900
V,i, p
The reactive power curve is the

resultant of the curves v and i
i
XL
XL = wL = 2 fL
In the pure inductive circuit

- no active power, or true power would be absorbed
- the apparent power is the reactive power
The reactive power due to the inductive reactance XL is
I2XL = I2 wL = I2 . 2 fL (VAr)
Power in a capacitive circuit

Current leads voltage by 900
V,i, p
The reactive power curve is the

v resultant of the curves v and i
i
i
XC
XC = 1 / wC = 1 / 2 fC
In the pure capacitive circuit

- no active power, or true power would be absorbed
- the apparent power is the reactive power
The reactive power due to the capacitive reactance XC is
I2 XC = I2 / wC =I2 / 2 fC (VAr)
Power in a R-L circuit

Current lags voltage by 0- 0
V,i, p
R
i
v
i
XL
The apparent power curve is the

resultant product of the curves
due to i and v
XL = wL = 2 fL
In the R-L circuit

- the real power p = VI cos 0- watts
where cos 0- is the power factor
VXL
0-
VR
VXL = I . XL
Power in a R-C circuit

Current leads voltage by 0-0
V,i, p
R
i
V
XC

due to i and v
XC = 1/wC = 1 / 2 fC
In the R-C circuit
VR
0-
- the active power p = VI cos 0- watts

VXC
VXC = I . XC
Power in a R-L circuit

V,i, p
R
i
XL

due to i and v
XL = wL = 2 fL
In the R-L circuit

VXL
0-
VR
VXL = I . XL
Power in a R-L-C circuit

V,i, p
R
i
V
XL
XC
v
i

due to i and v
VXL
XL = wL = 2 fL
V
VXL - VXC
XC = 1/wC = 1 / 2 fC
0-
In the R-L-C circuit
VR

VXL = I . XL
VXC
VXC = I . XC
Power factor
Definition: the ratio of the active power (P) to the apparent
power (S)
Formula
power factor = cos 0 =
(active power) / ( apparent power)
power factor = cos 0 = watts / volt-amperes
power factor = P / S
power factor = resistance / impedance
Symbol: cos
Module 3
3.15
TRANSFORMERS
Transformer
A transformer is a device for converting an ac voltage at one
frequency to another ac voltage at the same frequency.
A transformer consists of three main parts:
(1) an iron core which provides a circuit of low reluctance
for an alternating magnetic field created by,
(2) a primary winding which is connected to the main
power source, and
(3) a secondary winding which receives electrical energy by
mutual induction from the primary winding and delivers it
to the secondary circuit.
Transformers - Main parts
Output voltage
Load
Input ac voltage
Primary winding
Secondary winding
Flux
Transformers - Alternating magnetic flux

When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary
winding,
an alternating current will flow in the primary winding to
set up an alternating magnetic flux in the core.
Laminated
core
AC output
AC input
Secondary winding
Primary winding
Flux
Transformers - Induced e.m.f.

If the whole flux produced by primary winding passes through
secondary winding, the e.m.f. induced in each turn is same for
primary winding and secondary winding.
Hence, if N1 and N2 are the number of turns on primary
winding and secondary winding respectively,
Total e.m.f. induced in secondary winding (E2)
N2
Total e.m.f. induced in primary winding (E1) = N1
The ratio of the number of turns on the secondary winding
(N2) to the number of turns on the primary winding (N1) is
termed as the turns ratio (T)
i.e., T = N2 / N1
Transformers - On load
When a load is connected across the secondary terminals, the
secondary current produces a demagnetizing effect.
Consequently, the flux and the e.m.f. induced in the
primary are reduced slightly.
This small change increases the difference between the
applied voltage and the e.m.f. induced in the primary
winding.
Thus, the magnetizing current in the primary winding is
increased to compensate the demagnetizing effect when the
secondary winding on load.
Transformers - Symbol
A transformer circuit diagram symbol consists of two
adjacent inductor symbols with dots.
Using dots at winding terminals is a convenient method for
specifying winding direction relations.
With the dotted terminals selected, currents flowing
into the dotted terminals produce adding flux.
c
a
b
Transformers - Constructions
Primary
Secondary
Primary
Secondary
Open core type
Shell core type
Closed core type
Primary
Secondary
To minimize loss of power, the core of transformer is

normally constructed in thin laminations that are insulated
from each other by oxide or varnish.
Shell core type is a common type of single phase power
transformer.
Transformers - Core
Primary
Secondary Primary
Air-cored
Airtransformer
Secondary Primary
Iron-cored
Irontransformer
Secondary
Ferrite-cored
Ferritetransformer
Ferrite is ferromagnetic compounds of mixed oxides having

iron as the principal metallic component.
They have high enough reluctance to give negligible eddy
current loss.
Transformers - Power coupling

A transformer has the primary winding connected to a
voltage source that produces an alternating current, while the
secondary winding is connected across the load resistance RL.
Although the primary and secondary are not connected to each
other, power in the primary is coupled into the secondary by
the magnetic field linking the two windings.
IP: 10A
10
NP
turns
EP : 10V
NS
100 turns
IS: 1A
Es : 100V
Iron--core transformer with 10 : 1 turns ratio

Iron
RL: 100
Transformers - Step
Step--up or step
step--down
Transformer is used to provide power for the load resistance
RL. Instead of connecting RL directly across the generator,
whenever the load requires an ac voltage higher or lower
than the generator.
When a transformer delivers a higher voltage in the secondary
winding than the voltage in the primary winding, it is said to be a
step--up type.
step
Conversely, a step
step--down transformer is one which delivers a lower
voltage in the secondary winding.
Secondary
winding
Primary
winding
Step--up
Step
Primary
winding
Secondary
winding
Step--down
Step
Transformers - Voltage transformer

To accomplish the function of changing voltage from one
value to another, one winding is wound more turns than the
other.
The figures below illustrate the relationships between turns
(EP) and output (E
(ES) voltages.
ratio (T
(T), input (E
Input
voltage
100V
Primary
winding
1000 turns
Output
voltage ?
Input
voltage
115V
Primary
winding
1150 turns
Secondary
winding
2000 turns
ES = TEP
Output
voltage ?
Secondary
winding
260 turns
No--load Current in a Transformer

No
The emf E1 induced in the primary winding is a
phasor 900 ahead the flux 0
The emf E2 induced in the secondary winding is a
phasor 900 beyond the flux 0
- V1 is the applied voltage to the primary winding and V2
is the terminal voltages across the secondary windings
- The values of E1 and E2 are proportional to the number
of turns on primary and secondary windings
Practically, the whole of the flux set up by the primary
winding is linked with the secondary winding when
the secondary winding is open-circuited
E1
V2
Io
Iol
00
Iom
Cos 0 0 = power factor

on no-load = Iol / Io
V1
- The difference between the V1 and that of the induced

voltage E1 is only 0.05 % when the transformer is on no-load E2
- then the phasor V1 is drawn equal and opposite to the phasor E1
The no-load current, I0, taken by the primary winding consists of two components :
- A reactive or magnetizing component, Iom, producing the flux and and in phase with flux 0
- An active or power component, Iol , supplying the hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core
- The copper loss, I2R , in the primary winding is negligible
In normal procedure, V1 is ensured in phase with V2 with the ends of the winding connected
- Component Iol is out of phase with the applied voltage, i.e., Iol V1 = core loss
The no-load current I0 = square root of (Iol2 + Iom2)
Leakage Flux in a Transformer
0L
Primary
winding
.
.
.
.
.
.
0U
0U
+
+
+
+
+
+
.
.
.
.
.
.
Core path
Transformer core
+
+
+
+
+
+
The useful flux, 0U, linked with both windings and

remaining practically constant in value at all loads
The leakage flux, 0L, half of which is linked with the
primary winding and half with the secondary winding,
and its value is proportional to the load current
0L
Secondary
winding
Air path of
leakage
flux
Method of Reducing Leakage Flux

in a Transformer
Figure 2
Figure 1
Figure 3
The leakage flux can be practically (not commercially practical) eliminated by :

- winding the primary and secondary, one over the other, uniformly around a
laminated ferromagnetic ring of uniform cross-section
The principal methods used in practice are :

- Making the transformer window long and narrow
- Arranging the primary and secondary windings concentrically, as shown in figure 1
- Sanwiching the primary and secondary windings, as shown in figure 2
- Using shell-type construction, as shown in figure 3
Transformers - Transformation of ac voltage

By using transformers with suitable voltage ratings, devices and
circuits that require different values of operation can be fed from
one power source.
Main a.c. Power

source 115V
Input
Transformer
#1
Output 26V
Transformer
#2
Output 8V
Transformer
#3
Output 200V
Transformers - Current transformer

It is difficult to construct an ammeter that can be directly
connected to measure a high alternating current, this
difficulty may be overcome by using current transformer.
Since the magnetic flux is
linking between the
primary winding and the
secondary winding, the
ampere--turns in the
ampere
primary winding is the
same as that in the
secondary winding.
Hence, IPN1 = ISN2.
IP
P
To load
N1
S
N2
IS
A
I P = T IS
Where T is the
turns ratio
Transformers - Current transformer

If the number of primary turns were reduced to one and the
secondary winding had 40 turns, the primary current to give
full--scale reading of 5A on the ammeter would be 200A.
full
The secondary circuit of a current transformer must on no account
be openopen-circuited while the primary winding is carrying a current.
Transformers - Auto transformer

Auto transformer is a transformer which has only a single
winding but with intermediate terminal to divide the winding
into at least two sections.
They have only one winding with at least three terminals as
shown schematically below. Any two of these three terminals
can be used as primary or input connections, and any other
two as secondary or output connections.
A
100 turns
300 turns
200 turns
Transformers - Power transformer

Consider an autotransformer with voltage ratings 100/20V
used as power transformer that will withstand a power input
500VA at any two terminals.
In fact, the auto transformer winding should be able to
withstand up to 2500 VA power.
A
A
500VA
C
100V
Load
20V
20V
C
500VA
Load
D
High voltage winding on

load
B
100V
Low voltage winding on

load
Transformers - B-H characteristics

The larger area of the loop, the greater the energy required to
create the magnetic field and this energy has to be supplied
during each cycle of magnetization.
The area of the loop is related to hysteresis loss
B
The BB-H characteristic (hysteresis loop) of a transformer
Module 3
3.16
FILTERS
Impedance
Consider a signal which has to be transmitted through a
four--terminal network. Although it can have been amplified
four
prior to entering the network, throughout the passage
through the network the signal is liable to loss.
If the loss is to be minimized, it is essential that the network
accepts the maximum power from the source and this
requires that its input impedance is matched to the internal
impedance of the source. A fourfour-terminal network has a
variable load.
If this load is varied so that its impedance is the same as the input
impedance to the network, the resulting value is said to be the
iterative impedance.
If the network is symmetrical, i.e. its input impedance is the same seen
from either the input or the output terminals, the iterative impedance
is also the characteristic impedance.
Attenuation
Attenuation most commonly occurs in the transmission sections
of communications equipment.
Typically associates attenuation with transmission cables.
However, it is also common to introducing attenuation
by means of an attenuator.
It is reasonable to assume that the signals being transmitted
will contain a number or range of frequencies and all
frequencies must be equally attenuated.
Resonance
However, most communications systems involve circuits in
which either a signal operates with a varying frequency,
or a number of signals operate together, each with its own
frequency.
As far as communications systems as well as machine control
systems are concerned, investigate the condition known as
resonance..
resonance
I(f)
V(f) is the source voltage of

a particular frequency
I(f) is the current passing
through the RLC circuit
The maximum current flowing in
the circuit is when resonance occurs
at the resonant frequency
V(f)
RLC network
Resonate frequency
In an RLC series circuit, when it is powered by a dc supply
(frequency is zero), the reactance in the inductor (XL) is zero
while the reactance in the capacitor (XC) is infinite.
As the frequency increases, XL increases in direct proportion,
while XC decreases inversely.
When at frequency where XL is equal to XC, the energy stored
by the reactors is constant and it oscillates between the
electric and magnetic modes of storage.
The whole circuit appears to be resistive
resistive.. There was therefore
a band of frequencies in which the current was relatively high
and outside of which the current was relatively low.
Filters
A network that is designed to attenuate certain frequencies
but pass others without loss is called a filter.
Every filter has to have at least one pass band and at least one
attenuation band. A pass band is a band of frequencies in
which ideally the attenuation is zero. An attenuation band is a
band of frequencies in which ideally the attenuation is infinite.
The specific frequencies at which the operation changes pass
band to attenuation band are called the cutcut-off frequencies.
Attenuation
Pass band
Attenuation band
Cut--off frequency
Cut
Frequency
Symmetrical filters
Typical filters are shown below.
L/2
L/2
C
L/4
C/2
L/4
C
L/4
L
C/2
L/2
C/2
L/4
C/2
L/2
Low--pass filter or high

Low
high--pass filter
The most simple form of filter has only one pass band, one
attenuation band and one cutcut-off frequency.
A lowlow-pass filter requires that it passes all frequencies up to the
cut--off frequency and attenuates or blocks all frequencies above the
cut
cut--off frequency.
cut
A highhigh-pass filter is similar, except that it attenuates all frequencies
up to the cut
cut--off frequency and passes all frequencies above the cut
cut-off frequency.
Cutoff frequency fc is that frequency where the load power drops to
one--half its passband value (half power), or - 3dB (10 log 0.5)
one
In terms of voltage, fc is the frequency where the voltage gain
drops to 0.707 of the passband value, or -3 dB (20 log 0.707)
- Basically, the magnitude of the voltage gain is the ratio of the r.m.s. value
of the output voltage to the r.m.s. value of the source voltage
Simple Low-pass filter

A (voltage gain)
R
0.707
Vs
Vout
fc
Cutoff frequency fc = 1 / 2 pi RC
Low-pass RC filter
At very low frequencies, the capacitive reactance is very high
Consider the capacitor as an open circuit
Under this condition, Vout equals Vs, the voltage gain equals unity.
At very high frequencies, the capacitive reactance is very low
Vout is much smaller than Vs
The filter is operating in its stopband, since the voltage gain is quite low
Simple High-pass filter

A (voltage gain)
1.0
0.707
Vs
Vout
fc
Cutoff frequency fc = 1 / 2
High-pass RC filter
At very low frequencies, the capacitive reactance is very high
Consider the capacitor as an open circuit
Vout is very much smaller than Vs, the voltage gain approaches zero.
At very high frequencies, the capacitive reactance is very low
Vout equals Vs, the voltage gain approaches unity
f
RC
Basic Low-pass LC filter

L
L/2
(a) L section
L
C/2
(c)
L/2
C/2
section
(b) T section
At very low frequencies the
inductors (L) resemble shorts and
the capacitors (C) seem open
Hence, low frequency signals pass
through without significant attenuation
At very high frequencies the
inductors seem open and the
capacitors appear shorted
Very little signal appears at the output
The cutoff frequency associated with the basic sections, given by : fc = 1 2
LC
Low-pass LC filter
For a practical TT-type low
low--pass filter, shown in figure (a), the
attenuation/frequency characteristic takes the form shown in
(b). The filter also causes a phase shift as shown in (c).
Attenuation
L/2
L/2
Frequency
C
(b)
Phase shift
Frequency
(a)
( c)
Basic High-pass LC filter

C
L/2
(b) T section
(a) L section
C/2
(b)
section
The T section has a shunt

inductance of L/2
The
section has a series
capacitance of C/2
High-pass filter
By interchanging the inductive and capacitive elements, we
produce a highhigh-pass filter.
Attenuation
C
Frequency
L/2
(b)
Phase shift
(a) T section
Frequency
(c)
Simple RC Band-pass filter

R1
Vs
R1
C2
C1
R2
Vout
Vs
Vout
(b) passband equivalent circuit

R1
C2
C1 being open-circuited
R2
(a) RC bandpass circuit

R1
R2
C1
Vout Vs
R2
Vout
C2 being shortcircuited
(C) low-frequency equivalent circuit

(D) high-frequency equivalent circuit
A simple bandpass filter can be constructed by cascading a low-pass
and a high-pass section (not suitable for narrow band operation)
If appropriate values are chosen, there will be a passband (b), with a
lower cutoff frequency fC1 (C) and an upper cutoff frequency fC2 (D).
fC1 ~= 1/2
R2C2
fC2 ~= 1/2
R1C1
LC Band-pass filter
A band
band--pass filter has one pass band and two attenuation
bands, consequently there will be two cut
cut--off frequencies.
Attenuation
L1/2
C1/2
L2
L1/2
C1/2
C2
Phase
shift
f1
f2
f1
f2
Frequency
f1 and f2 are cut

cut--off frequencies
Frequency
Band-pass filter
The ideal response of a bandband-pass filter is shown in figure (a)
while that of an RLC parallel network is shown in (b).
F1 and f2 are the cutoff frequencies, and
f0 is the center frequency or notch frequency
A
Band width
f1 f0 f2
(a)
Band width
(b)
RC Band-stop filter
Vout
R
R1
R1/2
Vin/3
f
f0
The output voltage nulls out at f0
This type of filter is often called a
notch filter, it rejects one
particular frequency
(a) RC bandstop filter (Wien-bridge filter)

R
R1
Vout
Vin
RC
Vout
Vin
f0 is for notch frequency = 1/2
R1/2
(b) high-frequency equivalent circuit
R1
Vout
Vin
R1/2
(c) Low-frequency equivalent circuit
LC Band-stop filter
A bandband-stop filter has two pass bands and one attenuation band,
consequently there will be two cutcut-off frequencies.
Attenuation
L1
L1
C1
C1
L2/2
f1
f2 Frequency
Phase
shift
C2/2
Band--stop filter
Band
f1
f2 Frequency
Ideal filters
A
attenuation
attenuation
A
Low--pass
Low
Pass
Stop
High--pass
High
Stop
Pass
fc
fc
attenuation
attenuation
Band--pass
Band
Stop
Pass
Band--stop
Band
Pass
Stop
Pass
Stop
f
fc1
fc2
f
fc1
fc2
Module 3
3.17
AC GENERATORS
AC Generators
AC generators, often called alternators
alternators,, are used as
the principal source of electric power in almost all
transport--category aircraft.
transport
For emergency situations ac generators driven by
auxiliary power units (APUs) or ram air turbines (RATs)
are often used.
A constant
constant--speed drive (CSD) is a type of automatic
transmission that maintains a constant output rpm
with a variable input rpm.
AC Generators
Stator - The stationary part of the alternator circuit
Rotor - The rotor is a rotating field for which the field
current of provided.
As the rotor turns, the magnetic flux cuts across the stator
poles and induces a voltage in the stator winding.
The number of cycles of alternating current per second
is called the frequency
frequency..
AC Generators
Typically, alternators use an electromagnet for the field,
which receives a direct current to excite the armature.
Alternators are classified according to voltage, amperage,
phase, power output ( in kilovoltkilovolt-amperes), and power
factor.
Usually, alternators are singlesingle-phase, twotwo-phase
or three
three--phase, depending on the number of separate sets
of windings in the stator.
The common alternators used in aircraft are threethree-phase
generators
AC Generator
A simple ac generator
can be constructed by
placing a single loop
of wire between the
poles of a permanent
magnet and arranging
it so that it can be
rotated as shown in
the figure.
The Basic parts of an ac Generator

Yoke
Magnetic
circuit
Permanent magnet or
electromagnet field coils
(the stator)
Magnetic
field
The armature or rotor

Slip rings
Brushes
N
Brush
Slip
rings
Voltage of an Generator
The voltage produced by an ac generator varies with the
number of degrees the armature coils have rotated from
zero
Magnetic
field
90o
45o
North
30o
15o
0o
Armature coils
South
Generator Frequency
The frequency (f) is determined by
The rpm of the rotor (n)
The number of pairs of poles (p) that pass the output
windings in each revolution of the rotor
Formula
f = n p = (rpm
p) / 60
A CSD is used to maintain the generator output

frequency constant
Generator Frequency One pair of Poles

The 2-pole machine schematically shown in the figure below
produced one cycle of output each revolution. To give an
output frequency of 400Hz it would need to be driven at 400
revolutions per second, or 24000 rpm.
2-poles rotor
Output
Generator Frequency Two Pairs of Poles

In a 44--pole machine two pairs of poles pass the output
windings every revolution. As shown in the figure below,
below,
in each revolution two output cycles occur, so 400Hz is
produced at half the rpm, 12000 rmpm, of the 22-pole
machine.
4-poles rotor
Output
Stator
Classification of alternators
Alternators are classified in several ways in order to
distinguish properly the various types.
One means of classification is by the type of excitation system used.
Another method of classification is by the number of phases of output
voltage.
There are two types of alternators: the revolvingrevolving-armature

and the revolving
revolving--field.
The revolving
revolving--armature alternator is similar in construction to the DC
generator in that the armature rotates through a stationary magnetic
field.
The revolving
revolving--field alternator has a stationary armature winding
(stator) and a rotating
rotating--field winding (rotor).
Revolving-armature alternators
Field excitation, d.c.
Slip rings
load
Stationary field
Rotating armature a.c. output
Similar in construction to a d.c. generator, in that the armature rotates

through stationary magnetic field
In d.c. generator, the e.m.f. generated in the armature windings is
converted from a.c. into d.c. by means of the commutator
In the alternator, the generated a.c. is brought to the load unchanged,

by means of slip rings
Revolving-field Alternators
Stator
Rotor
AC
Exciter
field
rheostat
+
-
DC generator
exciter
Slip rings
Has a stationary armature winding (stator winding) and a rotating field winding
(rotor winding)
voltage applied to the rotating field through slip rings is low d.c. voltage
the generated voltage in the stator winding can be directly connected to the load
Fixed connections are easily insulated that would be slip rings at high voltages
High voltage alternators are usually of the rotating-field type
Maximum current supplied by an alternator depends on the maximum heating loss
which can be sustained by the armature, i.e., the I2R loss acts to heat the conductors
Single--phase ac generator
Single
N
Slip-rings
Electrical load
The conductor is made in the form of a loop that can rotate

inside of the magnetic field
The two ends of the loop are fastened to slip rings
The carbon brushes ride on these slip rings
The load is connected between the two brushes
Single-phase alternator
The four windings in the stator are connected in series so that
the AC voltages induced are in phase and series adding.
Two--phase ac Generator
Two
Winding B
Phase A
Phase B
S
Winding A
900
Slip-rings
Electrical load
Phase A leads
Phase B by 900
A twotwo-phase generator schematic

The stator consists of two single phase windings A and B
The windings A and B are physically spaced 900, and
are electrically separated 900 from each other
The voltages induced in the two windings A and B are therefore 900 out-of-phase
The diagram shows the winding A induced maximum voltage
and the winding B induced zero voltage
Two-phase alternator
The four windings in the stator are so connected that when
one pair of windings is being cut by maximum flux, the other
pair is being cut by no flux.
Phase
B
Phase
Phase
AA
N
This condition establishes a 90

90relationship between the two phases.
Two--phase ac Generator
Two
Stator winding B
Stator winding A
Stator winding B
Stator winding A
Rotor
winding
Rotor
winding
S
Phase A
output
Phase B
output
Phase A
output
Phase B
output
schematic (a)
schematic (b)
In figure (a), the rotor poles are opposite the stator winding A
- The voltage induced in phase A is maximum, and the voltage induced
in phase B is zero
In figure (b), the rotor poles are opposite the stator winding B
- The voltage induced in phase B is maximum, and the voltage induced
in phase A is zero
Brushless A.C. Generator

Purpose - to eliminating the problems of alternators that employ slip rings
and brushes to carry excitation current to the rotating field.
Characteristics:
It uses the electromagnetic induction to transfer current from the
stationary parts to the rotating parts
Advantages::
Advantages
Lower maintenance cost, since there is no carbon brush or slip
slip--ring wear
High stability and consistency of output, because variations of resistance
and conductivity at the brushes and slip rings are eliminated
Better performance at high altitudes, because arcing at the brushes is
eliminated.
Construction of a Brushless
A.C. Generator
There are three separate generators within one case:
(1) the permanent magnet generator,
(2) the exciter generator,
(3) the rotating diodes
(4) the main generator
The permanent magnet within the brushless a.c. generator
that initiates :
the production of electric power from the main generator
Permanent magnet generator (PMG)

The permanent magnet rotor is used to induce an alternating
current into the stationary PMG threethree-phase armature winding
The GCU (generator control unit) rectifies the ac armature
current and sends a dc voltage to the exciter field winding
The exciter field induces an alternating current into the exciter
armature.
The exciter armature changes the ac current to dc in the
rotating rectifiers, and sends it to the main generator field winding
The main field induces an ac voltage output in the main generator
armature (stator windings).
Brushless A.C. Generator Schematic

PERMANENT
MAGNET
GENERATOR
ARMATURE
WINDING
MAIN GENERATOR
Voltage regulator
FIELD
incorporated in GCU
MAIN GENERATOR
ARMATURE
FROM
GCU
TO GCU
EXCITER
FIELD
TO
AC BUS
ROTOR
PERMANET
EXCITER
MAGNET
GENERATOR
GENERATOR
MAIN GENERATOR
There are actually three separate generators in one housing :

(1) the permanent magnet generator, (2) the exciter generator and (3) the main generator
Three-phase Y-connected
brushless A.C. Generator
The voltage across any single phase is 120V
The voltage across any two of the main output terminals is 208V.
Phase A
208V
2
Yel
120V
208V
Phase B
208V
Phase C
120V
5
4
6
Rd
120V
A Star
Star--connected stator
winding for an alternator
Blu
GND
Constant speed drive (CSD)

To maintain a fairly constant speed in the ac generator
Oil level
sight glass
Integrated Drive Generator
Constant speed drive (CSD)

The integrated drive generator (IDG) is a state
state--of
of--the
the--art
means of producing ac electric power.
The IDG contains both the generator and the CSD in one
unit.
Three electrical subassemblies make up the generator
portion of the IDG: the permanent magnet generator
(PMG), the exciter generator and rectifier assembly,
and the main generator.
A sight glass is employed on most constantconstant-speed drives
to allow the technician a quick check of the oil level,
after engine shutdown for a short period of time.
Practical generators
Its output windings distributed in slots in the stator,
and field windings and poles mounted on the rotor.
Old type AC generator
Rotor field
carbon
Brushes
Slip rings
Practical generator Windings

The figure shows the distribution of output windings in a
stator and the poles on a rotor.
Stator slots
Output windings
S
A singlesingle-phase
winding using
only a third of
the available slots.
Rotor poles
Practical generator Windings

The figure shows the distribution of output windings in a
stator and the poles on a rotor.
These ends are joined
Phase 1
Phase 2
Phase 3
3-phase windings
filling all the
stator slots.
Three--phase A.C. Generator

Three
In most practical machines the
coils for each phase will be
arranged differently to those
shown. Of more interest, at
this stage, are the methods of
interconnecting the three
phase so that only three or
four distribution wires are
required instead of the six
shown in the figure.
figure.
In addition to the advantage
of using less wire, a fourfour-wire
distribution of 33-phase ac also
provides a dual voltage
system.
Polyphase a.c. Waveforms

They have exactly
equal frequencies
but differ
differ--in phase
The three phases
are separated by
an angle of 120o
Nature of threethree-phase AC
Three identical singlephase ac generators driven
by one shaft.
They will operate at the
same frequency, and the
relative phase of their
outputs will not change if
they have loads of
unchanging power factor.
They can be initially
coupled to the drive shaft
so that they are all in
phase, or they can be given
pre-set phase differences at
1200 apart each other.
(a) Three single-phase

ac generators
(b) Three ac generator

rigged to supply 3-phase
voltage and current
Polyphase StarStar-Connection (Y )
Phase voltage - the voltage between any one line and the neutral
Line voltage - the voltage between any two lines
The line voltage is always 1.73 times of the phase voltage
The line current is equal to the phase current
Three--phase AC Windings
Three
The three phase-windings of a 3-phase generator
A.C. Generator - Star Connection (Y)

It can have three or four terminals
The three phase
phase--voltage acting 120o apart
A.C. Windings - Star

Star--connection
1
iR
In a three-phase 4-wire
star-connected balanced system
In every instance,
the resultant current flowing
back to the neutral line is :
Y1 R1
B1
2,4,6
5
iB
iN = iR + iY + iB = 0
The vector sum of
three phase currents is zero
iN
iY
Three-phase Vectors ThreeStar Connection (Y)

Vectors of three phase-voltages acting 120 apart.
Star-connection
Balanced load
Unbalanced load
Three-phase Vectors ThreeStar Connection (Y)

Assume the e.m.f. in each phase to be positive when acting
from the neutral point outwards
The r.m.s. values of the e.m.f.s generated in the three phases
are represented by ERN, EYN and EBN
ERNY
ERN
ENY
300
1200
ENB
EYNB
EBN
EYN
ENR
EBNR
A.C. Windings - Delta Connection

The line voltage is equal to the phase voltage
The line current is always 1.73 times the phase current
A.C. Generator - Delta Connection

It supplies three separate voltages spaced 120o apart
A.C. Windings Individual Connections

The three phase
can be isolated
each other
start
1
eR
L1
finish
this arrangement
is expensive and
cumbersome
start
R1
Y
2
3
eY
L2
finish
start
Y1
B
4
5
eB
L3
finish
B1
Loads
A.C. Windings - Delta connection ( )

two wires are saved
the resultant voltage is :
R
start
finish
R1
Y
start
e R + eY + eB
eR
2,3
eY
finish
Y1
B
start
eR + eY + eB
4,5
eB
finish
B1
Delta connection ( )
The three-phase
windings are
delta-connected
In a delta-connected
balanced system,
in every instance
eR + e Y + e B = 0
The vector sum of
the phase voltages is zero
eR
R1
Y
Line
connections
eY
Y1
B
eB
B1
Delta connection ( )
Let I1, I2 and I3 be the r.m.s. values of the phase currents
having their positive directions as indicated by the arrows in
circuits illustrated.
The load is assumed to be balanced, these currents, IR, IY and IB ,
are equal in magnitude but differ in phase by 1200
IR
IR
I1
I1
- I2
Load
Load
I3
- I3
IB
1200
IY
Load
IB
I2
I2
I3
- I1
3-phase Delta Connection
IY
Module 3
3.18
AC MOTORS
Types of AC motors
There are three principal types of ac motors:
synchronous motor
universal motor
induction motor single phase
split--phase motor
split
capacitor--start motor
capacitor
Shaded--pole motor
Shaded
repulsion motor
Synchronous motors
Synchronous motors, as the name implies, rotate at a speed
that is synchronized with frequency of applied A.C.
These motors have some features in common with induction
motors and a construction similar to that of alternators
A three
three--phase synchronous motor has three separate windings
in the stator and produces a rotating field like the stator of an
induction motor.
The rotor may be permanent magnet in a very small
synchronous motor; but in larger motors the rotor is an
electromagnet excited by an external source of direct current
The principle of the synchronous motor

If a magnet is free to turn and is placed in rotating field,
it will align itself with the field and rotate at the same speed
When operating within its load limits, a synchronous motor will rotate
at the same speed as the alternator supplying the current, provided that
the alternator has the same number of poles as the motor
Since the speed of a synchronous motor depends entirely on the
frequency of the current supply, such motors are useful when
constant speeds and frequencies are desired
Synchronous motor
One of the common uses of synchronous motors is to change
the frequency of alternating current.
Since the motor will turn at a precisely constant speed, it
can be used to drive an alternator through a differential
gear system to provide an exact frequency of any desired
value. This is referred to as frequency converter.
Synchronous motors are commonly used on aircraft in the
electric tachometer.
Synchronous motor
A synchronous motor differs from an alternator in that it
has a high
high--resistance squirrelsquirrel-cage winding placed in the
rotor to give a good starting torque.
This winding causes the motor to start as an induction
motor and run as a synchronous motor.
When the motor has reached synchronous speed, it is
turning with the magnetic field, and the conductors of the
squirrel--cage winding are not cutting lines of force.
squirrel
If the rotor tends to hunt or oscillate, however, the squirrelsquirrelcage winding will have an induced current, which tends to
dampen the oscillations and prevent hunting.
A cylindrical rotor
Synchronous motors can be divided into two categories: (1)
those with salient poles; and (2) those with cylindrical rotors.
Most synchronous motors are
essentially high
high--speed machines.
The centrifugal force on a highhighspeed rotor is enormous. To
withstand such a force the rotor
is usually made of a sold steel
forging with longitudinal slots.
In addition to its mechanical
robustness, this cylindrical
construction has the advantage
that the flux distribution around
the periphery is nearer a sine
wave than is the case with the
salient--pole machine.
salient
A three-phase stator winding

Phase R
Phase Y
Phase B
A fourfour-pole, three
three--phase synchronous motor having two
slots per pole per phase.
Rotating magnetic flux
Synchronous Motors
The effect of armature reaction is to
increase the flux in the leading half
of each pole and to reduce it in the
trailing half
Consequently the flux is distorted
in the direction of rotation and the
lines of flux in the gap are skewed in
such a direction as to exert a
clockwise toque on the rotor
Since the resultant magnetic flux due
to the stator current rotates at
synchronous speed, the rotor must also
rotate at exactly the same speed for the
flux distribution to remain unaltered.
Y1
B1
R1
The action of a three-phase

synchronous motor
Laminated Stator Core

The slots in the laminated stator core of a synchronous machine
are usually semi-enclosed, as shown in the figure below,
so as to distribute the magnetic flux as uniformly as possible in
the air-gap, thereby minimizing the ripple that would appear in
the emf waveform if open slots were used.
Insulated
copper-wire
Stator core
Vent ducts
Laminated
steel core
Tooth
Slot insulation
Slot insulation
Stator winding
Universal Motors
Universal motor is identical with a d.c. series motor and
can be operated on either alternating or direct current
Since the direction of current flow in the field and the armature
changes simultaneously when alternating current is applied to a
universal motor, the torque continues in the same direction at all
times.
For this reason the motor will turn steadily on one direction
regardless of the type of current applied.
Universal motors are not used in aircraft electric systems,

because the alternating current has a frequency of 400 Hz, and
at this frequency very substantial energy losses occur in an
universal motor; besides excessive parks at the commutator.
Typical universal motors are those used in vacuum cleaners, and
small electric drill motors.
Universal Motors a.c. Series motors
For direction change of rotation,

reverse the terminations of the field
winding with the armature winding
the same general

characteristics as a
d.c. Series motor
Universal motor is operated on d.c. or a.c.

the number of series field turns in the a.c. series motor is less than in
the d.c. series motor, in order to decrease the reactance of the field so
that the required amount of current will flow
- if the d.c. current through a series motor field and armature is
reversed, the direction of rotation remains unchanged.
- when a.c. is applied to series motor, the current through the armature and
field change simultaneously and therefore, the motor will rotate in one direction
- a.c. series motor is not built above fractional horsepower sizes for 50 Hz operation
Stator of an AC Motor
The essential parts of an induction motor are the rotor and
the stator. The stator is in the form of a shell with longitudinal
slots on the inner surface. See the figure below.
The stator windings are placed in these slots in a manner
similar to the placement of the winding of a dc armature.
Slots and
copper bars
Stator winding
Induction Motors
They have a squirrel cage rotor
They do not require special starting devices or excitation
from an auxiliary source and will handle a wide range of
loads
If the ac connections are reversed, the polarity for the stator
will also reverse, direction of rotation is not changed
accordingly
The rotor field chases the stator field, but the rotor itself does
not turn as fast as the stator field.
Induction Motors
The stator of an induction motor is similar to that of a synchronous machine,
except the rotor is not wirewire-wound.
The rotor consists of a laminated iron core in which are placed longitudinal
conductors
In squirrelsquirrel-cage rotor, these conductors are usually copper bars
connected together at the end by shortedshorted-rings
Rotation
of flux
Stator core
N
By placing this assembly in
the rotating field produced by
the stator, a current is induced
in the conductors
Rotor core
Copper or
aluminium
bars
Copper or
aluminium
shorted-rings,
both ends
The Principle of Induction Motor

Since the conductors are short
short--circuited, there is an induced
current in the rotor
The rotating field induces current in the rotor conductors in the
directions indicated by the dots (.) and crosses (+)
This current produces a magnetic field that is at an angle to the field
of the stator
End rings
(Shorted-rings)
Copper
Conductors
(Individual coils)
Rotor
(squirrel-cage rotor)
Single--phase Induction Motors

Single
A single-phase induction motor
has only one stator winding
Squirrel-cage rotor
This winding is connected directly

to an alternating current supply, and
provides a pulsing magnetic field across
the rotor
The expanding and collapsing stator
field induces currents in the rotor
which generate a rotor field
The opposition of these fields exerts
a force on the rotor
Since this force is exerted through the center of
the rotor, the rotor does not turn
AC
Induction Motors by Starting Torque

To obtain the torque to start a single-phase induction
motor, auxiliary windings are placed either on the stators
or on the rotors
According to starting scheme, single-phase induction
motors are classified as :

Split-phase motors
Capacitor-start motors
repulsion motors
Shaded-pole motors
Split--phase Induction Motors

Split
Capacitor:
causes the motor to act
as a two
two--phase motor
provides starting torque
Usage:
for lowlow-power
applications such as drill
presses, grinders etc.
Main
winding
(Heavy gauge
& less turns)
rotor
C
Capacitor
Auxiliary (light gauge

winding & more turns)
(Ticker winding)

Split
A separate start winding
provides the starting torque;

it is termed as split-phase
Low-resistance
run winding
As a result of the angular

displacement of the start
winding from the run
winding, a starting torque
develops
Normally-closed
centrifugally-opened switch
High resistance
start winding
AC
A centrifugal switch in the

start winding circuit opens,
and the motor continues to
operate just on the run
winding
900 phase different
from the main winding

Split
Split-phase induction motor.
SplitThe starting torque is much improved and is usually about
50 per cent greater than the designed load torque.
Torque
Main
winding
Auxiliary
winding
The main winding and the auxiliary

(a) winding are displaced in 900 (b)
Likely
full load
Rotating speed
Capacitor--start Induction Motors

Capacitor
The capacitor causes the
current in the start winding to
lead the current in the run
winding by a phase angle
Thereby obtaining a
greater phase displacement
of the start field from the
run field
When the motor has
attained a certain rpm, a
centrifugal switch opens and
cuts out the capacitor circuit
The motor then rotates
on the run winding
Run winding
Normally-closed
centrifugally-opened switch
Start winding
AC
Capacitor
Capacitor--start Induction Motors

Capacitor
In figure (a),
a capacitor in series
with the auxiliary winding
and is used for start
capacitor
Main
winding
Auxiliary
winding
(a)
Torque
Figure (b) shows the

torque--speed characteristics
torque
of a capacitor
capacitor--start induction
motor.
Likely
full load
(b)
Speed
Repulsion motor
A repulsion motor utilizes the repulsion of like poles principle to
produce starting torque.
A repulsion motor has a
stationary field similar to that
used in an induction motor.
Alternating current
Its armature is wound in a

manner similar to that used in a
series motor. Two brushes ride on
the commutator, and these
brushes are electrically connected
to short out the ends of a coil.
Alternating current
Repulsion motor
When the brushes are placed at right
angles to the stator field, no torque is
produced.
But, by moving the brushes relative to
the stator field, the armature can be
caused to rotate in either direction,
Alternating current
with its speed varying according to the

position of the brushes.
Usage : for high torque, reversibility
(by shifting the brush gear in opposite
direction to the main field winding),
and speed control
Alternating current
Shaded--pole motor
Shaded
The shadedshaded-pole motor usually has salient pole with one
portion of each pole surrounded by a short
short--circuited turn of
copper strip, called a shading coil.
The frame is made of laminations
Copper
shading
ring
of soft iron and the coil is made up

of many turns of fine wire.
Cage
rotor
The shorted turns are made of

heavy--gage copper wire embedded
heavy
in the frame in the upper right
and lower left corners of the
frame.
Main coil
Laminated
stator
Polarity of frame
When the coil is connected across
the alternating current line, the
right half of the frame is
magnetized with one polarity,
and the left half of the frame is
given the opposite polarity.
No shading coils
Point 1
Polarity of frame
With shading coils

Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
Point 4
The alternating flux passing through the ring induces an current in the ring.
Induced currents in the shading coil produces a magnetic field whose
polarity is opposite to the magnetic field that produced it, and this induced
magnetic field partially demagnetizes the part of the frame around which
the shorted turn is wound.
The result is like a rotating field moving in the direction from the unshaded
to shaded portion of the pole.
Shaded--pole Induction Motor

Shaded
shorted turns of
copper wires
The two halves of the frame are

magnetized with different polarity
(a) SingleSingle-phase, shadedshaded-pole
motor
(b) Current through the coil of a
shaded--pole motor
shaded
(c) Polarity of motor frame with
current at value 1 if there were
no shading coils
(d) Polarity of motor frame with
current at value 1
(e) Polarity of motor frame with
current at value 2
(f) Polarity of motor frame with
current at value 3
(g) Polarity of motor frame with
current at value 4
Usage : record player, electric fans,
etc.
Squirrel
case rotor
Shorted
turns
Alternating
current supply
Single--phase reversible motor

Single
Single-phase reversible ac motors typically contain two stator
Singlewindings to produce split fields that are necessary to establish
torque for starting under load
The motors direction is determined by the current flow through
the clockwise or counterclockwise winding.
Stator winding 1
115 VAC
CW
Rotor
CCW
The stator windings 1 and 2 are

wound in reverse directions
Stator winding 2
Single-phase reversible ac motors are found on transportSingletransportcategory aircraft and are used to drive valve assemblies and
other relatively small actuators.
Two - phase induction motors

Squirrel cage rotor
Axis of coil B
magnetic field
a.c. voltage A - A
1
supplied
Axis of coil A
magnetic field
Short-circuited
rotor winding
B - B1
a.c. voltage
900 out of phase
Induction motors are designed for three-phase, two-phase and single-phase

The two-phase stator generates a rotating field by having two windings
A - A1 and B - B1 positioned at right angles to each other
If the voltages applied to the two windings are 900 out of phase,
a rotating field will be produced
Three--phase induction motors

Three
Three-phase induction motor consists essentially of threeThreethree-phase
delta--wound or Ydelta
Y-wound stator and a conventional squirrel
squirrel--cage rotor
Three-phase alternating current produces a rotating field in the stator
Threeof an induction motor. There is no need for extra starting windings or
centrifugal switches.
Phase A
Squirrel-cage rotor
Phase B
Phase A
Phase B
Phase C
Phase C
3-phase, deltadelta-connected AC motor
33--phase, Y
Y--connected AC motor.
Rotating Magnetic field

As the current in each phase
changes direction and magnitude,
the resultant field of the stator will
rotate at the frequency of the
alternating current
Position 1
approximately oneone-half the
current flows through phase 2
and the other half through
phase 3
this results in the vertical
field shown in the diagram
Rotating Magnetic Field

Position 2
the current has changed
through an angle of 30o
the current in phase 1 is
still positive but has
decreased
the current in phase 2 is at
zero

Position 3
the current in phase 3 has
increased in the negative
direction
a field produced entirely
by the poles of phases 1
and 3 in the stator, and the
position of the field is 30o
CW from the vertical

Position 4
The staor field turns 30o
farther for each position.
Then, the field rotates
through 360o for each cycle
Rotating magnetic field - Waveforms

When multi-phase currents are applied to the windings of
a stator, a rotating magnetic field is established with the stator
Speed--frequency Relationship
Speed
and Slip
Formula: f = n p
f - frequency
n - revolutions per second (speed)
p - pairs of poles
Slip :
-If the rotor field came into line with the stator field,
there would be no torque;
-- hence the rotor field must always be a few degrees behind the
stator field.
- The percentage of difference in the speeds of the stator and
the rotor fields is called slip
Slip (S) = (stator speed - rotor speed) / stator speed x 100 %
Three--phase AC Motor starting

Three
The starting procedure is to close the tripletriple-pole switch S and
then move arms A clockwise as the motor accelerates, until,
at full speed, the arms are in the ON position shown below,
and the starting resistors have been cut out of the rotor circuit.
Rheostat
S
A
Supply
lines
OFF
A ON
R
Triple-pole
switch
Stator
winding
Rotor
winding
Slip-rings
Starting
resistance
Losses in motors and generators

The losses in the motors include
eddy current loss
hysteresis loss
Friction loss - caused by the friction of bearing
Windage loss - caused by the wind friction
Copper loss - caused by the resistance of the windings
it is dissipated in the form of heat

Core Loss :
Eddy current - induced in the armature core and
the field poles
its loss in the form of heat
it can be reduced by constructing the armature and field cores of
laminated soft iron
Hysteresis loss - occurs when a material is magnetized in

one direction and then in the other in rapid succession

The losses in the generators include
armature loss
core loss
copper loss (I2R loss)
commutator loss
excitation loss
bearing friction and windage loss
stray load loss

Armature loss
core loss - due to hysteresis and eddy current
I2R loss
Commutator loss
loss due to the contact resistance between the brushes
and the segments
loss due to friction between the brushes and the
commutator

Excitation losses
loss in the shunt circuit equal to the product of the
shunt current and the terminal voltage
losses in series, compel and compensating windings
Bearing friction and windage losses
it roughly proportional to the speed
Stray load loss
it is usually neglected

Core loss in the armature core due to hysteresis and eddy currents.
Hysteresis loss has been discussed before and is dependent upon the
quality of the steel. It is proportional to the frequency and is
approximately proportional to the square of the flux.
The eddy-current loss is due to circulating currents set up
in the steel laminations.
N
Not laminated
Laminated
(a)
(b)

Combine All Chapter (3.1-3.18)

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Module 3.

3.1 Electron Theory

3.2 Static Electricity and Conduction

Module 3. Electrical fundamentals

3.3 Electrical Terminology

Module 3. Electrical fundamentals

Cells connected in series and parallel;

Module 3. Electrical fundamentals

tolerances, preferred values, wattage

Module 3. Electrical fundamentals

Module 3. Electrical fundamentals

Calculations of capacitance and voltage

Module 3. Electrical fundamentals

b) Magnetomotive force, field strength,

Module 3. Electrical fundamentals

Mutual induction; The effect the rate of

3.12 DC Motor / Generator Theory

Module 3. Electrical fundamentals

Operations of, and factors affecting

Module 3. Electrical fundamentals

Triangular/Square waves; Single/3Single/3-phase

Phase relationship of voltage and current

Module 3. Electrical fundamentals

Module 3. Electrical fundamentals

Single phase, two phase and three phase

Describes specifically the

Structure and distribution

Basic Elements of an Atom

Basic Elements of an Atom

Valence orbit -The outermost orbit (shell) of the atom.

Basic Elements of an Atom

Atoms and Ions

- The neutral neutron

The protons and

No charge is carried by the

Negative charge is carried

The electric charges

Electron and proton

Electrons and protons attract each other.

Electrons repel each other.

Protons repel each other.

The atoms' internal forces are caused by the repulsion

Electrons and protons

Positive and negative ion

shortage of electrons positively charged

Protons remain within the nucleus; only electrons

Positive and negative ion

Positive and negative ion

Random movement of electrons between atoms

It may drift into an

Direction of current flow

Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors

Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors

An ideal insulator (more correctly called a dielectric

Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors

Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors

Semiconductor Atomic Structure of a Lattice Crystal

Atom A shares its four

Cubic diamond lattice of atom

Atom A shares its four

-eA The electrons on the various dotted

the covalent bonds serve to keep the

Covalent electron bonds