Eur J Appl Physiol

DOI 10.1007/s00421-011-2014-0

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Monitoring changes in physical performance with heart rate

measures in young soccer players
M. Buchheit M. B. Simpson H. Al Haddad
P. C. Bourdon A. Mendez-Villanueva

Received: 21 February 2011 / Accepted: 18 May 2011

Springer-Verlag 2011

Abstract The aim of the present study was to verify the

validity of using exercise heart rate (HRex), HR recovery
(HRR) and post-exercise HR variability (HRV) during and
after a submaximal running test to predict changes in
physical performance over an entire competitive season in
highly trained young soccer players. Sixty-five complete
data sets were analyzed comparing two consecutive testing
sessions (34 months apart) collected on 46 players (age
15.1 1.5 years). Physical performance tests included a
5-min run at 9 km h-1 followed by a seated 5-min recovery period to measure HRex, HRR and HRV, a counter
movement jump, acceleration and maximal sprinting speed
obtained during a 40-m sprint with 10-m splits, repeatedsprint performance and an incremental running test to
estimate maximal cardiorespiratory function (end test
velocity VVam-Eval). Possible changes in physical performance were examined for the players presenting a substantial change in HR measures over two consecutive
testing sessions (greater than 3, 13 and 10% for HRex,
HRR and HRV, respectively). A decrease in HRex or
increase in HRV was associated with likely improvements
in VVam-Eval; opposite changes led to unclear changes in
VVam-Eval. Moderate relationships were also found between
individual changes in HRR and sprint [r = 0.39, 90% CL
(0.07;0.64)] and repeated-sprint performance [r = -0.38
(-0.05;-0.64)]. To conclude, while monitoring HRex and
HRV was effective in tracking improvements in VVam-Eval,

Communicated by Jean-Rene Lacour.

M. Buchheit (&)  M. B. Simpson  H. Al Haddad 
P. C. Bourdon  A. Mendez-Villanueva
Physiology Unit, Sport Science Department, ASPIRE Academy
for Sports Excellence, P.O. Box 22287, Doha, Qatar
e-mail: martin.buchheit@aspire.qa

changes in HRR were moderately associated with changes

in (repeated-)sprint performance. The present data also
question the use of HRex and HRV as systematic markers
of physical performance decrements in youth soccer
players.
Keywords Association football  Fitness monitoring 
Submaximal heart rate  Heart rate recovery 
Heart rate variability

Introduction
A variety of measures are commonly used to monitor
soccer player adaptations to training and assess possible
changes in fitness and/or fatigue levels. These include
hematological/endocrine variables, perceptual fatigue
responses (for review see Hooper and Mackinnon 1995;
Borresen and Lambert 2009), and more recently, the
monitoring of heart rate (HR) measures in response to a
standardized submaximal field running test [i.e., exercise
HR (HRex), HR recovery (HRR) and HR variability
(HRV); 50 50 test (Buchheit et al. 2008; Buchheit et al.
2010a)]. The 50 50 test is a non-invasive measure that does
not involve subjective player assessments, which can be
biased in relation to competition schedules (i.e., players
posting positive responses to support selection in the team)
or be open to inaccuracy when used with young players
(Groslambert and Mahon 2006). Additionally, the 50 50 test
has shown to be truly submaximal [as inferred from HRs
ranging from 75 to 85% of maximal HR (Buchheit et al.
2008, 2010a, b)] and can easily be incorporated into the
training schedule of soccer teams at all levels.
In general, a decrease in submaximal HRex, an increase
in HRR and/or increased vagal-related HRV indices are all

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well accepted markers of improved aerobic fitness. For

example, a lower submaximal HR for the same exercise
intensity is one of the most commonly observed adaptations to endurance training (Andrew et al. 1966). While the
effect of high-intensity aerobic training on cardiac autonomic function is still unclear in young athletes (Mandigout et al. 2002; Buchheit et al. 2008; Gamelin et al. 2009),
increased HRR and vagal-related HRV indices have
been reported after aerobic training in adult populations
(Sandercock et al. 2005; Borresen and Lambert 2008).
Additionally, changes in HRR and/or vagal-related HRV
indices following aerobic training correlated largely with
improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness-related performance variables such as maximal aerobic speed and 10-km
running performance in adult recreational distance runners
(Buchheit et al. 2010a) and 40 km time-trial time in welltrained adult cyclists (Lamberts et al. 2009, 2010b). In
addition to endurance performance, changes in HRR and
vagal-related HRV indices have also been associated with
improvement in the more neuromuscular-related performance parameter of repeated-sprint ability in highly trained
adolescents handball players (Buchheit et al. 2008). Since
competitive soccer match play requires a complex combination of both cardiorespiratory and neuromuscular fitness
(Stolen et al. 2005), the ability of HR measures to possibly
predict changes in both aerobic fitness and neuromuscular
performance might offer a potential tool to assess a players
readiness to perform. Recently, the assessment of baseline
(i.e., pre-training) cardiac autonomic activity has also been
of growing interest (Boutcher and Stein 1995; Hautala
et al. 2003, 2009). Hautala et al. (2003) for example
reported a positive correlation between baseline vagalrelated HRV and improvement in maximal oxygen uptake
after aerobic training in sedentary adults. These previous
studies were however all specifically designed and incorporated highly standardized training protocols, which may
assist in increasing the likelihood of observing correlations
between the changes in the different variables. Whether
these HR measures have the same capability to predict
changes in physical performance over longer periods (e.g.,
a competitive season) involving less controlled training
schedules is still to be verified. Additionally, very few
studies have been conducted on young and/or already
highly trained athletes, and the validity of these HR measures to predict changes in physical performance in these
specific populations is therefore unclear.
In contrast, opposite changes in these HR measures (i.e.,
increases in submaximal HRex, a decrease in HRR and/or
decreased vagal-related HRV indices) are commonly
interpreted as indicators of detraining (Mujika and Padilla
2001; Gamelin et al. 2007), chronic fatigue, non-functional
overreaching or overtraining (Borresen and Lambert 2008;
Bosquet et al. 2008b). It is however worth noting that the

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interpretation of the changes in all these HR measures is

more based on theoretical principles related to the expected
autonomic nervous system response to fatigue rather than
on sound scientific evidence, and that unexpected and/or
unclear results have also been reported. In one trained
cyclist for example, a sudden increase (and not a decrease)
in HRR was reported with a state of acute fatigue and/or a
state of functional overreaching (Lamberts et al. 2010a).
Many researchers have found no alteration in these measures after an overload period in adults (Uusitalo et al.
1998; Bosquet et al. 2003; Coutts et al. 2007) and there are
only a few studies that clearly validate the use of these
measures to predict performance decrements (Borresen and
Lambert 2008; Bosquet et al. 2008b). Despite the limited
evidence and a lack of data on young athletes, some
authors have still claimed that an increase in submaximal
exercise HR is a direct and unique marker of non-functional overreaching in young soccer players (Brink et al.
2010; Schmikli et al. 2010). Furthermore, these claims
(Brink et al. 2010; Schmikli et al. 2010) have been made
without even considering the results of simultaneous
physical performance assessments, which are of major
interest in soccer players.
Given the lack of evidence regarding the ability to
predict (1) improvements in cardiorespiratory- and/or
neuromuscular-related fitness during real-life training
conditions and (2) physical performance decrements with
the use of HR measures, we monitored HRex, HRR and
post-exercise HRV, as well as several physical capacities
related to the demands of soccer match-play [i.e., maximal
aerobic speed, explosive power of lower limbs, maximal
sprinting speed and repeated-sprint performance (Buchheit
et al. 2010c)] over an entire competitive season in highly
trained young soccer players. Based on previous findings
(Buchheit et al. 2008, 2010a; Lamberts et al. 2009, 2010b),
we expected to observe improvements in both cardiorespiratory and neuromuscular fitness-related performance
variables (i.e., maximal aerobic speed and repeated-sprint
performance, respectively) in players showing a substantial
decrease in submaximal HRex and/or an increase in HRR/
vagal-related HRV indices, and conversely, poorer physical
performances in players presenting with the opposite changes
in HR measures.

Methods
Participants
Ninety-two highly trained young male soccer players
(age 15.0 1.4 years; 0.5 1.2 years from peak height
velocity, height 162.8 9.1 cm; body mass 52.2 9.7 kg
and 46.7 11.6 mm for sum of seven skinfolds)

Eur J Appl Physiol

belonging to six different age groups ranging from under

13 to under 18 in a high-level soccer academy participated
in the present study. All the players, irrespective of age
groups, participated on average in *14 h of combined
soccer-specific training and competitive play per week
(68 soccer training sessions, 1 strength training session,
12 conditioning sessions, 1 domestic game per week and 2
international club games every 3 weeks). All players had a
minimum of 3 years prior soccer-specific training. The
study was approved by the local research ethics committee
and conformed to the recommendations of the Declaration
of Helsinki.
Anthropometric measures and maturity status
estimation
All measurements were taken in the morning by an experienced anthropometrist. Dimensions included stature,
body mass, sitting height, and sum of seven skinfolds
(triceps, subscapular, biceps, supraspinale, abdominal,
front thigh, and medial calf). Stretch stature was measured
with a wall-mounted stadiometer (?0.1 cm, Holtain Ltd,
Crosswell, UK), sitting height with a stadiometer mounted
on a purpose-built table (?0.1 cm, Holtain Ltd), body mass
with a digital balance (?0.1 kg, ADE Electronic Column
Scales, Hamburg, Germany), and skinfold thicknesses with
a Harpenden skinfold caliper (?0.1 mm, Baty International, Burgess Hill, UK). Maturity status was estimated
according to the biological age of maturity of each individual as described by Mirwald et al. (2002). The age of
peak linear growth (age at peak height velocity, PHV) is an
indicator of somatic maturity representing the time of
maximum growth in stature during adolescence. Biological
age of maturity (years) was calculated by subtracting the
chronological age at the time of measurement from
the chronological peak-velocity age. Thus, a maturity age
of -1.0 indicates that the player was measured 1 year
before this peak velocity; a maturity of 0 indicates that the
player was measured at the time of this peak velocity; and a
maturity age of ?1.0 indicates that the participant was
measured 1 year after this peak velocity. Ethnicity of the
players was Arab (Middle East and North Africa backgrounds). The effect of ethnicity on the validity of biological maturity estimates using the procedures described
above is unknown, thus the equation was assumed to be
valid in the present sample.

conditions (22 0.5C, 55% relative humidity). Training

contents (see above) and load during the two-to-three
weeks preceding the testing sessions were well standardized, similar before each testing period and comparable for
each team. All players were familiar with the physical tests,
which included the 50 50 test [5-min of continuous submaximal running at 9 km h-1 followed by a 5-min seated
recovery (Buchheit et al. 2010b)], a maximal incremental
running test (Vam-Eval) to estimate maximal cardiorespiratory function and more precisely maximal aerobic speed,
a counter movement jump, maximal acceleration and
sprinting speed obtained during a 40-m sprint with 10-m
splits and a repeated-sprints test (Buchheit et al. 2010c).
The 50 50 test, followed by the Vam-Eval, was performed
during a morning training session (8 AM), while the other
tests were performed during an afternoon session (3 PM).
Testing sessions were at least 24 h apart. To investigate
individual responses to training, players were divided into
two subgroups, post hoc (Vollaard et al. 2009; Buchheit
et al. 2010a), based upon their change(s) in either submaximal HRex, HRR or a vagal-related HRV index during
the test period. Possible changes in physical performance
were then examined in those players presenting a larger
change in HRex (3%), HRR (13%) and HRV (10%) than
observed during a 3-week competition camp, in which no
significant changes in the above mentioned measures were
found (Buchheit et al. 2010b).

Physical performance assessments

Lower limb explosive power
To assess lower limb explosive power a vertical countermovement jump (CMJ; cm) was performed on a contact
mat (KMS, Fitness Technology, South Australia) where
flight time was measured to calculate jump height (Buchheit et al. 2010c). Players were instructed to keep their
hands on their hips throughout the jump with the depth of
the counter movement self-selected. Each trial was validated by visual inspection to ensure each landing was
without significant leg and ankle flexion. Athletes were
encouraged to perform each jump maximally. At least three
valid CMJs were performed separated by 25 s of passive
recovery, with the best performance recorded.
Acceleration and peak running velocity

Experimental overview
All players were tested three times over the course of a
competitive season (October, January and May). Testing
was conducted on the same indoor synthetic track, which
allowed the maintenance of standardized environmental

All players performed two maximal 40-m sprints during

which 10-m split times were recorded using dual-beam
electronic timing gates (Swift Performance Equipment,
Lismore, Australia). Acceleration (Acc) was measured as
the 010 m sprint time and maximal sprinting speed (MSS)

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Eur J Appl Physiol

was defined as the fastest 10-m split time measured during

a maximal 40-m sprint (Buchheit et al. 2010c). Split times
were measured to the nearest 0.01 s. Players commenced
each sprint from a standing start with their front foot 0.5 m
behind the first timing gate and were instructed to sprint as
fast as possible over the full 40 m. The players started
when ready, thus eliminating reaction time. Each trial was
separated by at least 60 s of recovery with the best performances used as the final result.

occasions to reach the next cone in the required time.

Throughout the test, players were given verbal encouragement by the testers and coaches. The average velocity
of the last stage completed was recorded as the players
VVam-Eval (km h-1). If the last stage was not fully
completed, the VVam-Eval was calculated as VVam-Eval =
S ? (t/60 9 0.5), where S is the last completed speed in
km h-1 and t is the time in seconds of the uncompleted stage.
50 50 test

Repeated-sprint performance
All players performed a repeated-sprint test (RS) following
a 10-min rest break after the 40-m sprint trials. The RS test
consisted of ten repeated-straight-line 30-m sprints separated by 30 s of active recovery (i.e., jogging back to the
starting line within approximately 25 s, in order to allow
45 s of passive recovery before the commencement of the
next sprint repetition) (Buchheit et al. 2010b, c). Time was
recorded to the nearest 0.01 s using electronic timing gates
(Swift Performance Equipment, Lismore, Australia).
Players used a standing start with their front foot 0.5 m
behind the first timing gate and started on the testers
command. Players were given verbal encouragement to run
as fast as possible for each of the ten sprints. Mean repeated sprint time (s) was determined as a measure of repeated sprint performance.
Incremental field test
A modified version of the University of Montreal Track
Test (UM-TT, Leger and Boucher 1980) (i.e., Vam-Eval)
was used to assess cardiorespiratory fitness (Buchheit et al.
2010b, c). The Vam-Eval is very similar to the UM-TT,
i.e., same speed increments. The only difference between
the two tests is the distance between the cones placed along
the athletic track [i.e., 20 (Vam-Eval) versus 50 (Um-TT)
m], which renders the Vam-Eval easier to administer to
young players. The speed reached at the end of the UM-TT
(and by extension, that reached at the end of the Vam-Eval,
VVam-Eval) is a good predictor of maximal oxygen uptake,
i.e., the correlation between maximal running speed and
maximal oxygen uptake is 0.96 (Leger and Boucher 1980).
More importantly for soccer, VVam-Eval has been shown to
be a strong predictor (at least for attackers) of high-intensity running distance during games in young soccer players
(Buchheit et al. 2010c). The test began with an initial
running speed of 8 km h-1 with consecutive speed
increases of 0.5 km h-1 each minute until exhaustion. The
players adjusted their running speed according to auditory
signals timed to match 20-m intervals delineated by marker
cones around a 200-m long indoor athletics track. The test
ended when the players failed on two consecutive

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The 50 50 test is designed to simultaneously measure submaximal HRex, HRR and HRV, which are recognized
measures of cardiovascular fitness (HRex) (Borresen and
Lambert 2008) and cardiac autonomic activity (HRR and
HRV) (Buchheit et al. 2007). All players were fitted with
heart rate monitors (Polar Team System 2, Polar Electro,
Finland) and were tested simultaneously with the 5-min
submaximal exercise intensity bout fixed at 9 km h-1
(Buchheit et al. 2010a, b). While a high exercise intensity
has been suggested to improve HR signal reliability
(Lamberts et al. 2004; Lamberts and Lambert 2009), we
chose the (slow) speed of 9 km h-1 in the present study for
several reasons: (1) the principle of the 50 50 test is to be
submaximal and very easy, so it can be done immediately
at the start of the session, without any preceding warm-up
(saving time for the rest of the technical/tactical soccer
session), (2) whether a higher exercise intensity effectively
improves the reliability of HR measures in the field as in
the present study is still questioned (Bosquet et al. 2008a;
Al Haddad et al. 2011), and (3) keeping the original 50 50
protocol would help comparisons with the existing running-based literature in the field (Buchheit et al. 2008,
2010a, b). Therefore, no warm-up was performed before
the test. At the end of the 5-min submaximal exercise,
players stopped within 3 s, and immediately sat down on
the track for 5 min, avoiding any excessive movement.
Since this study was conducted in the field, and based on
previous findings (Bloomfield et al. 2001), respiratory rate
was not controlled (Buchheit et al. 2008, 2010a, b).
HR data analysis
All RR series data were analyzed with the ProTrainer
Polar 5 software (version 5.40, Polar Electro), which has
been shown to provide accurate measurements (Nunan
et al. 2009). Occasional ectopic beats were automatically
replaced with interpolated adjacent RR interval values.
The highest HR a player reached during the Vam-Eval (5-s
average) was retained as their maximal HR (HRmax).
Mean HR during the last 30 s of the 50 50 exercise period
(expressed as a percentage of HRmax) was computed and
termed exercise HR (HRex). Post-exercise HR recovery

Eur J Appl Physiol

(HRR) was calculated by taking the absolute difference

between HRex and the HR recorded after 60 s of recovery.
To account for eventual changes in HRex and their
potential impact on absolute HRR values, HRR data were
expressed as percentage of HRex. The square root of the
mean of the sum of the squares of differences between
adjacent normal RR intervals (rMSSD) was calculated
during the last 3 min of the 5-min recovery period following the 5-min submaximal exercise test (Buchheit et al.
2010b) as a vagal-related HRV index (Task Force 1996).
HRV analysis was limited to calculation of the rMSSD
since it is reflects, exactly as the power spectral density in
the high frequency range (i.e., HF, spectral analysis), beatto-beat changes in HR (Task Force 1996). Nevertheless, the
reliability of rMSSD is much better (i.e., &5 times) than
other spectral indices following exercise (Al Haddad et al.
2011), partly because it is poorly affected by respiration at
rest (Penttila et al. 2001). Therefore, rMSSD is well suited
for the measurement of cardiac vagal outflow during freerunning ambulatory conditions (Penttila et al. 2001), as in
the present study. The 3-min period was also deemed to be
valid for the assessment of cardiac autonomic activity since
rMSSD periods as short as 10 s were shown to accurately
reflect the level of the parasympathetic activity (Hamilton
et al. 2004). Finally, a 3-min period is unlikely sufficient
for appropriate LF calculation (Task Force 1996), which
prevented us, again, to use spectral analysis.

et al. 2009). For within-/between-group comparisons, the

chances that the (true) changes in performance were
greater for a given substantial change in HR measure [i.e.,
greater than the smallest practically important effect, or
the smallest worthwhile change, SWC (0.2 multiplied by
the between-subject deviation, based on Cohens d principle)], similar or smaller than these for the opposite
change in HR measures were calculated. Quantitative
chances of greater or smaller performance changes were
assessed qualitatively as follows: B1% almost certainly
not, [15% very unlikely, [525% unlikely, [2575%
possible, [7595% likely, [9599 very likely, [99%
almost certain. If the chance of having beneficial/better or
detrimental/poorer performances were both [5%, the true
difference was assessed as unclear (Hopkins et al. 2009).
Pearsons product-moment correlation analysis was also
used to compare the association between both baseline
(i.e., October) and individual changes in HR-derived
indices and changes in all physical performance variables.
All correlations were adjusted for changes in body mass
using partial correlations. The following criteria were
adopted to interpret the magnitude of the correlation
(r) between test measures: B0.1 trivial, [0.10.3 small,
[0.30.5 moderate, [0.50.7 large, [0.70.9 very large,
and [0.91.0 almost perfect. If the 90% confidence
intervals overlapped small positive and negative values
the magnitude were deemed unclear; otherwise that
magnitude was deemed to be the observed magnitude
(Hopkins et al. 2009).

Statistical analyses
Data in the text and figures are presented as mean SD.
Each variable was examined with the KolmogorovSmirnov normality test. When data were skewed or heteroscedastic (i.e., rMSSD), they were transformed by taking the
natural logarithm. For each of the three HR measures,
players were classified into three distinct groups based on
previously determined CVs (Buchheit et al. 2010b), i.e.,
displaying substantial decrease, increase or unclear changes across two consecutive testing sessions. The magnitude
of the within-group changes in the different performance
variables, or between-group differences in the changes,
were expressed as standardized mean differences (Cohens
d), which were calculated using the pooled standard deviations of the two testing sessions of interest (Cohen 1988)
and adjusted for changes in body mass over the same time
period, since body mass displayed the greater association
with changes in performance (e.g., more than baseline fitness, maturation status or changes in height). Threshold
values for Cohens d statistics were [0.2 (small), [0.5
(moderate) and [0.8 (large). Confidence intervals (90%)
for the (true) mean changes or between-group differences in the training response were estimated (Hopkins

Results
Selected data
From the initial sample of 92 players, 46 players
(15.1 1.5 years; 0.6 1.4 years from PHV, 164.3
10.3 cm; 53.7 11.1 kg and 47.7 11.2 mm sum of 7
skinfolds) completed all tests over two consecutive testing
sessions (OctoberJanuary n = 36 and/or JanuaryMay
n = 29), yielding 65 pairs of data (i.e., data from 19
players were used twice). Of the 19 players that presented
two pairs of data (i.e., OctoberJanuary and JanuaryMay)
analysis of their HRex data showed that 4 players presented
with substantial decreases over both testing periods, 4
showed a substantial decrease followed by a non-substantial change, 5 had a substantial increase then a nonsubstantial change, 4 had a substantial decrease then a
substantial increase and the final 2 players presented with
two substantial increases. There was neither an age nor a
maturity status effect on this distribution. Similar distributions were observed for changes in HRR and Ln rMSSD.
When grouped by maturity-status, 21 pairs of data were

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As shown in Tables 1 and 3, a within-player decrease in

HRex or an increase in Ln rMSSD was associated with a
100 and 99% chance of improvement in VVam-Eval,
respectively, while opposite HR adaptations led to unclear
changes in VVam-Eval. When comparing between-group
differences in the changes, there was 99% more chance to
observe an improvement in VVam-Eval for players showing a
decrease in HRex than in players showing an increase
(Fig. 1). Similarly, an increase in Ln rMSSD was associated with 63% more chance of observing an improvement
in VVam-Eval compared with a decrease in Ln rMSSD
(Fig. 1). None of the other HR measures could discriminate
positive or negative changes in the physical performance
variables (e.g., both increases and decreases in HRex were
associated with similar substantial improvements in RS, so
that RS performance changes could not be discriminated
based on changes in HRex).

classified as belonging to pre-PHV players (-2 to

-0.1 years from PHV), 20 to circum-PHV players (0 to
1.1 years from PHV) and 24 to post-PHV players
([1.23 years from PHV). These maturation-based groups
were based on the available player distribution so as to
provide three groups of comparable sample size. Finally, to
assess potential predictors of performance improvements
over the full competitive season, data from 26 players
(14.9 1.3 years; 0.5 1.2 years from PHV, 163.3
8.7 cm; 51.4 9.8 kg and 45.1 9.9 mm sum of 7
skinfolds) presenting complete data sets in both October
and May were analyzed.
Changes in HR measures and their associations
with changes in performance variables
during a competitive season in youth soccer players
Table 1 shows performance variables and HR responses to
the 50 50 test for players that presented either a substantial
decrease or increase in HRex. Tables 2 and 3 present similar data as a function of substantial changes in HRR and Ln
rMSSD, respectively. Irrespective of the HR measure of
interest, there was no substantial difference in anthropometric measures, age, maturity status and baseline physical
performance between the two subgroups presenting either a
decrease or an increase in the HR measure of interest (all
comparisons rated as similar or unclear).

Correlations between HR measures and changes

in physical performance during a competitive season
in youth soccer players
When considering all data from the 65 complete data sets
together, there was a large correlation between individual
changes in HRex and VVam-Eval, and a small-to-moderate
correlation between changes in HRR and RS (Table 4). As
seen in Fig. 2, the magnitude of the correlations between

Table 1 Changes in physical performance in highly trained young soccer players showing substantial changes in submaximal HR (HRex) within
a competitive season

Pairs of data

Decreased HRex

Increased HRex

25

15

Between-group
difference
in the change (%)

Test 1

Test 2

D (%)

Test 1

Test 2

D (%)

HRex
(% HRmax)

78
(76;80)

73
(72;75)

-6.5 (-7.5;-5.4)
0/0/100

67
(65;70)

74
(71;77)

?9.5 (6.2;12.9)
100/0/0

-15.3 (-17.7; -12.8)

0/0/100

VVam-Eval
(km h-1)

15.4
(14.9;15.8)

16.2
(15.9;16.6)

?6.5 (3.9;9.2)
100/0/0

16.6
(16.0;17.1)

16.6
(16.0;17.3)

?0.3 (-1.6;2.2)
10/86/4

?6.4 (3.2;9.7)
99/1/0

CMJ
(cm)

33.9
(31.4;36.5)

36.1
(33.4;38.8)

?5.7 (2.6;8.8)
82/18/0

39.0
(35.1;43.0)

40.6
(36.5;44.6)

?4.0 (2.20;6.1)
39/61/0

?1.6 (-1.9;5.2)
12/88/1

Acc
(s)

1.85
(1.82;1.88)

1.85
(1.82;1.87)

0.1 (-1.0;1.3)
11/83/6

1.80
(1.76;1.84)

1.79
(1.74;1.84)

-1.0 (-2.13;0.4)
2/46/53

?0.9 (-0.8;2.6)
48/48/4

MSS
(km h-1)

28.1
(27.1;29.0)

28.6
(27.7;29.4)

?1.5 (0.42;2.8)
32/68/0

29.2
(28.1;30.3)

29.6
(28.5;30.8)

?1.8 (0.31;3.5)
56/43/0

-0.4 (-2.4;1.6)
4/81/14

RS
(s)

4.79
(4.69;4.89)

4.67
(4.58;4.75)

-2.6 (-3.6;-1.5)
0/2/98

4.58
(4.44;4.73)

4.47
(4.31;4.63)

-2.8 (-4.0;-1.6)
0/2/98

0.0 (-1.6;1.6)
10/80/10

Mean values (90% confidence limits), mean percentage changes (90% confidence limits and chances to observe greater/similar/lower values for
Test 2 compared with Test 1) and differences in the change (90% confidence limits and chances to observe greater/similar/lower changes for
decreased HRex compared with increased HRex) in maximal running velocity during the incremental running test (VVam-Eval), counter movement
jump (CMJ), acceleration (Acc) and maximal sprinting speed (MSS) obtained during a 40-m sprint with 10-m splits and repeated sprints
(10 9 30-m sprints, RS) performance for players showing substantial changes in submaximal exercise HR (HRex). Italics highlight substantial
between-group differences in the change in performance (i.e., ability of the HR measure to discriminate changes in performance). Between-group
differences in the changes and statistical inferences are provided for data adjusted on changes in body mass

123

Eur J Appl Physiol

Table 2 Changes in physical performance in highly trained young soccer players showing substantial changes in HR recovery (HRR) within a
competitive season

Pairs of data

Increased HRR

Decreased HRR

13

28

Between-group
difference
in the change (%)

Test 1

Test 2

D (%)

Test 1

Test 2

D (%)

HRR
(bpm)

42
(35;50)

64
(55;71)

?48 (33;64)
100/0/0

58
(53;62)

46
(42;50)

-21 (-23;-19)
0/0/100

?87 (66;110)
100/0/0

VVam-Eval
(km h-1)

16.1
(15.4;16.8)

16.3
(15.6;17.1)

?1.9 (-1.1;5.1)
49/49/2

16.0
(15.5;16.4)

16.2
(15.9;16.6)

?2.1 (0.1;4.1)
61/39/0

-0.3 (-4.0;3.5)
18/56/26

CMJ
(cm)

38.5
(33.5;43.5)

41.3
(37.2;45.5)

?2.5 (-0.5;5.6)
17/83/0

36.5
(33.7;39.3)

37.4
(34.7;40.1)

?5.8 (-0.1;12.0)
51/49/0

?2.0 (-4.6;9.0)
26/68/6

Acc
(s)

1.81
(1.76;1.86)

1.79
(1.75;1.84)

-0.3 (-1.8;1.1)
5/80/15

1.83
(1.80;1.86)

1.83
(1.80;1.86)

-0.4 (-1.4;0.7)
1/83/15

?0.6 (-1.3;2.5)
34/59/8

MSS
(km h-1)

29.1
(27.5;30.8)

29.3
(27.8;30.8)

?0.1 (-1.3;1.6)
1/99/1

28.7
(27.8;29.6)

29.0
(28.2;29.8)

?0.8 (-0.6;2.3)
15/84/0

-1.6 (-3.6;0.4)
0/58/42

RS
(s)

4.65
(4.45;4.86)

4.57
(4.39;4.74)

-1.7 (-3.4;0.1)
0/54/45

4.67
(4.56;4.77)

4.57
(4.47;4.66)

-2.3 (-3.2;-1.4)
0/2/98

?1.0 (-1.1;3.2)
40/57/3

Mean values (90% confidence limits), mean percentage changes (90% confidence limits and chances to observe greater/similar/lower values for
Test 2 compared with Test 1) and differences in the change (90% confidence limits and chances to observe greater/similar/lower changes for
increased HRR compared with decreased HRR) in maximal running velocity during the incremental running test (VVam-Eval), counter movement
jump (CMJ), acceleration (Acc) and maximal sprinting speed (MSS) obtained during a 40-m sprint with 10-m splits and repeated sprints
(10 9 30-m sprints, RS) performance for players showing substantial changes in heart rate recovery (HRR). Between-group differences in the
changes and statistical inferences are provided for data adjusted on changes in body mass
Table 3 Changes in physical performance in highly trained young soccer players showing substantial changes in a vagal-related HR variability
index (Ln rMSSD) within a competitive season

Pairs of
data

Increased Ln rMSSD

Decreased Ln rMSSD

18

15

Between-group
difference
in the change (%)

Test 1

Test 2

D (%)

Test 1

Test 2

D (%)

Ln rMSSD
(ms)

2.9
(2.6;3.1)

3.7
(3.5;3.9)

?33.5 (23.0;44.8)
100/0/0

3.3
(3.1;3.6)

2.8
(2.6;3.0)

-16.7 (-19.3; -14.0)

0/0/100

?140.1 (32.2;336.0)
99/1/1

VVam-Eval
(km h-1)

15.7
(15.1;16.3)

16.3
(15.9;16.7)

?4.5 (1.6;7.4)
91/9/0

16.0
(15.5;16.5)

16.2
(15.8;16.7)

?1.3 (-1.8;4.6)
46/47/7

?3.0 (-1.0;7.3)
68/29/3

CMJ
(cm)

36.8
(33.1;40.5)

38.8
(35.1;42.4)

?4.5 (1.1;8.1)
42/58/0

36.7
(33.8;39.7)

37.8
(34.7;40.1)

?2.8 (-1.1;6.9)
35/64/1

?1.5 (-3.4;6.7)
20/77/3

Acc
(s)

1.82
(1.79;1.86)

1.81
(1.78;1.84)

-0.5 (-1.9;1.0)
5/67/28

1.84
(1.80;1.89)

1.82
(1.78;1.86)

-1.4 (-2.7;-0.2)
0/34/65

?1.2 (-0.7;3.2)
58/41/5

MSS
(km h-1)

29.0
(27.6;29.4)

29.3
(28.2;30.1)

?0.9 (-1.1;2.9)
15/84/1

29.0
(27.8;30.3)

29.3
(28.2;30.5)

?2.2 (0.7;3.7)
77/23/0

-1.5 (-3.9;0.8)
0/54/45

RS
(s)

4.68
(4.56;4.81)

4.57
(4.46;4.69)

-2.4 (-3.7;-1.0)
0/9/91

4.68
(4.56;4.79)

4.55
(4.43;4.66)

-2.1 (-3.2;-0.9)
0/9/91

-0.3 (-2.0;1.5)
9/70/21

Mean values (90% confidence limits), mean percentage changes (90% confidence limits and chances to observe greater/similar/lower values for
Test 2 compared with Test 1) and differences in the change (90% confidence limits and chances to observe greater/similar/lower changes for
increased Ln rMSSD compared with decreased Ln rMSSD) in maximal running velocity during the incremental running test (VVam-Eval), counter
movement jump (CMJ), acceleration (Acc) and maximal sprinting speed (MSS) obtained during a 40-m sprint with 10-m splits and repeated
sprints (10 9 30-m sprints, RS) performance for players showing substantial changes in the vagal-related heart rate variability index (Ln
rMSSD). Italics highlight substantial between-group differences in the change in performance (i.e., ability of the HR measure to discriminate
changes in performance). Between-group differences in the changes and statistical inferences are provided for data adjusted on changes in body
mass

individual changes in HRex and VVam-Eval was inversely

related to the maturity status of the players. There was
however no clear effect of maturity status on the

magnitude of the relationships between changes in HRR

and RS (this relationship was only clear when all the data
was pooled).

123

Eur J Appl Physiol

1.0

Exercise heart rate

0.8
0.6

Cohen's d

0.4
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8

Decrease in HRex
Increase in HRex

-1.0

VVam-Eval
1.0

CMJ

Acc

MSS

RS

Heart rate recovery

0.8
0.6

Cohen's d

0.4

Discussion

0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8

Increase in HRR
Decrease in HRR

-1.0

VVam-Eval
1.0

CMJ

Acc

MSS

RS

Heart rate variability

0.8
0.6
0.4

Cohen's d

b Fig. 1 Changes (Cohens d or effect size) in the performance

variables [maximal running velocity during the incremental running
test (VVam-Eval), counter movement jump (CMJ), acceleration (Acc)
and maximal sprinting speed (MSS) obtained during a 40-m sprint
with 10-m splits, repeated sprints (10 9 30-m sprints, RS)] for
players showing substantial changes in submaximal exercise HR
(HRex, n = 25 and 15 showing a decrease and an increase,
respectively), heart rate recovery (HRR, n = 13 and 28 showing an
increase and a decrease, respectively) and a vagal-related heart rate
variability index (Ln rMSSD, n = 18 and 15 showing an increase and
a decrease, respectively). Green plots stand for changes generally
expected to be beneficial (i.e., decreased HRex and increased HRR
and Ln rMSSD), while red stand for changes generally expected to be
unfavorable (i.e., increased HRex and decreased HRR and Ln
rMSSD). Gray circles around the plots highlight very likely
([95%) differences in the changes in performance for this given
change in HR measure compared with the opposite change (i.e.,
between-group comparison showing the discriminatory power of the
HR measure). The shaded area represents the smallest worthwhile
change (see Methods)

0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8

Increase in Ln rMSSD
Decrease in Ln rMSSD

-1.0

VVam-Eval

CMJ

Acc

MSS

RS

Correlations between baseline HR measures

and changes in physical performance
during a competitive season in youth soccer players
As shown in Table 4, HRex at the start of the season was
moderately-to-largely correlated with changes in VVam-Eval.
Similarly, HRR at the start of the season was moderately
correlated with changes in MSS and RS. Finally, Ln
rMSSD at the start of the season was moderately correlated
with changes in Acc, MSS and RS. No other clear correlations were found.

123

In this study, we examined whether HR measures derived

from a submaximal running test can be used to predict and
track changes in physical performance over an entire
competitive season in young highly trained football players. The main results were as follows: (1) a within-player
decrease in HRex and/or an increase in Ln rMSSD but not
HRR was associated with at least very likely improvements
in VVam-Eval, (2) the more mature the player, the less
capable changes in HRex were at predicting changes in
VVam-Eval, (3) submaximal HRex, HRR and Ln rMSSD at
the start of the season were moderately-to-largely correlated with changes in most of the performance variables
over the entire season, (4) moderate relationships were
found between individual changes in HRR and sprint and
repeated-sprint performance and finally (5) changes in the
HR measures a priori expected to be unfavorable for
physical performance were actually not predictive of
physical performance decrements, irrespective of the
physical capacity considered.
A decrease in HRex, increase in HRR and vagal-related
HRV indices are generally associated with improved cardiorespiratory fitness and physical performance (Buchheit
et al. 2008, 2010a; Lamberts et al. 2009, 2010b); opposite
changes in these HR measures are generally associated
with chronic fatigue and/or impaired physical performance
(Borresen and Lambert 2008; Bosquet et al. 2008b). In the
present study, training content was very similar for all age
groups throughout the season and, more importantly, was
consistent during the 23 weeks preceding each testing
period. This is of great importance since acute changes in
training load (possibly independently of effective changes
in fitness and/or fatigue) have been shown to influence HR
measures (Borresen and Lambert 2007; Lamberts et al.
2010a). We are therefore confident that the changes in HR

Eur J Appl Physiol

Table 4 Correlations (90% confidence limits) between HR measures and changes in physical performance variables over a competitive season
in young soccer players
Individual changes (n pairs of data = 65)

Baseline values (n pairs of data = 26)

HRex

HRR

Ln rMSSD

HRex

HRR

Ln rMSSD

VVam-Eval

-0.58
(-0.42;-0.70)

Unclear

Unclear

0.47
(0.17;0.69)

Unclear

Unclear

CMJ

Unclear

Unclear

Unclear

Unclear

Unclear

Unclear

Acc

Unclear

Unclear

Unclear

Unclear

Unclear

-0.52
(-0.23;-0.73)

MSS

Unclear

Unclear

Unclear

Unclear

0.39
(0.07;0.64)

0.57
(0.30;0.76)

RS

Unclear

-0.38
(-0.19;-0.54)

Unclear

Unclear

-0.38
(-0.05;-0.64)

-0.37
(-0.05;-0.62)

Maximal running velocity during the incremental running test (VVam-Eval), counter movement jump (CMJ), acceleration (Acc), maximal sprinting speed
(MSS) obtained during a 40-m sprint with 10-m splits, repeated sprints (10 9 30-m sprints, RS), submaximal exercise heart rate (HRex), heart rate
recovery (HRR) and a vagal-related heart rate variability index (Ln rMSSD). All correlations are adjusted for changes in body mass, which was the best
predictor of the changes in all performance variables

Pre-PHV r = 0.73 (0.49;0.87)

Circum-PHV r = 0.65 (0.34;0.83)
Post-PHV r = 0.46 (0.14;0.69)
All pooled r = 0.63 (0.48;0.74)

Individual change in VVam-Eval (%)

1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-10

-8

-6

-4

-2

10

Individual change in HRex (%HRmax)

Fig. 2 Individual changes in maximal running velocity during the

incremental running test (VVam-Eval) as a function of individual
changes in submaximal exercise HR (HRex) for players classified as
being pre- (Pre-PHV, n = 21), circum- (Circum-PHV, n = 20) and
post- (Post-PHV, n = 24) peak height velocity within a competitive
season. Correlation coefficients (90% confidence limits) are adjusted
for changes in body mass

measures observed in the present study were not the result

of acute training load manipulations.
In the present study, after adjusting for changes in body
mass related to growth, we observed an improved VVam-Eval
in the players showing substantial improvements in HRex
over a 34 months period (Fig. 1). Similarly, when all data
were pooled together, individual changes in HRex were
largely correlated with changes in VVam-Eval (Table 4;
Fig. 2). This is not a new finding since submaximal HRex
expressed as a percentage of maximal HR is directly
related to the relative exercise intensity; a decrease in
submaximal exercise HR for the same absolute work with
improvements in aerobic fitness is also one of the most
commonly observed adaptations to endurance training

(Andrew et al. 1966). It was, however, worth noting

that the ability of changes in HRex to predict changes in
VVam-Eval was maturity-dependent (even when controlled
for changes in body mass), with the less mature the player,
the better the predictability (as inferred from the increasing
magnitude of the correlation coefficients, Fig. 2). This is
likely related to the fact that maximal aerobic speed (as
inferred from VVam-Eval) is not only related to cardiorespiratory fitness, but also to anthropometric and neuromuscular-related factors affecting running velocity and
economy (Saunders et al. 2004). It is also possible that
while pre-PHV players essentially increased their VVam-Eval
via improvement of their cardiopulmonary function, the
relative importance of other qualitative muscle factors
[e.g., improved multipoint coordination (Baquet et al.
2003), increased muscle power and changes in both oxidative and non-oxidative metabolism (Van Praagh and
Dore 2002)] became greater with increasing age and/or
maturity status.
Another interesting finding in this study was that baseline (October) HRex was positively related to improvements in VVam-Eval (Table 4), while baseline VVam-Eval and
maturation status were not. While still speculative without
objective data on individual training volume and intensities
(Castagna et al. 2011) showing that all players received
equivalent training loads over the competitive year, the
present findings confirm that the less fit players (as inferred
from a higher relative cardiorespiratory load during the
9 km h-1 run) may display greater improvements in cardiovascular function for a given training stimuli (Baquet
et al. 2003). These results have important implications for
monitoring and periodizing training at the individual level
in young soccer players (e.g., allocating players in different
groups at the start of the season based on their need in
terms of physical development).

123

Eur J Appl Physiol

Conversely, our results showed that a substantial

improvement in HRR was not associated with beneficial
changes in any cardiorespiratory fitness-related performance (Fig. 1; Table 2), while a moderate correlation was
found between individual changes in HRR and RS performance when adjusted for changes in body mass
(Table 4). Despite the low magnitude of the correlation
reported, these results are in accordance with the recent
study by Buchheit et al. (2008), where changes in the time
constant of HRR after training were largely (r = 0.62)
related to the improvements in RS performance but not
maximal intermittent running velocity [i.e., the speed
reached at the end of the 3015 Intermittent Fitness Test,
which is well related to VVam-Eval (Buchheit et al. 2009)].
The lower correlation reported here (r = -0.38) could be
related to differences in the study population, training
background, training content and duration (real life
training conditions vs. structured study design), performance tests employed [i.e., the RS test used in Buchheits
study (2008) employed shorter between-sprints recovery
periods, 30 versus 14 s, which potentially increases the
aerobic contribution to the test (Glaister et al. 2005)] and
method used for HRR calculation (number of beats
recovered in a minute vs. HR curve fitting). Whether the
only moderate level of HRR reliability as measured here
(i.e., 13%) could explain the modest magnitude of the
correlation observed in the present study is unknown, since
this could either exaggerate (i.e., spurious correlation, Type
I error) or decrease the magnitude of the correlation (Type
II error) (Osborne and Waters 2002). Nevertheless, the
present results once again lend support to the understanding that HRR shares more determinants with endurance
capacity [i.e., 40- and 10-km time trial performances
(Lamberts et al. 2009, 2010b; Buchheit et al. 2010a) or RS
(Buchheit et al. 2008)] than maximal oxygen uptake
(Buchheit and Gindre 2006). We also observed moderate
correlations between baseline HRR values and changes in
MSS and RS performance over the entire season (Table 4).
While care should be taken when interpreting correlation
with such a limited magnitude, these results seem to confirm that players displaying a greater initial parasympathetic function [as inferred by faster HRR (Buchheit et al.
2007)] at the start of the season can improve more (Boutcher and Stein 1995; Hautala et al. 2003, 2009). The theoretical background behind these correlations (especially
for neuromuscular-related performances) is not straightforward and should be the subject of future investigations.
Previous authors (Boutcher and Stein 1995; Hautala et al.
2003, 2009) have suggested a possible mechanistic link
between vagal functioning and the capacity to adapt to
intense exercise training.
Players showing substantial improvements in Ln rMSSD
over a 34 months period also displayed clear

123

improvements in VVam-Eval (Fig. 1; Table 2); the percentage chance of observing a beneficial change in performance was, however, lower than that for HRex (68 vs.
99%) and there was also no association between individual
changes in Ln rMSSD and VVam-Eval (Table 4). These
findings show that the ability of HRV to predict changes in
maximal aerobic function is lower than HRex. This might
be related to the fact that HRV not only reflects cardiorespiratory function (Buchheit and Gindre 2006) and relative
exercise intensity (with the lower the anaerobic system
participation, the lower the metaboreflex stimulation and
the greater the post-exercise HRV), but it is also highly
affected by other parameters such as acute fatigue, hydration status or stress (Achten and Jeukendrup 2003; Bosquet
et al. 2008b) that can confound the relationship between
HRV and physical performance. While greater vagal-related HRV indices are generally observed with endurance
training in adults (Sandercock et al. 2005), and while
changes in Ln rMSSD correlated with the improvements in
endurance performance in recreational adult runners
(Buchheit et al. 2010a), the effect of aerobic training on
HRV is less clear in children and adolescents, with studies
reporting either positive (Buchheit et al. 2008), unclear
(Mandigout et al. 2002) or no (Gamelin et al. 2009)
responses. In the recent study by Buchheit et al. (2008),
changes in rMSSD were also largely correlated with
improvements in RS (r = -0.55), which was not the case
in the present study. As discussed above, differences in the
RS test protocols could account for the difference
observed. Nevertheless, after adjustments for changes in
body mass, and as was the case with HRR, we found
moderate-to-large correlations between baseline (i.e.,
October) Ln rMSSD and changes in Acc, MSS and RS
performance (Table 4, while there was no clear correlation
between performance changes and neither baseline maturational status nor initial performance). As for HRR, the
theoretical background behind these correlations remains
unclear, but a link between vagal functioning and the
capacity to adapt to intense exercise training can also be
hypothesized (Boutcher and Stein 1995; Hautala et al.
2003, 2009). Finally, it is worth mentioning that in contrast
to HRR, HRV measures were not adjusted for HRex; the
possible impact of HRex on Ln rMSSD value could
therefore not be discarded and is a limitation of the present
study.
The changes in the HR measures examined in the
present study have also been of interest in recent years for
their potential to predict fatigue and overload (Achten and
Jeukendrup 2003; Borresen and Lambert 2008; Bosquet
et al. 2008b). Following an overload period leading to nonfunctional overreaching or overtraining syndrome, an
autonomic imbalance is theoretically expected, characterized in most cases by an over-stimulated sympathetic

Eur J Appl Physiol

system and conversely, a depressed parasympathetic

activity (Achten and Jeukendrup 2003). While the response
of HRex to chronic fatigue leading to impaired physical
capacities is still unclear (Achten and Jeukendrup 2003;
Bosquet et al. 2008b), decreased HRR and vagal-related
HRV indices are generally expected to accompany performance decrements in adults (Achten and Jeukendrup
2003; Bosquet et al. 2008b). For example, Uusitalo et al.
(2000) reported in adult female endurance athletes that the
decrement in maximal oxygen uptake after an overload
period was related to changes in various HRV indices.
In contrast, in the present study on young highly trained
soccer players, changes in HR measures generally interpreted as unfavorable (i.e., increases in submaximal exercise HR, a decrease in HRR and/or decreased vagal-related
HRV indices) were not associated with performance
decrements, irrespective of the physical quality of interest
(Fig. 1). These unexpected results can nevertheless be
explained by the fact that, despite the great emphasis on
testing standardization, as discussed above, HR measures
are highly sensitive to factors such as hydration status or
acute stress (Achten and Jeukendrup 2003; Bosquet et al.
2008b), which can increase HRex or decrease Ln rMSSD
values in the absence of an installed fatigue state; changes
are therefore not likely reflective of real changes in physical capacities. The fact that a decrease in HRex and an
increase in Ln rMSSD clearly translate into improved
cardiorespiratory fitness-related performances (see above),
while the opposite changes in these HR measures led to
unclear performance changes, shows that an improved
cardiorespiratory fitness has a likely stronger impact on HR
measures than these possible confounding factors. A more
detailed comparison of the present data with the literature
is also difficult since in most of the previous studies in
adults, fatigue was deliberately induced by an intentional
overload training period (Uusitalo et al. 1998; Coutts et al.
2007); the combined effect of the increased training load
and accumulated fatigue might affect HR measures and
their relationships with physical performance differently
when compared with typical in-season daily training conditions as experienced in the present study. Our finding are
nevertheless partly in line with recent data observed on
well-trained adult male cyclists (Lamberts et al. 2010b): it
was concluded that decreased HRR could possibly predict
an inability to cope with the training load, leading, in turn,
to blunted improvements in endurance performance (but
not an obligatory decrease in performance) (Lamberts et al.
2010b). In combination, previous and present data suggest
that while non-functional overreaching or overtraining
states might be accompanied with both unfavorable changes in HR measures and impaired physical performance
(Achten and Jeukendrup 2003; Bosquet et al. 2008b), an
unfavorable change in HR measures is not obligatorily

associated with impaired physical performance. Therefore,

the present findings question the use of these unique HR
measures to predict performance decrements in young
soccer players as it has recently been proposed (Brink et al.
2010; Schmikli et al. 2010).
In conclusion, when controlled for changes in body mass
occurring as a result of growth and maturation, substantial
improvements in submaximal exercise HR and Ln rMSSD
(but not HRR) are highly predictive of improvements in
maximal aerobic speed. Conversely, changes in HRR were
moderately associated with changes in (repeated-) sprint
performance. While the magnitude of the associations
observed were too low to accurately predict a players
trainability, baseline values of submaximal exercise HR,
HRR and post-exercise Ln rMSSD measures obtained at
the start of the season were moderately correlated with
changes in most of the performance variables over the
entire season (i.e., cardiorespiratory- but also neuromuscular-related performances), which is suggestive that these
measures could be of interest for player screening. Conversely, changes in these HR measures generally interpreted as unfavorable are unlikely associated with
performance decrements, which questions the use of these
unique variables as systematic markers of non-functional
overreaching during the course of a competitive season in
highly trained young soccer players. More controlled
research is required to improve our understanding of the
link between training load, perceived fatigue and recovery
levels, HR measures and physical performance during
typical training conditions in soccer.
Conflict of interest

None.

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