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2 AUTHORS:
Fernando Magnago
A. Abur
Northeastern University
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1 Introduction
Transmission line fault location has long been one of the primary
concerns of the power industry. Methods of locating power system faults introduced so far, can be broadly classified under two
categories: one based on the power frequency components, and
the other utilizing the higher frequency contents of the transient
fault signals. The latter is also referred to as traveling wave or
ultra high speed fault location method, due to its use of traveling
wave theory and shorter sampling windows.
The use of traveling wave theory for fault detection was
initially proposed by Dommel and Michels in [1], where a discriminant was defined based on the transient voltage and current
waveforms in order to detect a transmission line fault. McLaren
et al. have later developed a correlation based technique where
the cross correlation between stored sections of the forward and
backward traveling waves were used to estimate the travel times
of transient signals from the relays to the fault point [2, 3, 4]. An
overview of traveling wave based fault location methods can be
found in [5, 6].
The potential benefits of applying wavelet transform for analysis of transient signals in power systems have been recognized
in the recent years. Robertson et al. present a comparative
overview of Fourier, short time Fourier and wavelet transforms,
give examples of applying wavelet transform to analyze power
system transients and extraction of their particular features in [8].
A similar overview along with application of wavelet transform
to detect and classify power quality disturbances, are given in [9].
Advantages of using wavelet transform for analyzing transients
and solution of linear time-invariant differential equations using
wavelet transform is demonstrated in [10]. In this paper, another
useful application of the wavelet transform in solving the problem of fault location, will be presented. A brief introduction to
wavelet transform will be given before formulating the problem
and presenting the proposed solution method.
1
Wavelet Transform
Wavelet transform has been introduced rather recently in mathematics, even though the essential ideas that lead to this development have been around for a longer period of time. It is a
linear transformation much like the Fourier transform, however with one important difference: it allows time localization of
different frequency components of a given signal. Windowed
Fourier transform also partially achieves this same goal, but with
a limitation of using a fixed width windowing function. As a
result, both frequency and time resolution of the resulting transform will be apriori fixed. In the case of the wavelet transform,
the analyzing functions, which are called wavelets, will adjust
their time-widths to their frequency in such a way that, higher
frequency wavelets will be very narrow and lower frequency
ones will be broader. This property of multi resolution is particularly useful for analyzing fault transients which contain localized high frequency components superposed on power frequency
signals. Thus, wavelet transform is better suited for analysis of
signals containing short lived high frequency disturbances superposed on lower frequency continuous waveforms by virtue of this
zoom-in capability.
Given a function f (t), its continuous wavelet transform
(WT) will be calculated as follows:
1
t b
W T ( f, a, b) =
f (t) (
)dt,
(1)
a
a
where, a and b are the scaling (dilation) and translation (time
shift) constants respectively, and is the wavelet function which
may not be real as assumed in the above equation for simplicity.
The choice of the wavelet function (mother wavelet) is flexible
provided that it satisfies the so called admissibility conditions
[11].
Wavelet transform of sampled waveforms can be obtained by
implementing the discrete wavelet transform which is given by:
n ka0m
1
DW T ( f, m, n) = m
f (k) (
)
a0m
a0 k
(2)
(4)
where, Smode and S phase are the modal and phase signals (voltages
or currents) vectors respectively.
Clarkes transformation is real and can be used with any
transposed line. If the studied line is untransposed, then an eigenvector based transformation matrix, which is frequency dependent, will have to be used. This matrix should be computed at
a frequency equal or close to the frequency of the initial fault
transients.
Recorded phase signals are first transformed into their modal
components. The first mode (mode 1), is usually referred to as the
ground mode, and its magnitude is significant only during faults
having a path to ground. Hence, this component can not be used
for all types of faults. The second mode (mode 2), also known as
the aerial mode, however is present for any kind of fault. Accordingly, the fault location problem is formulated based essentially
on the aerial mode, making occasional use of the ground mode
signal for purposes of distinguishing between certain peculiar situations, which will be discussed in the next section. Depending
on the existing communication scheme between the two ends of
the line, fault location problem can be solved in two different
ways described below.
m td
2
(5)
where,
is the length of the line, x is the distance to fault from bus A,
and m is the speed of the traveling waves for mode m.
It has long been observed that ungrounded faults such as line-toline or ungrounded three-phase, do not cause significant reflections from the remote end bus during the fault transients. Thus,
by measuring the time delay between the two consecutive peaks
in the wavelet transform coefficients of the recorded fault signal
at scale 1, and taking the product of the wave velocity and half of
this time delay, the distance to the fault can easily be calculated
for these kinds of faults. The fault distance will be given by the
equation:
td
x=
(6)
2
where,
x is the distance to the fault, is the wave velocity (for the mode
used), and td is the time difference between two consecutive
peaks of the wavelet transform coefficients.
3.2.2
(7)
where:
is the travel time for the entire line length, and t x is the time
interval between the first two peaks of aerial mode WTCs in
scale 1.
Figure 1 shows the flowchart for the proposed fault location
algorithm based on the wavelet transform coefficients. Next
section contains results of simulations used to test this proposed
algorithm for various fault types and line configurations.
Transducer
Output
Modal
Transformation
Wavelet
Transformation
Scale 2 Mode 1
NO
=0?
Scale 1 Mode 1
NO
=0?
YES
YES
Ungrounded Fault
Based on Scale 1 Mode 2
calculate the fault loc.
as in Section 3.2.1
Grounded Fault
Remote half of the line.
Based on Scale 1 Mode 2
calculate td as in Eq. (7)
then calculate the fault
loc. as in Eq. (6)
Grounded Fault
Near half of the line.
Based on Scale 1 Mode 2
calculate the fault loc.
as in Section 3.2.1
4 Simulation results
The ATP/EMTP program [14] is used to calculate the transient
signals in the power system. Figure 2 shows the system configuration used in the simulations. The frequency dependent model
is used to model the line [15]. The relays are located at busbar A
and B for the double ended configuration and at busbar A for the
single ended configuration.
For this tower configuration, mode 2 (aerial mode) has a
propagation velocity of 1.8182 10 5 miles/sec. A sampling time
of 10s is used. The system is simulated using double and single
l = 200 miles
345 KV
l-x
345 Kv
3T2
2T1+T2
5
4
3
1
0
20
20.5
21
21.5
22
22.5
23
time (ms)
5(a) and (b) show the WTC for scale 1, of the voltage transients
recorded at bus A and B respectively.
In this example, the first WTC peak at bus A occurs at tA =
20.15 ms, and at bus B at t B = 21 ms, yielding t d = 0.85 ms and
using Eq.(5):
x=
20.5
21
21.5
22
22.5
23
22.5
23
5T2
B
80m
(WTC)^2 x 10 e9
15
120m
(WTC)^2 x 10 e10
(WTC)^2 x 10 e7
10
0
20
20.5
21
21.5
22
time (ms)
A
T1
T1+2T2
3T1
T1+4T2
0
20
21
22
time (ms)
b)Scale 2, mode 2
22
23
0.5
(WTC)^2
(WTC)^2 x 10 e9
21
1.5
1
0.5
0
20
21
22
23
21
22
0.5
0
20
23
21
22
23
time (ms)
d)Scale 2, mode 1
5
1.5
1
0.5
21
22
23
4
3
2
1
0
20
time (ms)
0.5
time (ms)
0.5
0
20
1
20
time (ms)
d)Scale 2, mode 1
1.5
time (ms)
b)Scale 2, mode 2
0.5
1
20
23
0
20
(WTC)^2 x 10 e9
(WTC)^2
(WTC)^2 x 10 e8
0.5
10
(WTC)^2 x 10 e7
c)Scale 1, mode 1
1
c)Scale 1, mode 1
1.5
(WTC)^2 x 10 e8
a)Scale 1, mode 2
15
a)Scale 1, mode 2
2.5
(WTC)^2 x 10 e9
21
22
23
time (ms)
22
23
time (ms)
x=
a)Scale 1, mode 2
c)Scale 1, mode 1
0.5
6
4
2
0
20
21
22
23
0
0.5
1
20
time (ms)
b)Scale 2, mode 2
21
22
23
time (ms)
d)Scale 2, mode 1
4
(WTC)^2 x 10 e5
15
(WTC)^2 x 10 e8
[2] S. Rajendra and P.G. McLaren, Traveling-Wave Techniques Applied to the protection of Teed Circuits: Principle of Traveling Wave Techniques, IEEE Transactions
on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-104, no. 12,
pp.3544-3550, Dec. 1985.
(WTC)^2
(WTC)^2 x 10 e8
10
10
0
20
21
22
23
3
2
1
0
20
21
time (ms)
22
23
time (ms)
345 Kv
100 miles
[6] G.B. Ancell, and N.C. Pahalawaththa, Effects of Frequency Dependence and Line Parameters on Single Ended Traveling Wave Based Fault Location Schemes, IEE
Proceedings-C, Vol.139, No.4, July 1992, pp.332-342.
[7] J. Blake, P. Tantaswadi, and R.T. de Carvalho, In-Line
Sagnac Interferometer Current Sensor, IEEE Trans. on
Power Delivery, Vol.11, No.1, January 1996, pp.116-121.
345 Kv
345 KV
[3] S. Rajendra, and P. G. McLaren, Traveling Wave Techniques Applied to the Protection of Teed Circuits: - Multi Phase / Multi Circuit System, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-104, no. 12, pp.35513557, Dec. 1985.
100 miles
5 Conclusions
This paper presents a new, wavelet transform based fault location method. Using the traveling wave theory of transmission
lines, the transient signals are first decoupled into their modal
components. Modal signals are then transformed from the time
domain into the time-frequency domain by applying the wavelet
transform. The wavelet transform coefficients at the two lowest
scales are then used to determine the fault location for various
types of faults and line configurations. The proposed fault location method is independent of the fault impedance and is shown
to be suitable for mutually coupled tower geometries as well as
series capacitor compensated lines. The method can be used both
with single ended and synchronized two ended recording of fault
transients. The fault location estimation error is related to the
sampling time used in recording the fault transient. Furthermore,
for grounded faults near the middle of the line, mode 1 signals
from the fault and from the far end become comparable increasing the error of the fault location algorithm. Simulation results
are given to demonstrate the performance of the method.
References
[1] H. W. Dommel, and J. M. Michels, High Speed Relaying
using Traveling Wave Transient Analysis, IEEE Publications No. 78CH1295-5 PWR, paper no. A78 214-9, IEEE
PES Winter Power Meeting, New York, January 1978,
pp.1-7.