NIKOS S.

KANELLOS
MECHANICAL ENGINEER
NATIONAL TECHNICAL
UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS

A GEOMETRICAL SOLUTION OF THE

PHENOMENON OF THE
UNIVERSE EXPANSION AND ITS
CONSEQUENCES
(HUBBLES LAW)

(KANELLOS THEORY)

SCIENCE FICTION?

Dedicated to
Vassilis Xanthopoulos

A scientific genius and a wonderful person who

left early
This work is based on and contains unabridged
extracts from his book
ABOUT STARS AND UNIVERSES ,The Crete
University Press

NIKOS KANELLOS

Translated into English by Despoina Gaglia

INTRODUCTION

27 November 1990, the ominous day when Vassilis Xanthopoulos,39, one

of the best intellects of the astrophysics community worldwide, was murdered. A
man of great qualities, a great promising scientist who, had he lived longer,
would have expanded our knowledge about the universe which surrounds us.
A charismatic computer scientist with expertise in the area of solving
complicated equations appearing in the theory of General Relativity, Vassilis
introduced the use of electronic computers in carrying out complex algebraic
manipulations in research problems at the University of Crete, where he served
as a professor and chair of the Physics Department from 1985 till 27/11/1990.
A post graduate student named Petrodaskalakis visited him a few hours
before the massacre in order to discuss his future steps. Vassilis gave him his
lectures schedule and, God knows why, the above mentioned student came back
and murdered Vassilis right in front of his students eyes while he was teaching.
Envy, inferiority complex- perhaps the killer could not bear his
insignificance and the burden of his teachers personality or an instinct for
killing are the possible explanations of this heinous crime. What a shame for
Crete, what a shame for Greece.
In the picture below we can see the famous physicist S. Chandrasekhar
(Nobel prize 1983) talking to Vassilis Xanthopoulos during one of the formers
frequent visits to Crete for a collaboration on scientific matters.

Photo 01
Vassilis Xanthopoulos - S. Chandrasekhar

Among other things, Vassilis Xanthopoulos left us his book About Stars And
Universes

a little masterpiece, which, by 1997, had already been in its

6th edition and which should have been included in the secondary upper
schools curriculum.
In this book and on page 69, chapter 8 Vassilis writes:
The greatest revolution in cosmology occurred around 1930, when Edwin
Hubble proved beyond any doubt that the universe is expanding.
However, when Hubble started to study more distant galaxies he realized
that they are all receding from us and indeed the greater the distance the greater
the recession velocity. And, it did not take him long to discover, between 1929
and 1932, the law of expansion which bears his name:
V=H.d
The recession velocity V is proportional to the distance d of the galaxy.
Hubble estimated the constant of proportionality H, called the Hubble
constant, at a distance of approximately 500km/sec/3.62 million light years.

Fifty years later, our picture of the universe differs from that of Hubbles only in
the value of the H estimate which seems to be closer to 50km/sec/3.62 million
light years.
Based on our observations and Copernicus theory we reach a conclusion
that each galaxy will see all the other galaxies receding from it. In other words
galaxies recede from each other in the universe.
How does this happen?
The answer is relatively simple but also revolutionary. The galaxies are not
moving within the universe (because if they receded from the galaxy on their
right, they would approach the galaxy on their left), but it is the universe itself,
the space which is expanding.
The right image is that it is the geometric space itself which is formed by
the presence of the galaxies that is expanding while the distribution of galaxies
is getting sparse.
Right from the start this Hubbles law interpretation left me with a kind of
metaphysical uneasiness and a quest for further understanding because as we all
know the notion of space is a mathematical one, and therefore it cannot be
interpreted in terms of expansion or contraction.
This provided food for thought for me and I started writing this work which
gives a geometric interpretation to Hubbles law but it also draws further, very
important conclusions concerning the history of the universe.

CHAPTER 1

HUBBLES LAW
Galaxies recede from one another at a velocity proportional to their
distance

The relative velocity of the distant stars had been previously determined on
the basis of the Doppler effect of certain spectrum lines (the redshift when the
stars move away from us or the blueshift when they approach us.)
Determining the distances of

stars was a more difficult problem, the

solution to which is attributed to a mere observatory assistant, H. Leavitt, who

discovered the correlation between the brightness of the variable stars, Cepheid
stars, and their period of luminosity.
H. Leavitt died in her village after her retirement having received little
recognition in her lifetime. Her major discovery gave a great impetus to the
research of the universe since it became the starting point which enabled Hubble
to compute distances and velocities of stars.
Hubble measured the distances and discovered that the stars in the galaxies
recede from the earth at velocities proportional to their distance, in all directions

of the celestial sphere, with a constant value of proportionality being the

Hubble constant (H).

Fig. 1
It is certain now that the universe is expanding and the distances between the galaxies are
continually increasing 1.

For example, a star which is 100 million light years away recedes at a
velocity of -2100km /sec. Accordingly, a star which is 13.5 billion light years
away, 135 times farther, would move at a velocity of 135X2100-283500km/sec,
very close to the light speed and therefore very close to the boundaries of the

On the bottom left side of the figure there is a little square with Hubbles first observations in 1929.
The rest of the curve, which shows clearly the direct correlation between distance and recessional velocity,
was/had been added until 1960 for distances of 100,000,000 light years.
The real velocities are 1/10 of Hubbles initial value. More recent observations show that the Hubble
constant (H) is 1/10 of the original calculation that Hubble established so the constant H was corrected
accordingly.

10

universe (13.5 -13.7 billion light years) since there can be no speed greater than
that of the light.

Fig. 2

More particularly, our observer (fig 2) standing behind his telescope on

the Earth sees the stars of nearby and remote galaxies A,B,,, recede. With
his instruments he measures their distance and their recession velocity and
realizes that the further the star under observation, the faster it recedes and this
recession is directly proportional to its distance. For example, E is at half the
distance of A from and recedes at half the speed. This value of proportionality
of velocity over distance V/R=H, is Hubbles constant.

11

The fact that everything around us is receding could make us believe that
we are the motionless centre of the universe. This is not the case, though, since
as we all know the earth moves! So scientists conclude that this phenomenon is
common everywhere in the universe, given that everything recedes from
everything else and in fact not at random velocities but at directly proportional
ones to the distance between them.
So if our astronomer takes his telescope and moves, for example, to the
star of galaxy B (fig. 2) and observes our sun, he will see it recede at exactly the
same speed as he saw B recede when he was on the earth. Similarly, he will see
all the other galaxies A,B,,, receding from our sun. Thus, given that all the
distances between the galaxies increase, our conclusion is that the universe
expands.
Various theories have been put forward for the explanation of this
phenomenon but the point is that the problem remains unsolvable.
In this paper we attempt an approach from the mathematical physics point
of view.

12

The whole of the constituent matter of the universe, concentrated in a

relatively small region, exploded when it reached the ultimate compression point
and apparently scattered in all directions, with its particles moving radially
around the centre K of the explosion (fig.3).
Hence, if I am the observer () and the observed is (A) then our velocities
with respect to the centre K where we started will follow the directions K and
KA.

Fig. 3

At () we measure our relative velocity in the direction of the straight line

joining with and the relative velocity between us is the vector sum of our
velocity components K and KA in the direction of the straight line A.
(1+AA1).
This is the velocity that HUBBLE measured.

13

CHAPTER 2

Gravitational fluid

Going back to their early epoch, we see that the galaxies were closer to each
other and the earlier the epoch, the closer they were. Until they started merging
with each other and, going further back, they must have started compressing
each other

until they became a compressed mass whose density gradually

increased exerting more and more pressure on one another due to the
gravitational force, which became stronger as they got closer to each other.
Galaxies

are

compressed

perimetrically

due

to

incommensurate

gravitational forces, the density of the matter reaches the value of d=1090 gr/cm)
and the temperature the value of 1031 K).

We are at the cosmic time: T=10-43 sec

14

Namely, one infinitesimal of the second prior to 0.

A question arises: Do the values of density D and temperature T mentioned
above multiply for each infinitesimal of the time going backwards? Not to the
infinite though!

Our philosophical consideration does not allow us to accept such a

conjecture. For, finite cannot be born from the infinite.
We do not dare to conceive a situation which was initiated at the first tick
of the time.

Suppose with a leap we go to time t = 0(2)

There is no time at 0 time so there is no motion.
Consequently, there is no temperature!
The gravity globe has a temperature of T= 0(3)

There are no protons, neutrons, electrons, positrons, neutrinos, and photons.

(They have decayed, decomposed and transformed into pure gravity, into the
infinitesimal particle of pure gravity, into a particle which we can call graviton.)

Timelessness makes all cosmological equations of Einsteins general relativity theory collapse. When this
situation occurs, it is best described by the equations predicting the existence of singularity (=uniqueness)
of space-time, where density and curvature become infinite and the theory of relativity must be replaced by a
more accurate quantum theory of gravity.
3
For the same reasons, we cannot accept the absolute temperature T=0, namely the absolute stillness in
the gravity globe, except at the moment of explosion because then there couldnt have been any additional
forces that could have compressed the planet.
Consequently, the temperature of the gravity globe is not absolute zero but Ta=0,0.01K, a temperature
which is absolutely impossible for us to detect in any way. And when temperature is 0 then time =0. The
point of reversal of time as we measure it.

15

There is only an immense gravity force, which, like glue, like a fluid which
has the property of contracting in on itself as it is shrinking at incredible pressure
rates, is not under infinite compression but extreme compression which can go
no further.

Prior to Bing Bang, there is only gravity viscosity, which cannot be further
compressed.

A gravity globe, a planet consisting solely of gravity, let us say of

undetected elementary particles, the gravitons, the only and unique existence on
this planet, a coordination of gravitational waves.

Using our reasoning as well as our imagination we are heading towards the
hypergravity planet.
Using the time machine we travel backwards, prior to zero time.

We are travelling in a completely void space, in absolute darkness and zero

temperature.
We are landing at point A of the planet. (Fig. 4)
Here the intensity of gravity is at least millions of times greater than the
gravity of Earth.

Any kind of matter would disintegrate immediately on the surface of this

planet, which is invisible, exactly the same as the absolute darkness which
surrounds it and in absolute freezing conditions, like the void space which exists
around it.

16

Nevertheless, with our imagination, we locate it and land at spot A.

Fig.4

The gravitational viscosity, immensely compressed, is arranged in

homocentric spherical shells since the intensity of the gravity g=k. R is
proportional to the radius R of each shell4.
Suppose we start drilling a tunnel towards the centre of the planet. The more
we approach the centre, the more the gravity intensity decreases and in the
centre it equals zero (the gravitational force is annihilated in all directions).
Right in the centre of the gravity planet we can sit and relax, without
feeling the gravity.

On the surface of the planet the pressure, unimaginable magnitude, has

reached the maximum resistance level of gravitons.

g=k.x The force g of the gravitational field is proportional to the distance x from the centre of the globe,

with k being the well known gravity constant.

17

At this moment the dark gravity planet contains a maximum potential

energy which determines nature.
Everything in the universe nowadays, the light, the radiation and the matter,
consists of condensed gravitons.

And here comes the moment t = 0 !

The gravitons of the external shell of the gravity planet fuse under a
thermal explosion of a magnitude of over 1031 degrees Centigrade. As a result of
this thermal explosion within a period of time of 10-43 of a second all the
protons, neutrons, electrons, positrons, neutrinos, and photons are formed.
The external shell is ejected outwards at light speed.
The first inner shell, under a lower gravity pressure but subject to the
temperature of the outer shell, decays in turn at a slightly lower speed.
The second inner shell, under lower gravity force and temperature decays
at a lower speed.

Thus, we have this wonderful spectacle, which is not a real explosion but a
successive lighting of the homocentric spheres and their expansion following
homocentric shells which move at steady speeds proportional to their distance
from the centre so that Hubble law applies.

Since the explosion took place perimetrically all over the surface of the
gravity planet, it is as if it happened all over the universe.

18

That is why astrophysicists in their effort to decide at which point of space

the big explosion took place, they consider that it is a false assumption to
support the idea that the explosion occurred at a specific point. Instead they
postulate the theory that the explosion occurred simultaneously all over the
universe.

And indeed the geometrical model of our gravity planet indicates that the
explosion happened everywhere at once in the universe which was small at the
time.

Time starts ticking. Gravitons explode as described above. From the first
shell, thermal energy activates the second shell and from there the third and so
on.
Gravitons fuse to form elementary particles and photons, which are in a
continuous interconversion with electrons and positrons.
For five hundred thousand years, the universe was opaque to photons, until
the temperature which was falling as the globe was expanding- reached a point
where the interconversion of photons to protons and vice versa, namely the
entanglement of matter and light came to an end and the battle ended up with the
release of photons which, for the first time rocketed to space like a luminous
sphere which is growing at light speed and through which we can see a second
luminous sphere which is growing at a lower speed than the light speed and
through which we see a third and a fourth sphere formed by the galaxies which
contain billions of burning suns.

A beautiful harmonious ballet dance as the universe is expanding remaining

similar to itself.

19

All galaxies move at constant speeds rotating around themselves at the

same time, some burst to become supernovae as it is their time to become ones.
Imagine ourselves being at the centre of the gravity planet where gravity is
zero and where we can see all these spectacular sights.
Such harmony does not justify the term great explosion. We had better
call it the great controlled expansion, where the gravity planet consisted solely
of gravitons, contains the same amount of potential energy as the amount of
matter the universe has had since then.
The egg which gave birth to the universe of today contained everything
which exists here
If we could measure the amount of the matter, the energy, the radiations, of
everything visible and invisible which exists today, we would find that it is
equal to the same amount contained in the gravity egg.
A planet consisting exclusively of entangled gravitons, a situation which led
to fusion and explosion. The graviton, the sole entity prior to the Big Bang,
contains everything.
It contains the four fundamental forces of physics in a unified form and
with its fusion all the elementary particles are obtained.
It contains the laws of physics, the numbers and the mathematics.
It contains the universal constants.

20

CHAPTER 3

THE UNIVERSE OF EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY

THEORY
If , at the moment of the Big Bang, all galaxies moved radially in all
directions of the spherical universe at initial velocities proportional to their
distance from the centre of the initial small gravity planet, then they recede from
one another at velocities proportional to their distances according to Hubbles
law. In order to prove our theory we use three theorems.

THEOREM 1
From the moment that the Big Bang took place the greatest distance
that a particle may have covered is, moving at light speed, equal to one
radius from K up to date.

21

Let us assume T is the age of the universe measured from the Big Bang
explosion and c the light speed. Then, the distance of the remotest point of the
universe from the centre of the universe (K, the imaginary centre where the Big
Bang occurred ) is R, where R= c.T (distance = velocity X time) (1)

Fig.5

Hence, the greatest radius possible of the universe is its age measured in
light years. And since it extends to all directions, the shape of the universe is (at
the beginning) a sphere of radius of T light years. This spheres outer surface is
expanding at light speed.

Fig.6

Since it is receding from K at c speed according to Hubbles law: c=R.H (2)

where c is the speed light at which the boundary A of the universe recedes
from the centre K and R is its distance from the centre however R=c.T (1)
So (2) is written as follows: c=(c.T).H or T.H=1 or H=1/T

22

Hubbles constant (H) is the inverse of the age of the universe (as
measurements have confirmed so far).
Consequently, Hubbles law can be stated as follows:
V=R/T
where V the relative recession velocity of two stars, R their distance
and T the age of the universe.
Namely, Hubbles constant is not constant although for our lives and for
thousands of generations it has been taken as constant, given that the time we
measure is infinitesimal in comparison to the age of the universe. Thus, though
galaxies recede, the astronomer sees all the constellations at the same place,
during his lifetime.
Nevertheless, the age of the universe is changing by the second. ...
Our theory is confirmed by measurements of time T, from the Big Bang
till today and by measurements of the recession velocities of the galaxies,
independent from each other.
As technology develops, measurements become more accurate and
H=1/T is confirmed, which proves our theory.

23

THEOREM 2
(As a conclusion of theorem I)

From Theorem (I) results that HUBBLES coefficient H equals to the

reciprocal of the age T (years) measured from the moment of B.B.: H = I/T,
therefore HUBBLES law V = H.R (where V the repulsion velocity, R the
distance between two galaxies) can be written R = V.T (the distance of two
galaxies equals to the product of the measured today velocity over the total
time of their existence.
Taking under consideration that at the moment of B.B. the galaxies
started from a negligible distance between them like from a point and since
then they travelled in time T distance R and R = V.T (the equation of straight
uniform movement with constant velocity V).

The repulsion velocity of galaxies is constant in time

or else:

+
+

24

The velocity at which galaxies recede from each other is constant, that
is to say it does not change with time.
In order to apply Hubbles law, the relative velocity remains constant from
the moment of the Big Bang to date.
And in fact Hubbles law V = H.R says that the product H.R remains
constant, as H decreases with time while R increases ( H=1/T).

So the Big Bang started out at the same velocities we observe today and
we will observe forever.

The geometrical structure of the universe which is composed of galaxies

expands proportionally to time, consequently it remains similar to itself.

It has maintained the same shape since the beginning of the world,
changing only in scale.
The births and deaths of stars inside the galaxies do not alter the overall
image of the universe.

25

Beyond the observable matter, there is also matter in thinner density which
constitutes the light, the invisible radiations which flood the universe leaving no
empty space within the universe.
Apart from the matter and the radiation, there is also matter partitioned in
even thinner layers of density which has been impossible to detect up to now
with the means available, such as gravity, and we can only make assumptions
about it.
The universe floats inside this matter, as if it were in a vessel filled with a
liquid.

26

THEOREM 3
THE GEOMETRICAL MODEL
If galaxies recede from the imaginary centre of the Big Bang radially
and outwards at velocities proportional to their distance from the centre,
then they recede from each other according to the same law (Hubbles
Law).

Fig. 8

Let us assume K is a steady point and K1 and K2 two points of matter which
can move with distances R1 and R2 respectively from K and moving at velocities
V1 and V2 in the direction of the lines KK1 and KK2.
If: V1=R1.H and V2=R2.H
then points 1 and 2 recede from each other at relative velocity:
V12=H.R12 where R12 the distance between them.

27

PROOF
(Parallel components with the same direction)
If the observer is at the point K1, he sees point K2 recede away from him in
the direction of K1K2 at relative velocity V2-V1.
the Greek letters and and KK is the

(Angles are marked with

perpendicular on the 12 direction.)

However V2 = V2. cos and V1= V1 cos
(Here the relative recession velocity is the difference between the two
components because they are parallel with the same direction. In another
example, where the components are parallel with opposite direction, the relative
recession velocity is the sum total of the two components. In any case the result
is the same : the recession velocity is proportional to the distance.
(The relative recession velocity V12 of points 1 and 2:
V12=V2 cos -V1 cos
However, V2=R2.H

V1=R1.H

So: V12 = H.R2 cos-H.R1 cos = H (R2 cos R1 cos)

From fig. 8: R2 cos = K K2 & R1 cos = K K1
So: R2 cos R1 cos = K K2 - K K1 = K2 K1 = R12

Consequently: V12 = H.R12 QED)

Considering K to be the centre of the Big Bang and 1 and 2 two stars
receding

from K at velocities V1=H.R1 and V2=H.R2 (according to

Hubbles law), we conclude that they recede from each other according
to the same law:

V12=H.R12.

The theorem applies to all points of space.

28

So all the observers see all the stars of the celestial dome recede at
velocities proportional to their distance.
Conversely:
If points K1 and K2 move radially from the centre outwards in the
direction of the lines KK1 and KK2 at velocities V1 and V2 and an observer in
K1 or K2 positions realises that points K1 and K2 recede at a velocity
proportional to the distance R12, in other words:
V12 =H.R12
then they recede from K at proportional velocities as well, in other words:

V1 =H.R1, V2=H.R2
We call V1 V2 respectively the velocity components V1 and V2 in the
direction R12. Then: V12 = V2-V1 = V 1 cos - V1 cos.

(1)

Given that: V12 =H.R12

Consequently: (V2 cos - V1 cos) = H.R12 however : R2 cos - R1 cos=
R12
In which case equation (1) can be written as follows:
V2 cos - V1 cos = H(R2 cos- R1 cos)
Or (V2- H.R2) cos = (V1 -H.R1) cos
Since this equation is valid for every and (+ 180), we deduce
that:
V2-H.R2=0

in other words V2= H.R2 and

V1-H.R1=0

in other words V1=H.R1

29

So, if we see a star recede from us according to Hubbles law, then we, too,
recede from the centre K of the Big Bang according to the same law.

Fig. 9
Parallel components in the opposite direction

The relative recession velocity of K1 and K2 in the direction K1 K2 equals

the sum of the components of V1 , V2 in the direction K1 K2.
Namely, the relative velocity V12 equals:
V12 = V1 +V2 = V1sin1 + V2 sin2 (see footnote at the end of the chapter)
However: V1 = HR1 V2 = HR2, V12 = HR1, sin1 + HR2sin2 = H (R1sin1 +
R2sin2)
Consequently: V12 = H(K1K+K2)=(1 2) = R12

30

Conclusion:
We recede from each other according to Hubbles law, only if we all
started off from K, because we all recede from K. That is why we say that
the universe is expanding.
From the discussion so far we understand that the earlier we go back in
time the smaller the universe was and the closer the galaxies were between them.
Going even further back in time, we reach a stage where the whole matter of the
universe must have been uniform, highly dense at a specific point from which
the universe started. This point was subject to high density and immense
gravity forces and was squeezed to such an extreme that it exploded.
In this way we reached the theory of the great explosion of the Big Bang
which occurred at a certain point which we will call the centre of the universe.
This theory was confirmed experimentally in many ways and cross-checked
using a variety of measurement methods so today we are in a position to know
that approximately 13,5 billion years ago, a great explosion took place which
formed the galactic universe. We have to point out that our sun and our earth
were still unborn until 5 billion years ago when a supernova exploded giving
birth to them.
This, however did not deter them from following the same law, the Hubble
law, just as their predecessors.

Footnote
Obviously, for greater distances where the recession velocity is comparable to speed light the sum total of
velocities V1 , V2 is corrected according to special relativity equations which do not allow the observation
of velocities to become greater than the light speed.

31

CHAPTER 4

MATTER DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNIVERSE

If the universe started from one specific point in space which we consider
to be its centre and the condensed matter was ejected in all directions as does a
sphere of small- compared to today - dimensions (we cannot accept the
metaphysical view that the whole of the condensed matter was concentrated at
one point5) (Demosthenes Kazanas, the founder of the cosmic inflation theory),
then its shape is a sphere of a radius R=T light years, where T the age of the
universe.
The globes outer surface expands radially in outward direction at light
speed.

The cosmic inflation theory states that at the moment of the Big Bang 1078 seeds of universe were created,
one of which is our own universe whereas 1078-1 is the number of the other universes which have no relation
to or influence on our universe. Calculations of the cosmic inflation theory show that the visible (observableexisting ) universe was the size of a ball (radius R=20cm) at the time t=10-35sec.

32

These are the boundaries of the universe which expands in space. We will
accept that the space is infinite but mathematically defined since all its points
outside the universe are mathematically defined, with coordinates relative to the
universe.

Space is void while the universe is not!

The immense empty space we observe between celestial bodies is no void

at all.
The whole of the universe is full of wavelength radiation with a spectrum of
black body at a temperature of 2.73 Kelvin, of the gravitational field, light, Xrays which run through the universe whereas the space outside the universe is
completely void. It is a mathematical space which includes our universe.

Apart from the radiations which run through the universe the organised
observable matter consists of galaxies and the galaxies consist of stars.
All the other structures of the universe (planets, satellites, comets, passing
stars, open and globular clusters of stars, clusters of galaxies etc) are of lower
interest. The universe is full of galaxies.
The typical distance between galaxies is approximately equal to 20 galactic
diameters (on our observation field) whereas the typical distance between stars
within the galaxy is 10 million star diameters.
Galaxies are therefore sparsely populated by stars despite the fact that they
seem to include infinite numbers of stars during clear nights.
Typical galaxies are plate-shaped (like a discus). They are approximately
100,000 light years in diameter and 10,000 light years thick. As astronomers

33

reassure us, there are spaces devoid of matter in the order of 100,000,000 light
years in size where there are very few or no galaxies at all.
In some directions the universe is full of void spaces and the galaxies are
gathered mainly at the shells of the void spaces.
However, the isotropic distribution of microwave radiation supports the
theory that the matter is isotropically distributed in the universe when we are in
a position to view it on the scale of 10 billion light years and this is what is
generally accepted for the time being.

More recent measurements using more powerful satellite instruments have

already detected matter within the void spaces which were up until recently
considered empty of matter.

34

CHAPTER 5

THE DARK MATTER

When the gravity

planet was compressed to such an extent that the

gravitons merged due to a gravitational combustion where they fused and

converted into neutrons, photons, electrons etc releasing immense heat, the
boiling soup of the elementary particles was formed for the first time having a
temperature of billion degrees.
The largest part of gravitons, being intact, forms pieces of dark matter
which is invisible and frozen and consists of condensed gravitational waves
which travel along with the visible matter as the universe expands.
Their existence was detected, by astronomers who, based on evidence,
called them black holes.
How much dark matter is there in the universe?
The term dark matter refers to an invisible, frozen matter which cannot be
detected. Its existence can only be inferred by its gravitational effects on the
orbit of light and the orbits of certain celestial bodies.
The

black

holes,

whose

existence

astrophysicists, consist of dark matter.

is

hypothesized/deduced

by

35

As depicted in fig.4, the gravity planet consisted of compact dark matter

before it exploded.
Each shell was compact the moment it exploded and started its outward
journey at constant speed.
If we accept the theory that the whole of the shell had exploded outwardly,
then the matter, in other words the galaxies, should have been evenly distributed
in space.
However, the galaxies gathered in our neighbourhood (see fig.10) are
distributed at distances 20 to 1.
That is, the presence of a galaxy is followed by the appearance of a void
which is 20 times bigger than the galaxy and then follows another galaxy. The
result is that the volume of the void is 20 times bigger than that of the matter
measured at each shell.

Fig. 10

36

While galaxies, on their outward radial journey, expand according to

Hubbles law, the dark matter cannot expand due to its immense connectedness,
which preserves it as a single point in space. Therefore black holes, invisible and
impenetrable, travel in space maintaining their minute dimensions.
Looking into the initial state of the gravity planet, we see that 1/20 only
became visible matter, which means that the dark matter constitutes
approximately the 95% of the total matter. In other words, almost all the matter
in the universe is dark according to contemporary astrophysicists calculations
concerning the total mass per each field of vision. Here again we see that our
theory is confirmed by independent measurements and calculations.

The dark matter, invisible, impenetrable and frozen, travels with us and it is
only by its gravitational effects on matter and radiation that we infer its
existence. The largest amount of matter in the universe is dark matter, which is
voracious and devours anything within its range if it is not fast enough to
escape.

In his book Acoustics and Optics Papadimitropoulos Press, 1965, Spyros

Kanellos states on page 173:
Formula (4) can be considered inversely:
M=E/c
that is to say, in every value of energy E corresponds a value of mass
equal to E/c consequently energy behaves like the inert and heavy

mass in

other words it is subject to gravity forces.

Everything, either visible or invisible, is subject to gravity such as X- rays
and ultraviolet radiations.

37

We conclude that mass and radiation, everything in the universe is subject

to gravity forces.
Everything is subject to it, everything contains it.
Therefore we can safely reach the conclusion that gravity gave birth to
everything, that it is the mother of the universe.
Thus, our view is enhanced: the world was born by gravity, by the gravity
planet, by gravitons.

An X- ray, a photon, a molecule of stardust travel in space and have the

misfortune to bump into a piece of dark matter, which absorbs them with
awesome force , it compresses them under millions atmospheres of pressure, it
annihilates their energy, it wipes out their structure, it zeros their temperature
and breaks them into their ultimate constituents, namely the gravitons.
The luminous matter is lost. It has become dark matter.
The elements of nature return to their mothers womb transformed into
gravitons, into potential gravitational energy.
Within the universe the luminous matter is gradually decreasing and the
dark matter is increasing...

38

CHAPTER 6

ANTI-GRAVITY

As the gravity planet exploded, its fragments were launched in all directions
and since then they have been travelling forming the universe.

Did it explode like a grenade whose fragments have been moving ever
since with their initial momentum? And whose speed distribution is governed
by the laws of probability theory and which spend their initial energy defeating
gravity?

In that case their motion would decelerated.

The more the universe is expanding and the distances between masses are
increasing the more the gravitational forces are decreasing and the task for
further expansion of the universe becomes less demanding. The momentum of
the masses is diminishing at the same time. (M.V)

If the decrease of momentum is less than the decrease of the gravitational

task, then we must assume that there is a surplus of momentum which further
expands the universe so the expansion of the universe will continue infinitely.

39

Conversely, if the decrease of momentum is greater than the decrease of the

gravitational attraction, sooner or later the velocity of masses will be annihilated
and in that case the masses under the gravitational attraction will reverse their
course towards the centre and the universe will start contracting.

Physicists,

mathematicians,

astrophysicists,

computer

scientists,

astronomers have been arguing for some years now about whether the mass of
the universe is sufficient to maintain it closed or if it will continue to expand
perpetually.

However, the fact that the stars have been moving at steady velocities since
the beginning of the world, in other words they have been performing a task
continuously defeating gravity, indicates that a source of energy fuels them in
order to maintain their regular motion.

A force opposite to gravity.

This force is the anti-gravity.

A force opposite to gravity, which applies to remote distances, such as the

distances between galaxies, and invariably precisely equal to gravity, so that the
regular motion of galaxies is maintained. A force which does not have an effect
on the near distances, only on the distant ones.

The first scientist to pose a question on how celestial bodies maintain a

steady balance and are arranged in systems of steady harmony, even if they
attract each other with gravitational forces, was Isaac Newton.

40

One of the possible answers he came up with was the possible existence of
an infinite symmetrical universe in which every object would be equally
attracted to all directions and there wouldnt be any motion or collapse
whatsoever.

Newton soon realized that unfortunately this carefully balanced universe

would be unsteady. In theory, an infinite universe could exist in a state of
balance but in practice even the slightest turbulence would upset the
gravitational balance and it would lead to disaster.

A comet, for instance, which would cross the solar system, would create an
instant increase in mass density in every point of space through which it would
pass, attracting more matter towards those areas and triggering the process of
total collapse.

Even turning a page of a book could upset the balance of the universe and
with the passage of time this would also trigger off a cataclysmic collapse.

To give a solution to the problem the religious Newton implied that God
occasionally intervened in order to maintain the distances between the stars and
the other celestial bodies.

God looks after it, he said.

Einstein, in contrast to Newton, although he was also religious, was not

eager to accept a divine intervention for the positioning of celestial bodies.

41

Einstein realized that his formula for gravity could be adapted so as to

include a new feature known as cosmological constant. This constant added an
innate pressure which caused the constituents of the universe to recede from
one another.

This force was a kind of anti-gravity, the power of which depended on

the value of the constant.
Einstein realized that, by carefully selecting

the value of the

cosmological constant, he could counterbalance the conventional gravitational

attraction and prevent the collapse of the universe.

It is noteworthy that this anti-gravity was significant for the long cosmic
distances but negligible for the shorter ones.

In other words, anti-gravity is a force, which in long distances becomes

stronger and equals the varying value of gravity. The more two masses recede
from each other the more the gravitational force which attracts them
decreases.

We should not forget (fig. 2) that the universe has been expanding at the
same velocities since the Big Bang. At the beginning, immense gravitational
forces were developed but this did not deter the regular expansion of the
universe and as a consequence of the gravitational fluid, in which the universe
floats.

42

This leads us to the conclusion that at that time anti-gravity was equivalent
to gravity i.e. immense.
The more the universe expands the more the gravitational fluid, which
exists in every part of the universe, extends and indicates less resistance to the
recession of masses and the more anti-gravity becomes weaker proportionally to
gravity.
Everything moves at the same velocity and thus Hubbles law proves itself
true.
Moreover, we have been accustomed to opposing forces by nature, like for
example forces which keep protons steady so as not to be dispersed because of
electrostatic repulsive forces and the opposite forces which do not allow them to
come nearer than 10-13 cm from each other because they are in danger of a
nuclear explosion.

In general, forces behave like springs.

They oppose recession as well as extreme closeness so that harmony is

maintained in cosmos preventing almost arbitrarily the system from collapsing
down as if some human intelligence is behind all these, which averts the failure
of the system.
A kind of intelligence, a tiny microchip which is

inherent in all the

elements of nature and which leads them to a single purpose: to avert collapse.

And since we are talking about forces and are using the word without
knowing its exact meaning but only their impact, let us explore what a peasant
knows about them.

43

A peasant knows that, in order to drag his donkey, he has to tie it with a
rope and pull it. If this peasant wants to push the donkey, he uses his hands or a
large piece of wood. In any case he knows that in order to exercise some force,
he has to have some kind of contact with it. That is what a peasant knows based
on a million years experience on earth.

We ostensibly see all kinds of forces: gravitational, anti-gravitational,

electrostatic, electromagnetic, weak, strong, magnetic which exercise an
invisible influence without any contact whatsoever, forces which would sound
like magic to our peasant.

Forces without any mediators.

This is not possible.

There must be something between interactive bodies so that forces exert a

force on each other. Something consisting of matter, a kind of mediator. The
theory of void is not tenable.

And what else this could be but gravity, gravitons.

Matter so thinly chopped that photons look as big as planets compared to it.
It is the gravity, which not only exists everywhere in the universe like water in a
recipient but it also defines the universe the boundaries of which extend as far as
gravity expands.
Everything is transmitted through the gravitational fluid which fills the
universe.

44

The forces and the velocities.

As soon as the external shell of the gravity planet started to fuse, a wave of
pressure developed radially and with an inward direction.

In exactly the same way the gravity planet is increasingly compressed

Fig. 11
The gravity planet

until the pressure reaches its highest point. At the moment of the explosion
of the external shell a wave of pressure develops and ripples towards the centre,
as a reaction to the intensity of the explosion.

All the waves of pressure converge at the point K where we have a point of
production of the inverse wave of the same frequency (stationary wave).

45

Fig. 12

This wave, a tidal wave of gravity, ripples radially from the centre to the
circumference and equals invariably the gravitational attraction which it
annihilates keeping the initial velocity steady.

This outward tidal wave of compression is the anti-gravity.

This is the inherent force which pushes the universe outwardly.

In every point of the gravity planet the intensity of gravity is :

gx = k.x
where k is the constant and x the distance from the point to the centre.

Consequently, the utmost value of g developed on the outer surface of the

gravity planet, where the explosion produced the utmost outward speed, equal to
light speed c, whereas the inner shells developed slower velocities proportional

46

to the corresponding g, in other words

proportional to the distance from the

centre V=H.x.

So here we have Hubbles law, it was created along with the Big Bang and
was not introduced later to the universe, with some decree of law.

47

CHAPTER 7

WAS THERE A ARCHE?

It is widely believed that the origin of all things was Erebus, a complete
void. The Old Testament starts with the same idea.
All things come to be from nothing.
And it is only natural that humans are born and die with the concept of a
beginning and an end, judging by what happens to them.
Everything which has a beginning is subject to decay. The word itself leads
us towards the search of an end.
And indeed, a 100-metre race has a start, when the shot is heard and an end
when the runner crosses the finishing line and the timer signals the end of the
race.
Every event which we witness has a beginning and an end. Each living
entity has a beginning and an end.

Everything has a beginning and an end except for the universe.

48

Today we are aware of the fact that the universe is a close expanding system
where nothing enters and nothing goes out. The Greek term itself =
+ (= the sum of everything) means the whole of things outside which
nothing else exists.
Matter and radiation bonded in a perpetual motion convert to each other. It
is a transformation dance where nothing can stop existing and nothing can be
created out of zero.
Even if the expansion of the universe goes on infinitely, the only thing that
can happen is for the universe to be diluted. In infinite billion years there will be
a particle of matter or energy in every 100 billion light years, but whatever
existed in the egg of the universe will also exist in the sparse universe.
Forever and ever and unto ages of ages.
The universe has no end.
Since it has no end, it has no beginning apparently.
The Big Bang is not the beginning of the universe but a moment from which
we can measure space-time.
The universe, in any shape or form, has always existed and did not develop
at a specific time. Consequently, the egg of the gravity planet has always existed,
too.
If we observe nature surrounding us, we see that all the phenomena consist
of events which repeat themselves circularly. The rain falls on the mountain
ground, it turns into a river, reaches the sea and from there it evaporates and goes
up in the sky, it turns into a cloud, it cools and falls on the ground again and so
on. An infinite circle. Molecules of matter combine and a new organism is born
which absorbs other molecules in another circle, it multiplies and decomposes in
molecules which combine to form other living organisms and so on. We are
talking about infinite circles. Even photons, with their dualistic form ( a particle

49

and a wave), travelling freely bump into cells of chlorophyll where they are
captured and transformed into vegetable mass which burns in our fireplace and
releases photons in perpetual circles.
Even the stars are born by a supernova explosion, they live illuminating the
world around them, they fade gradually, they become red giants, then white
dwarfs and die as shapeless matter, which clings to something new so as to take
part in its creation and so on.
However, the matter from the dead stars may run into a black hole, a
complex of absolutely dark and freezing matter. This absorbs and eliminates any
matter which has entered its attraction field accidentally. In chapter 4 we saw
that the amount of dark matter is much larger than the visible matter. The
universe is full of dark matter.
But how does the molecule of the visible matter disappear when the black
hole absorbs it?
At the beginning of chapter 2 we described that when gravitons fused due
to the gravitational pressure, in the same way today hydrogen fuses to become
helium, they formed the heavier particles of matter in other words protons,
neutrons, electrons, positrons, neutrinos, and photons.
The same particles which constitute the visible matter were absorbed by
the black hole because of the gravity attraction and were compressed with
awesome forces until they were split in a process inverse to the Big Bang and
came back to their initial state, namely the gravitons.
So the visible matter was swallowed and absorbed by the dark and freezing
matter, transforming it to gravitons.
In other words whatever falls into the black hole turns into dark matter.
Consequently:
The ratio of visible matter to dark matter is getting lower and lower.

50

In other words our universe is expanding regularly changing its qualities at

the same time, increasing the dark matter and decreasing the visible matter,
breaking the elementary particles into gravitons and preserving the laws of
physics exactly in the same way they existed prior to the Big Bang.
The gravitational fluid becomes thinner as it is expanding and along with it
anti gravity becomes weaker as much as it is necessary for the maintenance of
the regular motion of expansion. The absorption of the visible matter by the dark
matter increases by geometrical progression because as the dark matter becomes
stronger and its scope expands, it absorbs more and more visible matter.
When the last trace of visible matter disappears, the universe will consist
exclusively of dark matter.
If we take for granted that

anti-gravity which decreases constantly is

correlated with the existence of visible matter, since it was created along with it
at the moment of the Big Bang, then it will also be annihilated

and the

expansion of the universe will come to a halt.

The dark rarefied universe already subjected to rarefaction will start
contracting towards its centre, compressing the dark matter so as to form a
gravity planet consisting of gravitons which contain the software of physics
and which are on the verge of exploding and recreating a new universe with a
new big bang when the contraction of the gravity planet

reaches the

predetermined extreme point and its mass reaches the critical amount.
And then, what will become of us? Will life perish?
The fact that the software of life has developed close to the centre of the
universe, where the gravity pressure cannot destroy it, means that it will not be
destroyed. It will nestle within the centre of the universe where it will await the
new big bang in order to travel again and develop again.

51

Humans contribute to this as well. In a billion years, they will have

discovered a lot of the secrets of the software of physics and will be able to
act so that the graviton with the software of life will be led safely to the centre
of the new gravity planet and will be preserved safe and sound until the new big
bang occurs.
This also happened in the past. Infinite times.
Forgetting about the Creator of the Universe,

the God which General

Moses thought up, let us honour the brilliant Greek spirit and conclude this
chapter by citing great Heraclituss saying:
, ,
,
.


This world which is the same for all, no one of gods or men has made.
But it always was and will be: an ever-living fire,
with measures of it kindling and measures going out.
The fairest world is to most humans but a heap of rubbish piled up
at random.

It is evident that in some way Heraclitus describes Hubbles law and the
conclusions we draw from it, as we have presented them in this paper, which is
based on Euclidean Geometry.

52

Although Heraclitus had neither instruments nor computers, based on

simple logic, he put forward a theory which postulates that the universe was not
created.
Many contemporary astrophysicists, disposing of the latest technology, try
to ground a theory and maintain that nothing existed prior to the Big Bang.
According to the relativity equations and because at zero time the equations
indicate that there was no space or matter, they draw the conclusion that the
moment of the Big Bang is the moment the world was created, aligning
themselves with the Old Testament.
Einstein himself, however, though he was a Jew, did not accept this
interpretation and stated that for T=0 the equations do not apply, characterizing
this point of time as singularity, which would demand another consideration by
the quantum mechanics.

Finally, Stephen W. Hawking, a world authority on relativity theory, says:

So long as we imagined that the universe had a beginning, we could
suppose it had a Creator. But if the universe is really completely self-contained,
having no boundary or edge, it would have neither beginning nor end; it would
simply be. What place then for a creator? (Stephen W. Hawking, A Brief
History of Time)

53

EPILOGUE

The theory I have tried to develop in this work is verified by:

1. The fact that there is a way to interpret the phenomenon of the expansion of
the universe through a very simple and mathematically proved explanation,
without seeking refuge to metaphysical vagueness (theorem 3).

2. The measurements which demonstrate that Hubbles constant (recession

velocity V proportional to distance D of the galaxies V=H*D) concurs with
the inverse of the age of the universe. Not so much significance has been
attached to this fact nor has it been explained theoretically despite being a
paradox. In theorem 1 we prove through simple mathematics why this
happens.

3. Theorem 2 which postulates that recession velocities of galaxies are constant

and have remained the same since the Big Bang: keeping the picture of
galaxies steady through time, merely changing the scale of the picture.

54

4. The view that during the initial explosion at the moment of the Big Bang the
galaxies moved outwardly through spherical shells and at velocities
proportional to their distance from the imaginary centre, in other words
proportional to the intensity of the gravity which prevailed at each spherical
shell.
This study gives a plausible solution to the problem of anti gravity as the
stationary waves which resulted from the explosions of the shells emanating
from the centre with an outward direction if we consider the gravity sphere as a
sphere of fluid, subject to the laws of fluid dynamics.
I therefore ask any mathematician, astronomer or astrophysicist, who would
kindly devote some of their precious time to study these pages, to inform me of
any errors which confute this theory.
I would be grateful to anyone who would prove me right or wrong before
the end of my life.
I strongly believe that this brief and easily understandable work, demanding
elementary knowledge of mathematics, would be suitable for college students so
that their minds be liberated from prejudice.

Nikos Kanellos

For anyone who would be so kind as to reply to me, my address is :

Smyrnis St 5-7, 10434 Athens, Greece

PO Box 442 Corfu 49100 Greece
Mobile : 0030 6973530246
email: kanellos3611@gmail.com