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CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Sahil Singh of class 12th -B.
Session: 2016-17 prepared the project entitled Full
Wave Rectifier under my general supervision for
partial fulfillment of the requirement of the 12th
class project completion.
The content of this project is based on the candidates
original research & investigation. His attitude &
interest shown in completion of his study is highly
appreciable.
Mr Vikas Bhaskar
(P.G.T Physics)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
There is always a sense of gratitude one expresses to
others for the helpful and needy service they render
during all phases of life. I have completed this
project with the help of different personalities. I wish
to express my gratitude towards all of them.
It gives me immense pleasure to express my deep
regards and sincere sense of gratitude to my physics
teacher- Mr Vikas Bhaskar for his valuable guidance
throughout the making of this project. Thank you
madam for your able and worthy guidance.
I would also like to thank our Lab Attendant for
steering my confidence and capability with the lab
work.
Sahil Singh
AIM
To study the rectification of alternating voltage and
the effect of different types of filters in
smoothing the output voltage .
APPARATUS USED
1.
2.
Diodes
3.
4.
Electrolytic capacitor
5.
Soldering kit
6.
Resistance
7.
LED
THEORY
USE OF DIODES IN RECTIFIERS:
Electric energy is available in homes and industries in India, in
the form of alternating voltage. The supply has a voltage of 220V
(rms) at a frequency of 50 Hz. In the USA, it is 110V at 60 Hz. For the
operation of most of the devices in electronic equipment, a dc voltage
is needed. For instance, a transistor radio requires a dc supply for its
operation. Usually, this supply is provided by dry cells. But sometime
we use a battery eliminator in place of dry cells. The battery
eliminator converts the ac voltage into dc voltage and thus eliminates
the need for dry cells. Nowadays, almost all-electronic equipment
includes a circuit that converts ac voltage of mains supply into dc
voltage. This part of the equipment is called Power Supply. In
general, at the input of the power supply, there is a power
transformer. It is followed by a diode circuit called Rectifier. The
output of the rectifier goes to a smoothing filter, and then to a voltage
regulator circuit. A block diagram of such a power supply is shown in
Fig. 1.1. The rectifier circuit is the heart of a power supply.
An interesting fact about the output waveform vout is that its peak
amplitude is not 9 V as in the case of the half-wave rectifier using the
same power source, but is less than 4 V. The reason, of course, is
that the peak positive voltage of A relative to C is 4 V, not 9 V, and
part of the 4 V is lost across R.
Though the full wave rectifier of Fig.1-5 fills in the conduction gaps, it
delivers less than half the peak output voltage that results from halfwave rectification.
FILTRATION
Rectification of alternating current to pulsating direct current is
achieved by the circuit of Fig. 2-1. Pulses are smoothed by filter
networks. The full-wave rectifier was studied in Experiment 6. In this
experiment the effect of filtering on the nature of the rectified voltage
will be observed.
Capacitors, chokes, and resistors are filter elements. The
effectiveness of a capacitor as a filter is related to its capacitance and
reactance. Larger capacitances have better filtering action. The
filtering action of a choke is related to its inductance.
CAPACITOR INPUT FILTER: Consider the circuit of Fig.2-2a. An electrolytic capacitor C1
replaces the load resistor R in the preceding circuit. C1 charges
alternately through each diode section as the diodes conduct during
the alternations when their anodes are positive relative to the
common cathode. The polarity of voltage developed across C1, which
charges to the peak of the input voltage, makes the cathode positive
relative to ground. There is no path, through which the capacitor can
discharge, except through its own parallel leakage resistance, which
is ordinarily very high. Hence, C1 maintains a high positive dc
voltage, which effectively biases both of the rectifiers to cut off. The
rectifier diodes conduct only during the peaks of the positive
alternations of input ac voltage, replacing the small charge that C1
has lost during the discharge interval. An oscilloscope connected
across C1 will show a relatively constant dc voltage with hardly a
trace of ripple. An EVM across C1 will measure a dc voltage equal
approximately to the peak of the ac input voltage to each rectifier.
If a load resistor R is connected across C1, (2-2b), the rectified,
filtered dc voltage is applied to the load. R draws current from the
supply, and the value of R determines how much current is drawn.
Since the rectifiers are still cut off during a large portion of the input
cycle, the current drawn by the load is actually supplied by C1, which
discharges through R. If the load current is high, that is, if the
resistance of R is relatively low, the dc output voltage drops
appreciably during the discharge cycle and rises during the interval
(2-1)
(2-2)
where Vmax is the no-load voltage and Vmin is the full-load voltage.
Regulation is improved by the use of a bleeder resistor RB
(Fig.2-5). This provides bleeder current under all load conditions. RB
is also rapidly discharges C1 and C2 when power is shut off.
Otherwise, these capacitors might become a shock hazard by
carrying a charge for long periods of time after power has been
removed. For good regulation the bleeder current should be about 15
to 20 percent of total current.
CHOKE INPUT FILTER: For some high-voltage applications with relatively large
variations in load current, better regulation is required than is possible
with a capacitor input filter. The use of a choke input filter with a
specified minimum bleeder current (Fig. 2-6) provides the improved
regulation. However, the output voltage V, other conditions being the
same as in the circuit of Fig.7-5, is lower than that previously realized.
Of course, the addition of an extra choke has improved the filtering.
The power transformer and the choke coil or coils must be
capable of handling the maximum load-current requirement. Thus, if
90-mA load current is to be supplied, the choke must be rated
somewhat higher. The same is true of the dc rating for the secondary
of the power transformer T.
Where a resistor RC is used instead of a choke, its wattage
must be greater than I2RC, where I is the total current drawn, bleed
and load.
REGULATION OF A HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER: If only a single rectifier is used in the circuit of Fig.2-5, or if an
anode of either diode is opened, the resulting circuit is that of a halfwave rectifier. For the same load conditions, voltage V drops because
now only one of the diodes is supplying the load current instead of
two. The filter must therefore supply load current during the
alternation when the diode is not conducting. Also, the ripple
frequency changes from 120 Hz for full-wave rectification to 60 Hz for
half-wave action (based on a line frequency of 60 Hz). At the lower
frequency the filter is not as effective, making the ripple voltage much
higher, and the dc voltage lower. Full-wave rectifiers are therefore
normally used in transformer-type power-supply circuits.
BRIDGE RECTIFIER
The bridge rectifier employing silicon diodes has become increasingly
popular with designers.
Fig.3-1 is the circuit diagram of a transformer-fed bridge rectifier. The
high-voltage secondary winding of transformer T supplies four silicon
rectifiers, D1 through D4. Operation of the circuit is as follows:
Assume that during the positive alternation (alternation 1) of the input
sine wave, point C is positive with respect to D (the voltages at the
opposite ends of a transformer winding are 1800 out of phase). This
makes the anode of D1 positive with respect to its cathode, and D1 is
therefore forward-biased. Similarly the cathode of D3, connected to
point D, is negative relative to its anode. Hence, D3 is forwardbiased. It is evident also that D2 and D4 are reverse-biased during
alternation 1. Thus, in a circuit D1 and D3 will conduct during
alternation 1 while D2 and D4 will be cut off.
Fig.3-2a shows that during the positive alternation there is a complete
path for current for rectifiers D1 and D3, which are connected in
series with the load resistor RL.
Current flows through RL, through D1, through winding CD, and
through D3, with the polarity shown.
Fig.3-2b shows the positive-voltage waveform developed during
alternation 1 across RL. During the negative alternation (alternation
2), D1 and D3 are reverse-biased and are cut off. If D2 and D4 were
not in the circuit, D1 and D3 would act as a half-wave rectifier.
Fig.3-2c shows that during the negative alternation (alternation 2),
that is, when point C is negative relative to point D, the anode of D2 is
positive with respect to its cathode, and the cathode of D4 is negative
with respect to its anode. Hence, rectifiers D2 and D4 are forwardbiased, while D1 and D3 are reverse-biased. Now D2 and D4
conduct, permitting current through RL. The polarity across RL is the
same as in Fig.3-2d.
(a)
(b)
FILTER CIRCUIT: The same type of filter arrangement can be used with a bridge
rectifier as with any other rectifier circuit. Observe that a filter is
used in Fig.3-4 for a 300-mA load (approx), capacitors rated at 80 to
100 F are conventionally employed. The choke L varies from 1 to 8
henrys (H), depending on how much ripple can be tolerated.
A filter resistor may be used to replace the choke. In that case
larger capacitors are used.
For the bridge rectifier the voltage rating of the filter capacitors
must be at least twice for the full-wave rectifier using the same
transformer.
SOURCES OF ERROR
The following is the list of sources of error during the
process of the project and the precautions observed to minimize error
due to them.
SOURCES OF ERROR
PRECAUTION OBSERVED
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
BIBLIOGRAPHY