Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Department of Justice
Office of Community Oriented Policing Services
www.cops.usdoj.gov
www.PopCenter.org
ii
Acknowledgments
Acknowledgments
The Problem-Oriented Guides for Police are produced by the
Center for Problem-Oriented Policing, whose officers are
Michael S. Scott (Director), Ronald V. Clarke (Associate
Director) and Graeme R. Newman (Associate Director).
While each guide has a primary author, other project team
members, COPS Office staff and anonymous peer reviewers
contributed to each guide by proposing text, recommending
research and offering suggestions on matters of format and
style.
The project team that developed the guide series comprised
Herman Goldstein (University of Wisconsin Law School),
Ronald V. Clarke (Rutgers University), John E. Eck (University
of Cincinnati), Michael S. Scott (University of Wisconsin Law
School), Rana Sampson (Police Consultant), and Deborah
Lamm Weisel (North Carolina State University.)
Members of the San Diego; National City, California; and
Savannah, Georgia police departments provided feedback on
the guides format and style in the early stages of the project.
Cynthia E. Pappas oversaw the project for the COPS Office.
Research for the guide was conducted at the Criminal Justice
Library at Rutgers University under the direction of Phyllis
Schultze. Katharine Willis edited this guide.
iii
Contents
contents
About the Problem-Solving Tools Series .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
Acknowledgments.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
Introduction.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
What is Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Responding to Crime and Other Problems Using CPTED:
The Process for Problem-Solving.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Defining and Understanding the Problem .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Creating a Plan to Improve Environmental Conditions .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Engaging Stakeholders in Problem-Solving.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Keeping Tabs on Progress.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
CPTED and the Problem-Solving Process:
Re-Examining the Three Introductory Cases.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Appendix A:
Using CPTED for Problem-Solving at a Building or Facility.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Appendix B:
Using CPTED for Problem-Solving in Multifamily Housing.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Appendix C:
Using CPTED for Neighborhood Problem-Solving .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
vi
References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
About the Author .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Recommended Readings .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Other Problem-Oriented Guides for Police .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Introduction
Introduction
Crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) is an
approach to problem-solving that asks, what is it about this location
that places people at risk, or that results in opportunities for crime?
In other words, why here? Three case examples will illustrate this
point:
Case #1
Custodial workers routinely find evidence of smoking, drinking, and
vandalism in a high school lavatory.
Why here? The lavatory is in an isolated area of the building,
adjacent to a ticket booth and concession stand that are active
only during athletic events. The schools open lunch policy allows
students to eat anywhere on campus, while monitors are assigned
only to the cafeteria.
CPTED response: A lock is installed on the lavatory door, and
it remains locked unless there is an athletic event. The open lunch
policy has been revised: students are still allowed to leave the
cafeteria but must eat in designated areas, and a faculty member is
charged with patrolling these areas during lunch periods.
Case #2
The back wall of a building in an office center is repeatedly
tagged with graffiti.
Why here? The taggers have selected an area that is out of
the view of passers-by: a rear corner location where two
buildings come together at the end of a poorly lit service lane.
Visibility is further reduced by hedges at the sites perimeter.
Businesses in the office center are open from 9 AM to 5
PM during the week; however the tagged building is next
to a roller skating rink where activity peaks at night and on
weekends.
CPTED response: Hedges are trimmed and wall-mounted
light fixtures installed along the service lane, with motion
detection lighting in the problem area. The skating rink agrees
to change to a no re-admission policy to keep skaters inside
the building and away from the office property.
Case #3
ATM patrons at a bank are being robbed after dark.
Why here? The bank is situated along a commercial strip
in a neighborhood with vacant properties and abandoned
businesses. The ATM is in the front corner of the bank
building, and the drive-through teller windows are at the side
of the building, around the corner from the ATM. Robbers
hide in the darkened drive-through teller area and attack
unsuspecting ATM users after they complete a transaction.
CPTED response: The bank installs a fence at the corner
of the building, creating a barrier between the ATM and the
drive-through teller area.
Introduction
Ronald Clarke
10
Responding to Crime and Other Problems Using CPTED: The Process for Problem-Solving
11
12
Responding to Crime and Other Problems Using CPTED: The Process for Problem-Solving
The SARA Process
SCANNING
ANALYSIS
4.
Meet with stakeholders to clarify the problem and to define the goals and
objectives for the process.
Collect and analyze data and information about the problem.
Evaluate any connections or relationships between the problem(s), and
environmental conditions.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
RESPONSE
11.
ASSESSMENT
13
In A Manual for Crime Prevention Through Planning and Design, Kruger, Landman, and Liebermann (2001) suggest a
plan based on (1) urgency or need; (2) the likelihood for success; (3) the potential for positive impacts in other areas;
(4) cost; and (5) resource availability.
15
15
16
17
temporal distribution:
times of day
days of the week
seasonal changes
spatial distribution:
crime location(s)
hot spots
crime trends
Crime Data
Community characteristics
are helpful for thinking about
routines and activities and the
potential for victimization. They
may also suggest a focus for crime
prevention programs or other
interventions.
reported crime:
total crime
crime rate
crime type
Rationale
Source(s), Availability
and Responsibility
18
Using Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design in Problem-Solving
neighborhood association/
homeowners association
block watch/neighborhood watch
group
churches, clubs, public/private
schools, hospitals, community
centers or other neighborhoodInstitutional
based institutions
and
local development corporations
Organizational
and other nonprofits engaged in
Relationships
work in the neighborhood
they represent stakeholders,
and may be able to gather input
from individuals who would
otherwise be unavailable
they have access to data and
information
their members and/or staff may
be able to assist with surveys
and interviews
the institutional facilities can
serve as sites for meetings
they may have resources to
commit to solving the problem.
neighborhood stability:
housing or building condition
tenure (owner-renter mix)
occupancy/vacancy rates
turnover (new sales, new leases,
new vacancies)
property values:
average rent
average sales price
assessed value
land use:
type and mix of land uses
# residential buildings/dwelling
units
# office/commercial buildings/
spaces or total square feet of
leasable space
# businesses by business type
major facilities, landmarks or
attractions, e.g., parks, schools
property ownership (public/
private)
Source(s), Availability
and Responsibility
Rationale
20
Using Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design in Problem-Solving
transportation networks:
interstate and other highways
major intersections
local and regional connector
routes
pedestrian and bike ways
(sidewalks, trails, greenways, etc.)
site circulation, ingress and egress
on- and off-street parking
spaces/lots/garages
traffic:
Traffic,
Transportation common origin/destination sites
and travel routes
and Transit
daily/weekly
volumes
Systems
peak (rush hour) loads
accidents
transit system:
ridership and user characteristics
routes and schedules
transit stops/shelters/centers
transfer locations
neighborhood complaints:
speeding
cruising
loitering
development activity:
construction permits
demolition permits
occupancy permits
violations and citations:
building code
housing code
health code
Patterns of crime and other
problems are often related to
patterns of movement that bring
people to and through sites,
neighborhoods, localities and
regions.
Resident/User
Surveys or
Stakeholder
Interviews
Rationale
Source(s), Availability
and Responsibility
Also refer to the Bureau of Justice Assistance (1993) monograph, A Police Guide to Surveying Citizens and Their Environment. Available at www.popcenter.org/
Library/RecommendedReadings/Surveying%20Citizens.pdf.
victimization:
reported
unreported
reasons for not reporting
fear:
where people are afraid
why people are afraid
22
Using Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design in Problem-Solving
On-site
Observations
distribution of activities:
when activities are most likely
to occur
where activities take place
user characteristics:
age, gender, race/ethnicity
resident, owner, staff/employee,
patrons, invited visitors, others
problem behaviors:
loitering
vandalism and graffiti
public drinking
drug sales or drug use
gang activity
Observations should reinforce
the results of surveys and
interviews (when the observed
activities are consistent with
reported behaviors), and
should offer support for crime
statistics and other data and
documentation.
Safety Audits
and Security
Surveys
Rationale
Depending on the location and the type of
problem, police personnel (crime prevention
unit) may be able to train homeowners
and business managers to perform their
own evaluations. Generally though, when a
security survey is warranted, this should be
handled by a knowledgeable professional.
Source(s), Availability
and Responsibility
24
Using Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design in Problem-Solving
25
26
criticality of need
ease of implementation
cost
legality
technical feasibility
positive and negative externalities
client or community support.
27
Nonprofit organizations
community development corporations
social services providers
Government
elected officials
administration and management
police
community/neighborhood planning
and, depending on the issue,
traffic and transportation, transit,
parks and recreation, housing
and redevelopment, economic
development, etc.
29
30
Genesis Group
31
32
33
34
35
36
CPTED and the Problem-Solving Process: Re-Examining the Three Introductory Cases
37
38
The analysis row offers some detail on the kinds of data that
could and should be collected. In the first two cases (both of
which are about vandalism), maintenance reports rather than
crime reports are critical. Population data are not necessary
for the school case because this problem involves only the
high school students, faculty, staff, and administrators. The
two other cases consider user populations rather than the
more general community. Community involvement would
only be appropriate if these problems were spread over a
larger geographic area.
Policies and procedures are an important consideration in
all three cases. More types of policies appear relative to the
high school lavatory case, as this problem involves lunchtime
cafeteria and building use, faculty monitoring assignments,
and school rules regarding student behaviors like smoking and
drinking.
The response row is divided into three additional segments
that distinguish between the three CPTED strategies of
natural access control, natural surveillance, and territorial
reinforcement. Note that some of the strategies listed on the
table were not actually employed as responses to the problem
(based on the descriptions in the introduction), possibly
because they were too expensive, would take too long to
implement, or were otherwise unacceptable.
CPTED and the Problem-Solving Process: Re-Examining the Three Introductory Cases
39
ANALYSIS
SCANNING
Crime Data
Process
Stakeholders
Problem
robbery victims
other bank and ATM patrons
bank management
bank employees
corporate security
police
property owner or management
(if different from the bank)
adjacent property owners and
management (depending on
outcome of analysis)
stakeholder interviews
property owner
property management
tenant businesses
police
adjacent property owners
and managers (depending on
outcome of analysis)
tenants and patrons of adjacent
businesses (depending on
outcome of analysis)
traffic engineering or transit
students
faculty
staff (includes custodial workers)
administration
police/SRO
parents
Case #3
Case #2
Case #1
Table 3
CPTED and the Problem-Solving Process
Three Case Examples
40
Using Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design in Problem-Solving
ANALYSIS
On-Site
Behavioral
Observations
Resident or
User Surveys,
Stakeholder
Interviews
Traffic,
Transportaion
and Transit
Systems
Population
Characteristics
N/A
victim interviews
corporate security interviews
N/A
property management
interviews
surveys of tenant businesses
N/A
N/A
CPTED and the Problem-Solving Process: Re-Examining the Three Introductory Cases
41
Opportunities
to Control
Access
Options for
Providing
RESPONSE
Opportunities
to See and Be
Seen
ANALYSIS
Safety
Audits and
Security
Surveys
building design
site layout and landscaping
(e.g., fencing), and relationship
to adjacent properties and
nearby land uses
lighting and CCTV
maintenance policies and
procedures
hours of operation for tenant
businesses
Case #3
Case #2
Case #1
42
Using Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design in Problem-Solving
Possible
ASSESSMENT Scenarios to
Look For
Over the
Long-Term
Opportunities
lunch periods to one in an area
to Define
that is more easily supervised
Ownership
immediately repair and
Maintenance
policies and consequences for
of Territory
policy violations
N/A
CPTED and the Problem-Solving Process: Re-Examining the Three Introductory Cases
43
Appendix A
Appendix A
Using CPTED for Problem-Solving at a Building or
Facility
This appendix outlines a process for completing an
environmental evaluation when the problem is limited to a
single building or facility. The process is divided into three
phases related to a site visit and period of observation.
Activities before the site visit are focused on understanding
the problem and the situation. This includes an examination
of crime data, plans and policies, and organizational
structures, all of which lead to the identification of key
stakeholders who need to provide information and advice.
The site visit includes an orientation period, with a tabletop
review, using a floor plan and site plan to review the structure
of the facility and to identify the problem location(s) as
well as safe and unsafe places. Facility tours are conducted
with stakeholders and then the CPTED evaluator observes
behavior and use independently for several days, at various
times of the day and several days during a week to address
changing activity schedules.
The process concludes with the development of
recommendations and a report documenting the site visit and
the findings.
Although the process as it is outlined here implies the work
can be completed by a single person, most buildings and
facilities are large enough to warrant a team approach.
45
46
DURING
THE
SITE VISIT
Appendix A
FOLLOWING
THE
SITE VISIT
47
** EXAMPLE DISCLAIMER: The recommendations outlined in this report are based on research and
experience that suggest certain design and policy approaches can be adopted to reduce opportunities for crime.
It is not possible to guarantee that actual crime will be reduced or eliminated if these recommendations are
implemented.
Appendix B
Appendix B
Using CPTED for Problem-Solving in Multifamily
Housing
Appendix B outlines a CPTED planning process for a
multifamily housing community. One of the goals of this
process is to maintain communication between the team of
experts and the residents. Because rental properties often
have low rates of participation, the process includes the
distribution of flyers to every unit after every meeting. These
flyers include a description of the overall project and an
introduction to CPTED, plus information about the results of
the last meeting and plans for the future.
49
50
Appendix B
MEETING RESULTS
what did we do?
what did we learn?
what is next? (residents, resident council, and CPTED team tasks and responsibilities)
REQUEST FOR ADDITIONAL INPUT
team contact information
date/time of next meeting
Resident Meeting #2
REVIEW OF PRIORITY PROBLEMS AND ISSUES
ANALYSIS RESULTS
ALTERNATIVE STRATEGY IDENTIFICATION
51
Appendix C
Appendix C
Using CPTED for Neighborhood Problem-Solving
The process outlined here is intended for a mixed use
neighborhood with a diverse population and multiple issues.
The problem-solving process in this case is tied to a broader
neighborhood planning process; the CPTED plan must
ultimately be adopted by elected officials.
The process is carried out by an interdisciplinary CPTED
team of city officials with a neighborhood CPTED task
force. This group collects and analyzes data and makes
recommendations, which are carried back to the broader
community for input and advice before the recommendations
are incorporated into a plan for improvement. Staff provide
organizational support for the process, which includes
information packages, data analysis, copying, and mailing, etc.
53
54
Neighborhood Meetings
Appendix C
Neighborhood Meetings
scheduled as appropriate to discuss progress and results, issues and concerns, or the need
for a new or modified plan
55
References
References
Brantingham, P.L., and P.J. Brantingham (1981). Notes on
the Geometry of Crime. In P.J. and P.L. Brantingham
(eds.), Environmental Criminology. Beverly Hills (California):
Sage, pp. 27-54.
Brantingham P.L., and P.J. Brantingham (1984). Patterns in
Crime. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.
Clarke, R.V. (1980). Situational Crime Prevention: Theory
and Practice. British Journal of Criminology 20(2):136-147.
Clarke, R.V. (ed.) (1992). Situational Crime Prevention: Successful
Case Studies. Albany (New York): Harrow and Heston.
Cohen, L., and M. Felson (1979). Social Change and Crime
Rate Trends: A Routine Activity Approach. American
Sociological Review 44(4):588-608.
Cornish, D., and R.V. Clarke (1986). The Reasoning Criminal:
Rational Choice Perspectives on Offending. New York: Springer
Verlag. Available at www.popcenter.org/Library/reasoning.
htm.
Crowe, T. (2000). Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design.
2nd ed. Boston (Massachusetts): Butterworth-Heinemann.
Crowe, T., and D. Zahm (1994). Crime Prevention Through
Environmental Design. Land Development, Fall: 22-27.
Eck, J., and Spelman, W. (1987). Problem-Solving: Problem
Oriented Policing in Newport News. Washington, D.C.:
Police Executive Research Forum.
57
58
Diane Zahm
Diane L. Zahm, Ph.D., AICP, is Associate Professor and Associate
Director for Undergraduate Programs in Urban Affairs and Planning
at Virginia Tech. Her teaching and research examine local policy
and decisions regarding land use, site layout and facility design, and
their long-term impact on crime, fear and neighborhood viability.
Dr. Zahms academic and professional background includes both
community development and criminal justice experience, in New
York, Kentucky, Florida, and Virginia. She staffed the Florida
Attorney Generals Crime Prevention Through Environmental
Design Program and is a founding member of the Florida CPTED
Network. Presently, Dr. Zahm serves as the international chair of the
International CPTED Association.
59
Recommended Readings
Recommended Readings
A Police Guide to Surveying Citizens and Their
Environments, Bureau of Justice Assistance, 1993. This
guide offers a practical introduction for police practitioners
to two types of surveys that police find useful: surveying
public opinion and surveying the physical environment. It
provides guidance on whether and how to conduct costeffective surveys.
Assessing Responses to Problems: An
Introductory Guide for Police Problem-Solvers,
by John E. Eck (U.S. Department of Justice, Office of
Community Oriented Policing Services, 2001). This guide
is a companion to the Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series.
It provides basic guidance to measuring and assessing
problem-oriented policing efforts.
Conducting Community Surveys, by Deborah Weisel
(Bureau of Justice Statistics and Office of Community
Oriented Policing Services, 1999). This guide, along with
accompanying computer software, provides practical, basic
pointers for police in conducting community surveys. The
document is also available at www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs.
Crime Prevention Studies, edited by Ronald V. Clarke
(Criminal Justice Press, 1993, et seq.). This is a series of
volumes of applied and theoretical research on reducing
opportunities for crime. Many chapters are evaluations of
initiatives to reduce specific crime and disorder problems.
61
62
Recommended Readings
63
64
ISBN:1-932582-00-2
ISBN:1-932582-02-9
ISBN:1-932582-05-3
ISBN:1-932582-14-2
ISBN:1-932582-15-0
ISBN:1-932582-18-5
65
66
ISBN:1-932582-27-4
ISBN:1-932582-41-X
ISBN: 1-932582-50-9
67
68
ISBN:1-932582-19-3
69
ISBN: 1-932582-81-9
www.cops.usdoj.gov