1 - RGE 2005 - Natural Drainage

PRODUCTION MECHANISMS
RGE -2005
K. Madaoui
A. Auriault
OBJECTIVES
To know and to understand what are the main

mechanisms involved in the production of a
reservoir
To be able to perform simple material balance
calculations
To have a qualitative understanding of the main
issues involved in an injection process and in
Enhanced Oil recovery (EOR) processes
Introduction to production mechanisms/

reserve concepts/ Material balance
Natural drainage (or primary recovery)
Immiscible fluid injection (or secondary
recovery)
Enhanced Oil Recovery (or tertiary recovery)
3
Introduction to production
mechanisms
Conventional oil recovery
PRIMARY RECOVERY
NATURAL DRAINAGE
LIFT / HORIZONTAL DRILLING
WATER INJECTION
SECONDARY
RECOVERY
PRESSURE
MAINTENANCE
GAZ INJECTION
GAS CYCLING
Enhanced oil recovery
TERTIARY
RECOVERY
GAS
THERMAL
CHEMICAL
Vapor
Miscible Hydrocarbons
Polymer
In situ
combustion
CO2
Surfactant/Polymer
N2
Soda
BACTERIA
Natural drive (or primary recovery): the field is

produced thanks to its own energy
Immiscible fluid injection (or secondary recovery):
energy is provided to the field through injection
Water injection
Gas injection
Enhanced oil recovery methods (or tertiary recovery):

energy for production is provided through complex
methods
Miscible process
Chemical process
Thermal process
6
Primary production mechanisms have to be

understood/ evaluated as early as possible in the field
history
- Gas cap
- Active aquifer
- Reservoir pressure vs. Pb
Definition/ optimization and implementation of

secondary and/or tertiary production mechanisms are
key issues in the field development strategy (when
required)
PRODUCTION MECHANISMS - TYPICAL SEQUENCE
Typical sequence during an oil field production history

For Field rate
- 1. Build-up
- 2. Plateau
- 3. Decline
For production mechanisms

- 1.Natural depletion
- 2. Pressure maintenance (water or gas immiscible injection
- 3. Enhanced Oil recovery
TYPICAL OIL RESERVOIR PERFORMANCE
History
Prediction
Np
Build-up
Plateau
Decline
Limiting
water cut
Av.Res.Pressure
Qwi
Plateau life
Qo
GOR
WOR
RESERVOIR ENGINEERING STUDIES
Objectives: predict futures performances from:

- a set of data
- a set of mathematical relations (to quantify the physical
mechanisms)
- some production history
The role of Reservoir Engineering is:

- to propose realistic scenarios of development
- define, for each scenario, the field production profile: rates
vs. time, the investment profile and give a range of
uncertainty
10
TYPICAL OIL FIELD PERFORMANCES
NP
Field Oil Rate
NP
WATER-CUT
NATURAL
DEPLETION
(30%)
WATER
INJ.
(+ 15%)
3rdTYPE
EOR
(+ 10%)
Aband.
Rate
Diagnosis
Time Years
11
RESERVE CONCEPT
RESERVES - Basic definitions
Accumulation
volume of hydrocarbons initially

in place (OOIP,OGIP, OHIP)
Reserves
volume of recoverable
hydrocarbons
Recovery factor R =
Reserves
Accumulation
Oil fields
10 % < RF < 50 %
Gas fields
50 % < RF < 95 %
13
ACCUMULATION
Accumulation: volume of hydrocarbons originally in

place. Finite quantity but uncertainties
G+W
GOCi
O+W
WOCi
Swi
100%/Sw
W
Pi at datum
Ni =
RV (I S wi ) PV S oi
=
B oi
B oi
14
RESERVES
Estimate Ultimate Reserves (EUR): cumulative

production at abandonment conditions or at a fixed
date
Abandonment conditions = Minimum Field Economic Oil Rate
(either limiting water cut or high GOR or low PReservoir)
The individual wells are progressively shut-in as they reach the
limiting conditions
Remaining Reserves @ time t = EUR - Cumulative

Production at time t
15
FIELD STATUS @ ABANDONMENT

Ultimate reserves = OOIP - oil left in swept zones - oil left in the
unswept zones
= N1+N2+N3
GI
Prod.r Prod.r
WI
GOCi
WOCi
Prod.r
Prod.r (high Water Cut, high GOR)

WI
Gas flooded zone
: Sorg
Unswept zone
: Soi
Water flooded zone : Sorw
16
RESERVES CLASSIFICATION
Reserves are generally classified in proved

(developed and undeveloped), probable and possible
(or static for some companies).
Each of those categories corresponds to quantities of
hydrocarbon recoverable from known reservoirs, by
specified techniques under specified economical
conditions with a defined degree of certainty
You will hear about P(proved),2P (proved + probable).
Depending of the use of reserves (Economics, SEC,
internal reporting) different categories are taken into
account. EUR is 2P.
17
RESERVES - Probability approach - Some Standards
Qualitative
Judgement
Certainty
Proved
Quantitative
Probability
0.99
0.90/0.95
Very Likely
0.90
Likely
0.70
Probable Equally Likely / Unlikely
0.50
Unlikely
0.30
Very Unlikely
0.10
Possible
0.10/0.05
Excluded
0.01
18
RESERVES
Reserves are attached to a geological model, scenario of
development,calculation methodology, economics, laws and
contracts
Reserves are associated to a production profile
19
MATERIAL BALANCE
MATERIAL BALANCE
Principles
The reservoir pore volume is 100% filled-up with fluids
(material balance equates the volume of fluids contained in the
reservoir to the pore volume of the reservoir at any given time)
At reservoir conditions:
Initial Volume = Remaining Vol. - Vol. Produced + Vol. Entered
MB represents the equation of continuity for the overall

reservoir or part of reservoir for a finite time interval
Can be described as the simplest reservoir simulation
model (1 cell !)
21
MATERIAL BALANCE
Initial conditions
Producing well
After production
Producing well
Gas cap expansion

Released gas volume
Remaining oil
Rock and Water expansion
Pi, Boi, Bgi & Rsi
P, Bo, Bg & Rs
22
MATERIAL BALANCE
Two possible uses

- Evaluation/ calculation of Original Hydrocarbon In
Place (OHIP)
- Production forecast
Needed data
- Petrophysic data of the reservoir (rock characterization)
- PVT data (fluid characterization)
- Production data ( productions, cumulative productions,
pressure)
23
MATERIAL BALANCE - SYMBOLS - FLUID VOLUMES
Accumulation
Cumulative production
Oil
Gas
Water
N (or Ni)
G (or Gi)
W (or Wi)
Np
Gp
Wp
We
Volume of influx
Cumulative injection
Ginj
Winj
All volumes are expressed in standard conditions (15 C, 1 Atm), except

We (res. cond.)
Oil and water in stm3 or stb 1m3 = 6.2898 bbl (1bbl=0.159 m3)
Gas in stm3 or scf (st.cubic feet) 1 m3 = 35.3145 cft
24
MATERIAL BALANCE - SYMBOLS - RATES
Oil
Gas
Water
Qoi (or qoi)
Qgi (or qgi)
Qwi(or qwi)
Qo
Qg
Qw
Field units
Stb/d or
stbo/d
Scf/d
Stb/d or
stbw/d
SI units
Stm3/d
Stm3/d
Stm3/d
Initial rate
Current rate at time t
Downhole rate = standard rate * FVF
25
MATERIAL BALANCE - SYMBOLS - RATES
Oil
Gas
Water
Initial FVF*
Boi
Bgi
Bwi
Current FVF
Bo
Bg
Bw
FVF@Pb
Bob
Field units
rb/stb
rcf/scf**
rbw/stbw
SI units
m3/ m3
m3/ m3
m3/ m3
FVF symbol B
** rb/scf is also used as a unit
26
MATERIAL BALANCE - SYMBOLS - ROCK/FLUID DATA
Saturations
- initial: Soi, Swi, Sgi
- current (at time t): So, Sw, Sg
- dimensionless
Compressibilities
- co, cw,cg, cf (or cr or cp)
- field unit: psi-1
- SI unit: bar-1
27
MATERIAL BALANCE - SYMBOLS - PRESSURES
Initial
Current(at time t)
Bubble or saturation
Flowing
Well head
Separator
Atmospheric
Absolute(above zero)
Pi
P or Pr
Pb
Pwf or FBHP
Pwh
Psep
Patm
Gauge(above atmospheric press.)
Units : - Field : psi SI : pascal(N/m2)

- Others: bar, kg/cm2, Atm , cm of Hg
28
MATERIAL BALANCE - PVT DATA
Evolution with pressure of main reservoir properties

Bo
Rs
o
Bo
Rs
o
BUBBLE POINT
INITIAL
RESERVOIR PRESSURE
PRESSURE
29
Introduction to production mechanisms

Natural drainage
Secondary recovery
Enhanced Oil Recovery
30
Natural drainage
NATURAL DRAINAGE or PRIMAY RECOVERY
Implementation: just open the well

Performances evaluated through field surveillance:
- reservoir pressure vs time
- rates (Oil, gas, water or Water cut, GOR, WOR) vs time
- => RF vs time
Limitations (economical limits)

- Pressure decline/ Total rate decline
- Water cut, GOR
32
NATURAL DRAINAGE or PRIMAY RECOVERY
Different production mechanisms can occur
Rock and fluid expansion

Solution gas drive
Gas cap expansion
Natural water influx
Gravity drainage
Combination drive
33
NATURAL DRAINAGE OR PRIMARY RECOVERY

Pb is Bubble Point Pressure
Pi > Pb
(undersaturated oil reservoir) one phase fluid (oil)

- Oil and connate water expansion
- Pores shrinkage
Pi Pb
(saturated oil reservoir)

- Solution gas(expansion of liberated gas)
- Gas cap expansion
Aquifer expansion
The field development strategy will take into account the strength
of the aquifer, relative permeabilities, etc
34
ISOTHERMAL COMPRESSIBILITY
Rocks and fluids expansion. Definition of compressibility
Definition: the relative volume change of matter per unit pressure

change under conditions of constant temperature
1 V
C=
V P
Order of magnitude
-
Co= 1
Cw= 0.4 to 0.6 10-4 bar-1
CP= 0.3 to 1.5 10-4 bar-1

Lab data or Hall correlation
(for P=300 bars)
Cg 1/P 30 10-4 bar-1
Co can be calculated as follows using Bo table
Co =
c: coef of isothermal compressibility

units: [1/P]
always a positive value
to 3 10-4 bar-1
[ (Bo Boi)
Boi]
Lab data
Literature
(P Pi)
Usually petroleum reservoirs can be considered as being

isothermal
35
COMPRESSIBILITY- DEFINITIONS
Matrix compressibility (Cm): relative change in volume of solid
rock material (grain volume) per unit pressure change (usually
Cm # 0)
Pore (or formation) compressibility Cf : relative change in
pore volume per unit pressure change
Bulk compressibility (Cb): relative change in bulk volume per
unit pressure change (usually Vb # Vp )
Impact
- Formation compressibility can have a significant impact of
production mechanisms
- Subsidence (due to decrease of bulk volume) can have a
significant impact on environment
36
FORMATION COMPRESSIBILITY
Under static conditions, downward overburden force is
balanced by upward forces of the matrix and ifluid in the pores
F
F
Fo= Fm+Ff
and Po= Pm+ P
P fluid pressure in the pores
As fluids are produced in the reservoirs, fluid pressure (P)

usually decreases while overburden is constant and:
- Force on matrix increases (net compaction pressure or net
overburden pressure Pm=Po-P)
- Bulk and pore volume decrease
- Fluid volume increases (=> production mechanism)
37
FORMATION COMPRESSIBILITY
v
Pp
h
H
1 VP
C =
f VP P
In the reservoir,
V, H and h
are all different
pore pressure
Cf: formation compressibility (Pore volume

compressibility or rock compressibility)
Vp: Pore volume
P: pressure in fluid in pores
: cste average external stress
38
NATURAL DRAINAGE - UNDERSATURATED OIL
O+W
Pi Pb
Material balance in the case: undersaturated oil and no water

entry
==> production mechanism = rock and fluids expansion
39
Material balance in the case: no water entry

Produced volume = Increase of oil volume
+
Increase of volume of water
+
Decrease of pore volume
Those variations of volumes are related to compressibilities.

Compressibilities of oil, water and rock being generally pretty
low, the expected recovery factor is low.
40

For a pressure drop P with P>Pb
Oil volume increases by
(Vp . So ) . Co . P
Water volume increases by
( Vp . Sw ) . Cw . P
Pore volume shrinks by
(Vp ). Cp . P
Material balance: the rock and fluids volume changes of the reservoir is
equal to Np (cumulative production in standard conditions) converted in
reservoir conditions.
Np . Bo = Vp . P (Co . So + Cw . Sw + Cp )
41

Cumulative production = Sum of the 3 terms
Np.Bo = Vp P (Co So + Cw Sw + Cp )
Co So + Cw Sw + Cp
Np.Bo = Vp So P
So
Ce =
Co So + Cw Sw + Cp
is called the equivalent compressibility
So
Np.Bo = (Vp So ) ce P = (N Boi ) ce P

For a P pression drop, P being greater that Pb
Cumulative oil production (*)
Recovery Factor
(*) Stock tank conditions
Np =
N . Boi
. Ce . P
Bo
Np Boi
R =
=
. Ce . P
N
Bo
42

Performances of rock and fluids expansion: recovery factor is
low
Pi
qo=PIx(Pr-Pwf)
Pr
Pwf
GOR= Rsi
Min.Pwf
Pb
Qo
Limitations
- due to low values of compressibilities Pr declines quickly (no pressure
support)
- Qo decline du to Pr-Pwf decline
- concept of minimum economical rate
43

Numerical example
FIELD A without water entry
Cumulative production is given
Swi = 14%
6
1
Cw = 3,28 . 10 psi
Pi = 4740 psia
P = 3686 psia
+ 6
Np = 1,17 . 10
bbls
Cp = 4,36 . 10- 6 psi- 1

Boi = 1,3905
Bo = 1,4168
What is the corresponding accumulation (OOIP)?
44

Numerical example
Swi = 14%
6
1
Cw = 3,28 . 10 psi
Pi = 4740 psia
P = 3686 psia
+ 6
Np = 1,17 . 10
bbls
Cp = 4,36 . 10- 6 psi- 1

Boi = 1,3905
Bo = 1,4168
What is the corresponding accumulation (OOIP)?

Calculate Co from Boi and Bo
Ce = Co + Cw . Swi / So + Cp / So
Np Boi
then N =
. Ce . P
Bo
Np
then RF =
N
45

Numerical example
Swi = 14%
6
1
Cw = 3,28 . 10 psi
Pi = 4740 psia
P = 3686 psia
+ 6
Np = 1,17 . 10
bbls
Cp = 4,36 . 10- 6 psi- 1

Boi = 1,3905
Bo = 1,4168
Results
5
Co = (Bo Boi) / Boi / (Pi P) = 1,79 . 10 psi

5
1
Ce = Co + Cw . Swi / So + Cp / So = 2,35 . 10 psi
RF = (Boi / Bo) . Ce . P = 2,43 %
N = 48 MMbbls
46

Numerical example
Swi = 14%
6
1
Cw = 3,28 . 10 psi
Pi = 4740 psia
P = 3686 psia
+ 6
Np = 1,17 . 10
bbls
Cp = 4,36 . 10- 6 psi- 1

Boi = 1,3905
Bo = 1,4168
Results
5
Co = (Bo Boi) / Boi / (Pi P) = 1,79 . 10 psi

5
1
Ce = Co + Cw . Swi / So + Cp / So = 2,35 . 10 psi
RF = (Boi / Bo) . Ce . P = 2,43 %
N = 48 MMbbls
47
NATURAL DRAINAGE
Solution gas drive

Reservoir pressure decreases under Pb (bubble point
pressure)
Part of the gas dissolved in the oil is liberated in the
reservoir
Quick increase of the produced gas
Fluids and rock compressibility effects can be
neglected* vs. expansion of the liberated gas (gas
compressibility is much bigger)
*: at least in a first approach
48
NATURAL DRAINAGE - SOLUTION GAS DRIVE
Initial conditions
O+W
Pi = Pb
49
During production
Prod.
O+G+W
W
Prod.
Prod.
- Pr < Pb
- Inactive aquifer
VP = VO + VGF + VW
Swirr
100%/Sw
(VP)i = (VP)t
@ Pi VP = Voi + Vw
@ P VP = Vor + Vw + Vgf
Voi = Vor + Vgf

50
Pressure
Saturated oil phase diagram
Critical point
Tres, Pres
t1
t2
Separator
Tc
Temperature
51
Critical gas
Definition: critical gas saturation (Sgc) is the minimum gas saturation
needed for gas to be mobile in the reservoir:
Sg<Sgc krg=0
Impact on Qg
- as soon as Pr < Pb gas is liberated in the reservoir
- as long as Sg<Sgc. (Only monophasic oil is produced).PI
affected(kro effect).Only solution gas is produced at surface.
Qg = Rp x Qo
Rp = Rs
- At Sgc,part of liberated gas becomes mobile. Diphasic flow.Both
solution gas and liberated gas are produced at surface.Production
GOR (Rp) increases.
Rp > Rs
Qg = Rp x Qo
52
Liberated gas
Part of gas liberated in the reservoir below Pb may move up,
due to gravity forces-to create a secondary gas-cap or supply
an existing one-(balance between gravity,capillary and viscous
forces)
Gas (top reservoir)
Gas
(well)
Oil
53
Material balance
If rock & water compressibilities are neglected the main issue is
to calculate the amount of free gas in the reservoir.
In surface conditions
- @ t=0, dissolved gas volume : NiRsi
- @ t, with productions Np and Gp (and Wp=0), volume of dissolved
gas: (N-Np)Rs
- hence free gas volume in the reservoir: NiRsi-(N-Np)Rs-Gp
Initial oil volume = remaining oil at P + released solution gas*
N Boi = (N Np) Bo + [N Rsi (N Np) Rs Gp ] Bg
*: case compressibility effects neglected

54
Reservoir performances
Limitations
P
GOR
GOR
Qo
Pb
Pres
PSgc
- high production GOR due to

production of liberated gas (below Bb)
- high GOR => low Qoil and lost of
Sol.+free gas
the "energy" of the reservoir
Qo
Rsi
Rs
Np/N or time
Remarks
- Gp = Gps + Gpf = Rp*Np
GOR definitions
- Solution GOR(Rs)
- Production GOR (Qg/Qo)
- Cumulative GOR (Gp/Np)
55
Recovery from 5 to 25 %
The field / well production is shut-down when GOR is
to high
Sgc, critical gas saturation is a very important
parameter:
High Sgc
High recovery
56
NATURAL DRAINAGE
Gas cap expansion

Gas cap is located in the upper part of the reservoir
When the reservoir is produced, Reservoir Pressure
(Pr) is below Pb
When Pr decreases, the gas volume of the gas cap
increases
Main phenomenas: gas cap expansion and solution
gas drive (rock and fluid expansion can be neglected
in a first approach)
57
GAS GAP EXPANSION - Initial conditions
Pi=Pb @ GOCi
m=
RV (I S wi ) PV S oi
=
Ni =
B oi
B oi
G cB gi
NiB oi
GOCi
G+W
O+W
WOCi
We~0
Swi
100%/Sw
We~0
58
GAS GAP EXPANSION - During production

Prod.
m=
GcBgi
NiBoi
G?
Pwf
Prod.r Prod.r
G+W
Possible
gas coning
(GOC)i
Pwf
Pi = Pb at GOC
Pwf < Pb
O+W
Possible water coning
(OWC)i
W
59
GAS GAP EXPANSION AND ACTIVE AQUIFER- During production
O+G
Gas
(GOC)i
Gas cap expands

Gas invaded
zone (Sorg)
(GOC)t
Pr < Pb
(OWC)t
Water invaded zone

(Sor, Soirr)
(OWC)i
Gp = Gps + Gpc + Gpf

60
NATURAL DRAINAGE
Gas cap expansion
1 /1 9 3 8
1 /1 9 3 7
1 /1 9 3 6
20
00
240
0p
ied
s
230
0
2200
2100
16
00
17
00
18
0
19 0
00
1 /1 9 3 3
Example of evolution with

time of the GOC (Gas Oil
Contact)
(Mite Six field)
61
NATURAL DRAINAGE - GAS CAP EXPANSION

Material balance
Initial oil volume = remaining oil vol at P
+ gas cap expansion
+ freed solution gas
N Boi = (N Np) Bo + [(G Gpc ) Bgc G Bgci]
+ [N Rsi (N Np ) Rs Gps ] Bg
Performances
P
GOR
GOR
P
Np/N
62
Depth
Rsi
Material Balance
Necessity to know the evolution of Rsi versus depth (sampling at

different depths)
While producing, if kv important, good gas segregation and GOR

= cst = RS
A good gas segregation maintains pressure in the reservoir
Recovery can reach high values, up to 40 %OOIP

63
NATURAL DRAINAGE - ACTIVE AQUIFER

Many reservoirs are linked to an aquifer >> than the oil (or
gas) field itself
When Pres , water tends to invade the reservoir initially
oil (or gas) bearing
The impact of an active aquifer is function of its size, its
characteristics (permeability) and its connection with the
hydrocarbon pool
Different kinds of aquifers
- Bottom water drive (k vertical, coning,)
- Edge water driver (k horizontal, fingering)
64
Observation well
Producer
OIL
WATER
Bottom water drive
In the case of an active aquifer,

Recovery Factor is in average between
25 to 50 % (up to 65% in very favorable cases)
Maximum theoretical: (1-Swi-Sor)/(1-Swi)
Producer
Observation well
Edge water drive
(Which is obtained in a core)
65
SEALING FAULT
50
5
7
0
80
70
0
NT
A
CT
SE
AL
IN
G
C
O
FA
UL
T
2
1
OIL
W
A
TE
R
AQUIFER ??
85
S EA
L IN G
FA U
LT
WOC: Water Oil Contact

66
Initial conditions
O+W
Pi Pb Ni
67
During production
Oil (+water)
Oil (+water)
We
(OWC)t
Pb < Pr < Pi
Soi+Sw i= 1 (Sg=0)
W
68

Calculation of potential recovery in the case of water entry
For a pressure drop from Pi to P with an oil production Np
We consider the simplified case where P>>Pb (undersaturated oil)
abcde-
oil volume expands

water volume expands
pore volume shrinks
aquifer expands and generates a water influx in the reservoir: We
water production: Wp
Oil production is given by

i.e.
a+b+c+d-e
Np Bo = N Boi Ce (Pi - P) + We - Wp Bw
69

Np Bo = N Boi Ce (Pi - P) + We
Np Bo = N Boi Ce (Pi - P) +( We - WpBw) in case of water production
Lets take an aquifer with a volume Vw = 10 time pore volume of the oil zone
which expands totally from Pi to P
We = Vw (Cw + Cp) (Pi - P) = [10 . N Boi / (1 - Swi)] (Cw + Cp) (Pi - P)
R = Np / N = (Boi / Bo) . Ce (Pi - P) + We / (N Bo)
R = (Boi / Bo) (Pi - P) [Ce + 10 . (Cw + Cp) / (1 - Swi)]
Numerical example: Cw = Cp = 1/3 Co et Swi = 20 %
R = Np / N = (Boi / Bo) (Pi - P) [6,55 Ce]
Theoretical recovery is 6,5 time higher in the case active aquifer

than in the case non aquifer.
It is important to know the size and the activity of an aquifer.
70
Reservoir performances
Limitations
P
GOR
- high water cut

- Pressure maintenance efficiency
Pr
depends on aquifer characteristics

Qo
Water cut
GOR
Np/Ni or time
71
MATERIAL BALANCE - ACTIVE AQUIFER
Water production
The field production does not stop at water break through
Following economics environment, fields can be produced
up to very high water cut (Qw/Qtotal): 98-99%
One main issue: produced water disposal system
The rising of OWC should be continuously monitored
(logging, observation wells, behavior of production wells)
72

Material balance in the case: field with water influx
Numerical example
Cumulative oil production is Np = 13,5 . 106 bbls
Co = 1,79 . 10-5 psi-1 Cw = 3,28 . 10-6 psi-1
Pi = 4740 psia
and
Boi = 1,3905
P = 3686 psia
and
Bo = 1,4168
Cp = 4,36 . 10-6 psi-1
What is the minimum volume of aquifer?

N being estimate at 48 106 stbo
73

Material balance in the case: field with water influx
Numerical example (answer)
Cumulative oil production is Np = 13,5 . 106 bbls
Co = 1,79 . 10-5 psi-1 Cw = 3,28 . 10-6 psi-1 Cp = 4,36 . 10-6 psi-1
Pi = 4740 psia
and
Boi = 1,3905
P = 3686 psia
and
Bo = 1,4168
Results:
Np Bo = N Boi Ce (Pi - P) + We
We
= Np Bo - N Boi Ce (Pi - P)
= 19,1 U 106 - 1,6 106 = 17,5 106 bll
The maximum size of the aquifer Vw will be the one for which all the aquifer see
the pressure drop P = Pi - P:
We
= Vw (Cp + Cw) (Pi - P)
Vw =
We
(Cp + Cw ) (Pi P )
= 2.2 10 res bbl
This is the minimum size of the aquifer.
74
WATER INFLUX - AQUIFER FUNCTIONS - Examples

For small aquifer as mentioned, we could consider a time
independent model
We = Vw c w + c p (Pi P )
Vw volume of the aquifer

cw+cp : total compressibilty of the
aquifer zone
Pi-P: oil zone depletion
Steady state (Schiltius) equation

P
Oil
Water
Paquif = Ct
dWe
Qw =
= J w Paq P
dt
Jw:
- is a theoretical value
for simple geometries
(radial, linear)
- is obtained from history
(by material balance)
75
WATER INFLUX - AQUIFER FUNCTION - Examples

With respect to aquifer, an oil reservoir can be considered to behave
as a large diameter well.
Diffusivity equation is then used, and solved using conditions @
limits
- Van Everdingen and Hurst method
uses cst pressure at ro limit
Oil
zone
- Carter-Tracy equation uses

constant rate at ro
ro
re
76

Hurst and Van Everdingen methodology
- The reservoir pressure history at the oil-water contact can be
approximated by a set of pressure steps reduction vs. time
- Each pressure step generates a water influx calculated by HVE solution
vs. time
- Application of the superposition concept: the total water influx into the oil
zone at time t is equal to the sum of all contributions of the previous
perturbations
- To history match the smooth curve relationship pressure vs.. time, the
pressure step have to bee small enough
77
GRAVITY DRAINAGE
Expansion of a gas-cap (initial or secondary) creates a gas
invaded zone where So decreases leading to high oil
recovery due to gravity drainage.
Gravity drainage is a recovery process in which the gravity
force is the main mechanism
- Delta o/g greater than to o/g
Gravity forces greater than capillary forces
Gravity drainage must be efficient within an economical time

scale good permeability needed (say > 100mD)
78
GRAVITY DRAINAGE
Oil saturation decrease in the gas invaded zone
LAB. SAMPLE
h
Initial GOC
Centrifuge
Gas
invaded
zone
GOC
limit
Core displacement
Field
Sor1 Sor2
So
79
MICROSCOPIC OIL DISPLACEMENT BY WATER AN OIL
Miscible Gas
Injection
Sorg
Lean Gas
Injection
Sorg (t1)
Soi
Water
Injection
Sorw
Sorg
80
PORE LEVEL MECHANISMS - MICROSCOPIC EFFICIENCY

Formation of gas-oil interface and oil mobilization
GAS
OIL
WATER
81
GRAVITY DRAINAGE
Factors affecting gravity drainage
-
mobility of oil
dip of the formation, thickness of the reservoir
lack of stratification (good kv)
fractured rock
high density contrast
Very good recovery

Recovery by gravity drainage >> recovery by solution gas
drive
Gas
Gravity drainage
impact on:
Oil (well)
Solution gas drive
Gas
Oil
(well)
- kro
- reserv. pressure decline
- Sor
82
MATERIAL BALANCE - GENERAL EXPRESSION
All the potential mechanisms are taken into account: gas

gap drive and water drive reservoir plus expansion of rock
and fluid
83

O+G
Gas
(GOC)i
Gas invaded
zone (Sorg)
(GOC)t
Pr < Pb
(OWC)t
Water invaded zone

(Sorw)
(OWC)i
Gp = Gps + Gpc + Gpf

84
Present oil
volume
Original
oil
volume
(N N p )Bo =
Freed
solution
gas
Gas
cap
expansion
Net
water
influx
Rock and
connate
water
expansion
Injected
volumes
N(Boi )
(Bg )s N ( Rs )i (N N p )Rs (G p )s )
[(G (G ) )(B ) G(B ) ]

p c
g c
g i
[We WpBw ]
c f + S wi cw
N(Boi ) (1 + m) P
1
S
wi
[W
N=
[(
][
inj
Bw + Ginj Bg
N p Bo Rs (Bg )s + (G p )s (Bg )s G (G p )c (Bg )c G (Bgi ) We W p Bw Winj Bw Ginj Bg

c f + S wi cw
(1 + m )
1
S
wi
(Bo (Boi )) + ((Rsi ) Rs )(Bg )s + (Boi )P
85
RESERVOIR PRESSURE EVOLUTION WITH PRODUCTION

Example
4500
4300
4100
Depletion (psia)
J101
J102
3900
J103G drilling
J104
J105
3700
J106 drilling
J107 drilling
J108 drilling
3500
3300
Pression de saturation
3100
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
18000
20000
Cumulated production (Mbbls)

86
OWC EVOLUTION WITH PRODUCTION

Example
3600
3700
(psia)
3800
3900
4000
4100
4200
4300
4400
4500
4600
4700
2400
2450
2500
(mv/SL)
2550
2600
2650
NEW WOC J107

2700
INITIAL WOC
2750
2800
87
EXAMPLE OF MATERIAL BALANCE

N (Mbbls)
216
Np
Wp
Bo
We
Np (closed)
(Mbbls)
(Mbbls)
Co
Boi
1.3905
(psia)
(Mbbls)
(Mbbls)
Pi (psi)
4 455.0
4455
0.00
0.00
1.3905
1.27E-05
Bob
1.4496
4407
1.30
0.00
1.3927
1.28E-05
1.5
0.19
3159
4370
1.61
0.00
1.3944
1.29E-05
1.8
Cw (1/psi) 3.28E-06
4266
3.71
0.00
1.3991
1.30E-05
Cp (1/psi) 4.36E-06
4130
6.57
0.05
1.4053
Coi (1/psi) 1.27E-05
3947
11.25
0.17
Cob (1/psi) 1.50E-05
3922
11.83
Swi (%)
3878
13.51
Pb (psi)
13
Ct (1/psi)
0.13
(Mbbls) Area (km2)
6.6
Soi
0.92
216.0
Sorw
0.34
0.34
216.0
N/G
0.35
4.2
0.74
215.5
1.33E-05
7.5
1.23
210.5
1.4137
1.36E-05
13.3
1.85
203.0
0.18
1.4148
1.36E-05
14.0
1.94
203.0
0.18
1.4168
1.37E-05
16.2
2.10
204.0
1.82E-05 CALCUL D'ENTREE D'EAU APRES J 107

Measured
0.00
h (m)
14.8
Water entries
Closedreservoir
18
4500
4400
16
J... Field - Material Balance match
14
4300
12
4200
10
4100
8
6
4000
4
3900
2
0
3800
0
Np
10
12
14
88
Natural drainage
Gas Fields
Oil reservoirs with

dissolved gases
Bu
ep
l
bb
n
oi
Gas reservoirs with

retrograde
condensation
PHASE ENVELOP OF A MIXTURE OF HYDROCARBONS
Cricondenbar
ve
r
u
tc
Gas reservoirs without

retrograde condensation
Critical point
Cricondentherm
Liquid + gas
Dry gas
100%
75%
50%
30%
20%
10%
5%
0%
De w
t
p o in
cu
Zone : No or poor
contribution of
dissolved gases
Zone : Appreciable
contribution of
dissolved gases
Zone : Retrograde
with liquid deposit in
the reservoir
rve
Zone : Dry or wet gas
90
GAS PVT: Bg CALCULATION

Definition
Ideal gas equation
Bg =
volume of n moles @ res.cond.

volume of n moles @ standard cond.
PV
= Cste
ZT
Hence Bg can be calculated:
Z: compressibility factor
Vres Zres Tres Pst

=
Bg =
V
Pres
Z T
st
st st
Field Units (US): Pst=14.7 psia,

Tst=520 R, Bg = 0.02827 ZT/P
Metric Units:
Pst=1.01325 bara, Tst=288 K, Bg = 0.00352 ZT/P
SI Units:
Pst=101325 Pa,
Tst=288 K, Bg = 351.8 ZT/P
Volume of one mole of gas in standard conditions=23.63 liters
91
CLASSIFICATION OF GAS FIELD
DRY GAS is in gas phase

from the reservoir conditions
(P,T) to the separator
conditions
C
25
B
RESERVOIR TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
50
75
Sparateur
Tc
Tcc
TEMPERATURE
92
WET GAS is in gas phase in

the reservoir conditions (P,T),
a liquid fraction appears in the
separator
C
B
25
PRESSURE
50
Sparateur
Tc
Tcc
TEMPERATURE
93
A
C
25
B
75
50
PRESSURE
GAS CONDENSATES:
following pressure drop in the
reservoir, there is
condensation of a fraction of
liquid in the reservoir. This
condensation is retrograde as
after a peak it percentage may
decrease with pressure.
Sparateur
Tc
TEMPERATUR
E
Tc
c
94
GAS FIELD - DRY GAS

Case: no active aquifer
In reservoir conditions:
- rock and water compressibilities (cp,cw) can be neglected compared
to gas compressibility cg
- Vgas initial @ Pi= Volume of remaining gas @ P
i.e G.Bgi=(G-Gp).Bg
or Gp.Bg=G.(Bg-Bgi)
or Gp = G.(1-Bgi/Bg)
coming back to Bg definition Bgi/Bg=(Zi/Pi).(P/Z)
- Hence
Zi P
Gp = G 1
Pi Z
Cumulative Gas production is a linear function of P/Z

95
GAS FIELD - DRY GAS

Case: no active aquifer
Extrapolation gives
Pi/Zi
P
Z
xx
xx
xx
xx
Cumulative Gas production Gp
Extrapolation gives
accumulation
Evolution of P/Z vs. Gp
This assumes that reservoir pressure depletion is the same for all
the reservoir
96
GAS FIELD - DRY GAS

Material balance in case of water influx
In reservoir conditions:
Volume occupied by the gas @ Pi
=
volume occupied by the gas @ P
+
net water influx
Gp.Bg=G.(Bg-Bgi)+We-Wp
Hence
Zi P We Wp
Gp = G 1 +
Pi Z Bg
97
GAS FIELD - DRY GAS
Gas reservoirs typical behaviour

Curve P/Z vs. Gp very often used:
=> It is a straight line for closed reservoirs (i.e. no aquifer)
=> The straight line becomes exponential in case of active aquifer
P
Z
we 0
active aquifer
relatively inactive aquifer
we = 0
no aquifer
Gas produced
Gp
98
GAS FIELD - RECOVERY FACTOR
Gas compressibility being high

Recovery Factor is high
without aquifer RF depends of abandonment pressure (Pa)
R = 1-(Pa/Za)/(Pi/Zi)
RF = 80 to 90% (ex: Lacq in France)
with aquifer
RF depends of Sgwr , Gas residual saturation

after displacement by water
R < (1-Swi-Sgrw)/(1-Swi)
Risks : trapping High pressure gas
flooding gas producers
RF = 50 to 70% (ex: Frigg in Norway)
99
GAS FIELD
Example of possible problems in case of strong active aquifer
water drive
S
A
G
WATER
wells
Due to gas-water interface

deformation,
gas is trapped (saddle)
WATER
100
GAS FIELD - RECOVERY FACTOR
Gas condensate fields

Gas fraction
(C1-C4)
RF depends of abandonment pressure

R=80 to 90% without aquifer
LPG (C3-C4) can be sold separately
Liquid fraction CGR= Gas Condensate Ratio

(C5+)
CGR is constant until Ps is reached, and

decreases afterward
Part of the condensate is trapped closed to the
wellbore, hence the well performances are
degraded
R=50 to 60%
101
11,00
1 000
900
10,00
9,00
800
8,00
700
7,00
600
6,00
500
5,00
Gas rate
4,00
Gp
100
1,00
0
0,00
45 000
400
40 000
35 000
350
30 000
25 000
250
20 000
200
15 000
150
Condensate rate
Np
100
0
50
time
102
Gp (Tcf)
1 100
Np (MM Sbbl)
janv-2030
janv-2028
janv-2026
janv-2024
400
janv-2030
janv-2028
janv-2026
janv-2024
200
janv-2022
janv-2020
janv-2018
janv-2016
janv-2014
janv-2012
janv-2010
janv-2008
janv-2006
janv-2004
janv-2002
janv-2000
Gas rate (MM Scft/d)

300
janv-2022
5 000
janv-2020
10 000
janv-2018
janv-2016
janv-2014
janv-2012
janv-2010
janv-2008
janv-2006
janv-2004
janv-2002
janv-2000
Oil rate (Sbbl/d)
EXAMPLE OF GAS CONDENSATE FIELD

Gas Production
3,00
2,00
time
Condensate Production
300
EXAMPLE OF GAS FIELD DATA PRODUCTION DATA
Date
janv 83
fvr 83
fvr 83
juil 83
aot 83
juil 84
juil 85
juin 86
juin 88
juin 89
aot 90
aot 91
aot 92
juin 93
avr 94
mai 95
aot 96
Duration
[days]
0,5
0,4
35
5
18
3
20
36
8
8
10
16
8
16
W#1
447,8
443,7
429,7
425,7
387,0
339,9
301,5
243,7
224,3
191,4
164,9
146,2
130,1
110,8
W#2
447,8
443,3
433,2
430,3
390,9
347,3
309,0
248,7
228,1
197,2
173,0
152,7
136,4
126,7
Pressure [bar]
W#3
W#4
W#5
447,8
447,8
447,8
438,1
426,8
424,3
379,9
333,7
298,0
241,3
222,4
192,7
166,5
146,7
132,5
113,3
100,8
341,2
302,7
244,4
223,1
190,7
163,3
144,6
126,6
111,9
98,7
Z
W#6
447,8
244,0
224,6
192,6
165,8
148,6
244,7
224,4
191,3
164,4
145,5
122,3
118,9
@ -3750 mSL
447,8
443,7
440,6
429,8
426,6
385,8
340,3
302,6
244,4
224,4
192,6
166,3
147,3
131,4
122,7
111,9
99,8
1,1492
1,1455
1,1426
1,1329
1,1301
1,0948
1,0585
1,0315
0,9969
0,9876
0,9757
0,9691
0,9662
0,9651
0,9650
0,9654
0,9664
Gp
[GNm3]
0,000
0,128
0,164
0,390
0,466
1,500
2,779
4,006
6,286
7,172
8,400
9,524
10,420
11,168
11,701
12,216
12,834
P/Z
[bar]
389,7
387,4
385,6
379,4
377,5
352,4
321,5
293,4
245,1
227,3
197,4
171,6
152,5
136,1
127,2
116,0
103,2
103
EXAMPLE OF GAS FIELD DATA
Pressure vs Time
500,00
W#1
450,00
W#2
[b ar]
400,00
W#3
350,00
W#4
300,00
W#5
W#6
250,00
@ -3750 mSL
200,00
150,00
100,00
50,00
0,00
janv
83
janv
84
janv
85
janv
86
janv
87
janv
88
janv
89
janv
90
janv
91
janv
92
janv
93
janv
94
janv
95
janv
96
janv
97
janv
98
janv
99
104
Dynamic IGIP
400,0
p/Z [bar]
300,0
Linear Regression
First-Last Points
IGIP = 17.458 GNm3
200,0
100,0
0,0
0,000
Linear Regression
Last Three Points
IGIP = 17.716
Linear Regression
All Points
IGIP = 17.289 GNm3
5,000
10,000
Gp [GNm3]
15,000
20,000
105
Dynamic IGIP per Well

400,00
W #1
W #2
W #3
W #4
W #5
W #6
A1 =
A2 =
A3 =
A4 =
A5 =
A6 =
p/Z [bar]
300,00
200,00
3.563
2.757
3.058
2.753
2.465
2.623
GNm3
GNm3
GNm3
GNm3
GNm3
GNm3
100,00
IGIP tot [GNm3]= 17,220

0,00
0,000
0,723
1,447
2,170
2,894
3,617
4,341
Gp [GNm3]
106
NATURAL DRAINAGE
Implementation : Just open the well

(or lift the well)
Performances : given by the follow-up of reservoir
pressure, rates (Oil,Gas,Water,or GOR, WOR ) versus time
Limitations
(economical rate)
: - Pressure decline
- Limiting water - cut
- Limiting GOR
107
NATURAL DRAINAGE
Reserves= cumulative production at abandonment

Abandonment rate is defined by economical criterias
Np ultimate
t n
n
= q oi = PI (Pr Pwf
t = 0 i =1
t =0 i =1
t
Pr decline is a key parameter

(Pr- Pwf) declines with Pr when minimum Pwf value is reached
(minimum value of natural flow in the case no lift)
Productivity index (PI) decrease with Sw (or Sg) increase (decline
of effective permeability to oil)
a k kro h
PI =
o Bo (ln(re /rw ) + s 0.75)
108
NATURAL DRAINAGE - HOW TO MAINTAIN Qo Field

n
i =1
i =1
i =1
Qo field = q oi = PI (Pr Pwf ) = (Pr Pwf ) PI
PR
Pwf
Np
Drill more producers
Min
BHFP
QO
Maintain Pressure
Increase PI (Stimulation, frac)
Artificial lift
Do nothing
QO
109
RECOVERY FACTORS FOR NATURAL DRAINAGE
RESERVOIR KIND
RECOVERY FACTOR
Undersaturated oil
Pa > Pb
< 10 %
Oil+ dissolved gas drive
Pa < Pb
5 to 25 %
Oil + gas cap
10 to 40 %
Oil + aquifer
10 to 60 %
Gas
60 to 95 %
Gas condensates
40 to 65 %
==> for Oil Reservoirs, in a lot of cases other

mechanisms have to be initiated
110
non utilis
Present
Original
oil
oil
volume
Freed
solution
volume
Gas
Cap
Gas
Net
Expansion
water
influx
(N N ) B = N (B )
(B ) [N (R ) i (N N ) R (G ) ]
[(G (G ) ) (B ) G (B ) ]
[W
p
Rock and
connate
water
expansion
Injected
volumes
oi
Wp Bw
( ) (1 + m ) P c 1+SS c
f
N Boi
N =
Np
(B
Rs
wi
wi
[W
inj
Bw + Ginj Bg
(B ) ) + (G ) (B ) [(G (G ) ) (B ) G (B )] [W W B ] W
(B (B )) + ((R ) R ) (B ) + (B ) P c 1+SS c (1 + m )
g
gi
oi
si
oi
wi
wi
inj
Bw Ginj Bg
112
Production Mechanisms
Mechanism
I- Oil reservoirs
Order of magnitude of
recovery
% OOIP
Natural depletion
Water injection
Enhanced oil recovery
II- Gas reservoirs
Natural depletion
5 - 20 %
30 - 45 %
50 - 65 %
70 - 80 % OGIP
OOIP = Original Oil In Place

OGIP = Original Gas In Place
113
GA
S
Po
int
le
t
in
o
P
De
w
bb
u
B
Cr
ic
on
de
nt
he
rm
GAS
DR
Y
WE
TG
AS
OIL
Cr
ico
nd
en
ba
r
GAS
CONDENSATES
PHASE ENVELOP OF A MIXTURE OF HYDROCARBONS
Separator
Separator
T
114

Np.Bo = Vp.P (Co.So + Cw.Sw + Cp )
Np.Bo = Vp.So.P
Ce =
Co.So +Cw.Sw +Cp
So
Co . So+ Cw . Sw + Cp
So
Co So + Cw Sw + Cp
Np.Bo = Vp So P
So
Ce =
Co So + Cw Sw + Cp
So
115

Prod.
O+G+W
Prod.
Prod.
- Pr < Pb
- Inactive aquifer
Swirr
VP = VO + VGF + VW
100%/Sw
(VP)i = (VP)t
at Pi VP = Voi + Vw
at P VP = Vor + Vw + Vgf
Voi = Vor + Vgf

116
NATURAL DRAINAGE
Rocks and fluids expansion. Definition of compressibility.
1 dV
C=
V dP
C o= 1
dV = C V dP
to 3 10-4 bar-1
Lab data
Cw= 0.4 to 0.6 10-4 bar-1
Literature
CP= 0.3 to 1.5 10-4 bar-1
Lab data or Hall correlation
Cg 1/P 30 10-4 bar-1
(for P=300 bars)
Co can be calculated as follows using Bo table

Co =
[ (Bo Boi)
Boi]
(P Pi)
117

Np.Bo = Vp.P (Co.So + Cw.Sw + Cp )
Np.Bo = Vp.So.P
Ce =
Co.So +Cw.Sw +Cp
So
Co . So+ Cw . Sw + Cp
So
Np . Bo = (Vp . So) . Ce . P = (N . Boi) . Ce . P

Recovery Factor
Np =
N . Boi
. Ce . P
Bo
Np Boi
=
. Ce . P
R =
N
Bo
118

Co So + Cw Sw + Cp
Np.Bo = Vp So P
So
Ce =
Co So + Cw Sw + Cp
So
Np . Bo = (Vp . So) . Ce . P = (N . Boi) . Ce . P

Recovery Factor
Np =
N . Boi
. Ce . P
Bo
Np Boi
=
. Ce . P
R =
N
Bo
119
WATER INFLUX - AQUIFER FUNCTIONS - Examples

1. Steady state (Schiltius) equation
P
Oil
Water
Paquif = Ct
Qw =
dWe
= J w Paq P
dt
Jw:
- is a theoretical value
for simple geometries (radial, linear)
- is obtained from history
(by material balance)
120

2. Unsteady state (Van Everdingen and Hurst)
Oil
zone
- Radial system
- P (@ wellbore) is constant
- Diffusivity equation
Aquifer is defined by two parameters
B = ct r 2 h
kt
tD =
c r2
Parameters can be obtained from We history => predictions of We
121
MATERIAL BALANCE - PVT DATA

Rs (m3/m3)
Bo (Rm3/Stm3)
80
1.16
70
1.14
60
1.12
50
1.1
40
1.08
30
1.06
20
1.04
10
0
1.02
0
100
P (b)
200
300
100
Mu (cp)
P (b)
200
300
200
300
Bg (bar-1)
12
0.025
10
0.02
0.015
6
0.01
4
2
0.005
0
0
100
P (b)
200
300
100
P (b)
122
GRAVITY DRAINAGE
Factors affecting gravity drainage
-
mobility of oil
dip of the formation, thickness of the reservoir
lack of stratification (good kv)
fractured rock
high density contrast
Very good recovery

Recovery by gravity drainage >> recovery by solution gas
drive
Gas
Gravity drainage
impact on:
Oil (well)
Solution gas drive
Gas
Oil
(well)
- kro
- reserv. pressure decline
- Sor
123
TYPICAL OIL FIELD PERFORMANCES
NP
Field Oil Rate
NP
WATER-CUT
NATURAL
DEPLETION
(30%)
WATER
INJ.
(+ 15%)
3rdTYPE
IRM (+ 5%)
EOR
(+ 10%)
Aband.
Rate
Diagnosis
Time Years
124
Depth
Rsi
Material Balance
Necessity to know the evolution of Rsi versus depth (sampling at

different depths)
While producing, if kv important, good gas segregation and GOR

= cst = RS below bubble point
A good gas segregation maintains pressure in the reservoir
Recovery can reach high values, up to 40 %OOIP

125

1 - RGE 2005 - Natural Drainage

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1 - RGE 2005 - Natural Drainage

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PRODUCTION MECHANISMS

To know and to understand what are the main

Introduction to production mechanisms/

Conventional oil recovery

LIFT / HORIZONTAL DRILLING

Enhanced oil recovery

Natural drive (or primary recovery): the field is

Enhanced oil recovery methods (or tertiary recovery):

Primary production mechanisms have to be

Definition/ optimization and implementation of

PRODUCTION MECHANISMS - TYPICAL SEQUENCE

Typical sequence during an oil field production history

For production mechanisms

TYPICAL OIL RESERVOIR PERFORMANCE

RESERVOIR ENGINEERING STUDIES

Objectives: predict futures performances from:

The role of Reservoir Engineering is:

TYPICAL OIL FIELD PERFORMANCES

Field Oil Rate

RESERVES - Basic definitions

volume of hydrocarbons initially

Accumulation: volume of hydrocarbons originally in

Estimate Ultimate Reserves (EUR): cumulative

Remaining Reserves @ time t = EUR - Cumulative

FIELD STATUS @ ABANDONMENT

Prod.r (high Water Cut, high GOR)

Water flooded zone : Sorw

Reserves are generally classified in proved

RESERVES - Probability approach - Some Standards

Probable Equally Likely / Unlikely

MB represents the equation of continuity for the overall

Gas cap expansion

Pi, Boi, Bgi & Rsi

Two possible uses

MATERIAL BALANCE - SYMBOLS - FLUID VOLUMES

All volumes are expressed in standard conditions (15 C, 1 Atm), except

MATERIAL BALANCE - SYMBOLS - RATES

Qoi (or qoi)

Qgi (or qgi)

Downhole rate = standard rate * FVF

MATERIAL BALANCE - SYMBOLS - RATES

MATERIAL BALANCE - SYMBOLS - ROCK/FLUID DATA

MATERIAL BALANCE - SYMBOLS - PRESSURES

Units : - Field : psi SI : pascal(N/m2)

MATERIAL BALANCE - PVT DATA

Evolution with pressure of main reservoir properties

Introduction to production mechanisms

NATURAL DRAINAGE or PRIMAY RECOVERY

Implementation: just open the well

Limitations (economical limits)

NATURAL DRAINAGE or PRIMAY RECOVERY

Different production mechanisms can occur

Rock and fluid expansion

NATURAL DRAINAGE OR PRIMARY RECOVERY

(undersaturated oil reservoir) one phase fluid (oil)

(saturated oil reservoir)

Definition: the relative volume change of matter per unit pressure

Cw= 0.4 to 0.6 10-4 bar-1

CP= 0.3 to 1.5 10-4 bar-1

c: coef of isothermal compressibility

Usually petroleum reservoirs can be considered as being

As fluids are produced in the reservoirs, fluid pressure (P)

Cf: formation compressibility (Pore volume

NATURAL DRAINAGE - UNDERSATURATED OIL